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Endbearingpiles(pointbearingpiles)

Frictionpiles(cohesionpiles)

Combinationoffrictionandcohesionpiles

Endbearingpiles

Thesepilestransfertheirloadontoafirmstratumlocatedataconsiderabledepthbelowthebaseofthe
structureandtheyderivemostoftheircarryingcapacityfromthepenetrationresistanceofthesoilatthetoe
ofthepile(seefigure1).Thepilebehavesasanordinarycolumnandshouldbedesignedassuch.Evenin
weaksoilapilewillnotfailbybucklingandthiseffectneedonlybeconsideredifpartofthepileis
unsupported,i.e.ifitisineitherairorwater.Loadistransmittedtothesoilthroughfrictionorcohesion.But

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sometimes,thesoilsurroundingthepilemayadheretothesurfaceofthepileandcauses"NegativeSkin
Friction"onthepile.This,sometimeshaveconsiderableeffectonthecapacityofthepile.Negativeskinfriction
iscausedbythedrainageofthegroundwaterandconsolidationofthesoil.Thefoundingdepthofthepileis
influencedbytheresultsofthesiteinvestigateonandsoiltest.

Frictionorcohesionpiles

Carryingcapacityisderivedmainlyfromtheadhesionorfrictionofthesoilincontactwiththeshaftofthepile
(seefig2).

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Figure2:Frictionorcohesionpile
Figure1:Endbearingpiles

Cohesionpiles

Thesepilestransmitmostoftheirloadtothesoilthroughskinfriction.Thisprocessofdrivingsuchpilesclose
toeachotheringroupsgreatlyreducestheporosityandcompressibilityofthesoilwithinandaroundthe
groups.Thereforepilesofthiscategoryaresometimescalledcompactionpiles.Duringtheprocessofdriving
thepileintotheground,thesoilbecomesmoldedand,asaresultlosessomeofitsstrength.Thereforethepile
isnotabletotransfertheexactamountofloadwhichitisintendedtoimmediatelyafterithasbeendriven.
Usually,thesoilregainssomeofitsstrengththreetofivemonthsafterithasbeendriven.

Frictionpiles

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Thesepilesalsotransfertheirloadtothegroundthroughskinfriction.Theprocessofdrivingsuchpilesdoes
notcompactthesoilappreciably.Thesetypesofpilefoundationsarecommonlyknownasfloatingpile
foundations.

Combinationoffrictionpilesandcohesionpiles

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Anextensionoftheendbearingpilewhenthebearingstratumisnothard,suchasfirmclay.Thepileisdriven
farenoughintothelowermaterialtodevelopadequatefrictionalresistance.Afarthervariationoftheend
bearingpileispileswithenlargedbearingareas.Thisisachievedbyforcingabulbofconcreteintothesoft
stratumimmediatelyabovethefirmlayertogiveanenlargedbase.Asimilareffectisproducedwithbored
pilesbyformingalargeconeorbellatthebottomwithaspecialreamingtool.Boredpileswhichareprovided
withabellhaveahightensilestrengthandcanbeusedastensionpiles(seefig.3)

Figure3:underreamedbaseenlargementtoaboreandcastinsitupile

Classificationofpilewithrespecttotypeofmaterial

Pilesareusuallymadeoftimber,concreteorsteel.Timbercanbeusedforthemanufactureoftemporarypiles
andwhenthewoodisavailableataneconomicalprice.Concreteisusedforthemanufactureofprecast
concretepiles,castinplaceandprestressedconcretepiles,whilesteelpilesareusedforpermanentor
temporaryworks.

Timber

Concrete

Steel

Compositepiles.

Timberpiles

Usedfromearliestrecordtimeandstillusedforpermanentworksinregionswheretimberisplentiful.Timber
ismostsuitableforlongcohesionpilingandpilingbeneathembankments.Thetimbershouldbeinagood
conditionandshouldnothavebeenattackedbyinsects.

Fortimberpilesoflengthlessthan14meters,thediameterofthetipshouldbegreaterthan150mm.Ifthe
lengthisgreaterthan18metersatipwithadiameterof125mmisacceptable.Itisessentialthatthetimber
isdrivenintherightdirectionandshouldnotbedrivenintofirmground.Asthiscaneasilydamagethepile.
Keepingthetimberbelowthegroundwaterlevelwillprotectthetimberagainstdecayandputrefaction.To
protectandstrengthenthetipofthepile,timberpilescanbeprovidedwithtoecover.Pressurecreosotingis
theusualmethodofprotectingtimberpiles.

AdvantagesanddisadvantagesofWoodpiles

+Thepilesareeasytohandle

+Relativelyinexpensivewheretimberisplentiful.

+Sectionscanbejoinedtogetherandexcesslengtheasilyremoved.

Thepileswillrotabovethegroundwaterlevel.Havealimitedbearingcapacity.

Caneasilybedamagedduringdrivingbystonesandboulders.

Thepilesaredifficulttospliceandareattackedbymarineborersinsaltwater.

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Concretepiles

Concretepilescanbedividedtoprecastandcastinplaceconcretepiles:

PrecastconcretePilesorPrefabricatedconcretepiles

itisformedandreinforcedinahighqualitycontrolledconcrete,Usuallyusedofsquare(seefig14b),
triangle,circleoroctagonalsection,theyareproducedinshortlengthinonemeterintervalsbetween3and13
meters.Theyareprecastesothattheycanbeeasilyconnectedtogetherinordertoreachtotherequired
length(fig14a).Thiswillnotdecreasethedesignloadcapacity.Reinforcementisnecessarywithinthepileto
helpwithstandbothhandlinganddrivingstresses.Prestressedconcretepilesarealsousedandarebecoming
morepopularthantheordinaryprecastaslessreinforcementisrequired.

Figure4:a)concretepileconnectingdetail.b)squaredprecastconcertpile

TheHerculestypeofpilejoint(Figure5)iseasilyandaccuratelycastintothepileandisquicklyandsafely
joinedonsite.Theyaremadetoaccuratedimensionaltolerancesfromhighgradesteels.

Figure5:Herculestypeofpilejoint

AdvantagesanddisadvantagesofPrecastconcretePiles

+Areeasytosplice.Relativelyinexpensive.

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+Stableinsqueezingground,forexample,softclays,siltsandpeatspilematerialcanbeinspectedbefore
piling.

+Canbedriveninlonglengths.

+Canincreasetherelativedensityofagranularfoundingstratum.

Displacement,heave,anddisturbanceofthesoilduringdriving.

Canbedamagedduringdriving.Replacementpilesmayberequired.

Cannotbedrivenwithverylargediametersorinconditionoflimitedheadroom.

CastinplaceConcretepiles

Castinplaceconcretepilesarethemosttypecommonlyusedforfoundationsduetothegreatdiversity
availableforpouringconcreteandtheintroductionofthepileintothesoil.Drivinganddrillingpilesaretwo
typesofcastinplaceconcretepileshowever,theimplementationofthesepilesinplacemaybeaccompanied
bysomeproblemssuchasarching,squeezingandsegregation.

Thesepilesaredividedto:

Pilesarepouredintubeswithunderneathheelsandleftwhenliftingthetubes.someofthosetypes:

Simplexpile:itisatubeofcastofdiameter40cm,hasanunderneathheel,itisbanged
undergroundbyanautomatichammeruntilreachingthearablelandfortheestablishment,thenconcrete
ispouredinsideitandbangedbyanotherhammer.Inthemeantime,thepipeisraisedwithacertain
amountsoasnottoenterthesoilinside.Thispilecanbearabout4050ton.

Frankiepile:Itisanumberoftubesenteringeachotherinordertoeasilyaccesstogreatdepths
withintheearth.Aheelofreinforcedconcretecanbeusedandleftinthegroundtopreventtheentryof
coldwaterpipes.Thispilecancarryaloadof5080ton.

Vibropile:Itisasteelpipeofdiameter40cm,hasaconicalheelwithaseparateflange,itisbanged
undergroundbyanautomatichammeruntilreachingthearablelandfortheestablishment,thentheheel
isremovedandputintoatube,afterthatconcreteispoured.Thetubeismovedupanddown(about80
timesperminute)inordertocompactconcrete.Thispilecanbearabout60ton.

Strongpile:thispileislargelysimilartoSimplexpileexceptthatthebottomheelismadefrom
reinforcedconcretecoveredwithcastheel.Thispilecancarryaloadof2530ton.

Underrimedpile:thispileisusedatblackclayeysoilandlandsofnonresidualsoil,sothissoilis
verydangeroustobeestablishedonit.

Pileswithopentubeswithoutheel,thenconcretearepouredinsidethetube.Thepipehasadiameter
of40cmandanaverageconcretewellof12to15metersdependingontheleveloflandtobe
established.Somethesepiles:

Strausspile:WhichisverysimilartotheSimplexpilebutwithoutaheel.Soilcanberemovedfrom
thetubesbyspecialdevicesandconcreteispouredinsteadofsoil.Themaximumloadthatcanbecarried
bythesepilesisfrom2025ton.

Kimbersolpile:Awellisdoneofdiameterabout80cm,untilreachingthearablelandforthe
establishment,thenthebottomofthewelliscompactedusingaroundedhammerandfilledwithconcrete
witharatioof1:5(cement:sand).Thispilecancarryaloadof80120ton.

Welfchaulzerpile:apipeofdiameter3040cmisbangeduntilreachingthearablelandforthe
establishment,andtheinsidesoilisremoved,thensteelbarsareplacedandtheopenedupperholeis
coveredtightlyLeavingholestoconnectthecompressedairsothatleachatescanbeexpelled,then
concreteispouredbyaratio1:4.

Raymondpile:Consistsofcylindricalchipsinsideeachotherwithadiameterof4060cmatthe
topofthepileand2028cmatthebottom.ItisbangedinsidebyaMandrillandthecylindricalchips

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areleavedinthesoilandfilledwithconcrete.

Advantagesanddisadvantagesofcastinplaceconcretepiles

+Canbeinspectedbeforecastingcaneasilybecutorextendedtothedesiredlength.

+Relativelyinexpensive.

+Thepilescanbecastbeforeexcavation.

+Pilelengthsarereadilyadjustable.

+Anenlargedbasecanbeformedwhichcanincreasetherelativedensityofagranularfoundingstratum
leadingtomuchhigherendbearingcapacity.

+Reinforcementisnotdeterminedbytheeffectsofhandlingordrivingstresses.

Heaveofneighboringgroundsurface,whichcouldleadtoreconsolidationandthedevelopmentofnegative
skinfrictionforcesonpiles..

Tensiledamagetounreinforcedpilesorpilesconsistingofgreenconcrete,whereforcesatthetoehave
beensufficienttoresistupwardmovements.

Damagepilesconsistingofuncasedorthinlycasedgreenconcreteduetothelateralforcessetupinthe
soil.Concretemaybeweakenedifartesianflowpipesupshaftofpileswhentubeiswithdrawn.

LightsteelsectionorPrecastconcreteshellsmaybedamagedordistortedbyharddriving.

Cannotbedrivenwhereheadroomislimited.

Timeconsumingcannotbeusedimmediatelyaftertheinstallation.

Limitedlength.

Boredandcastinplace(nondisplacementpiles)

+Lengthcanbereadilyvariedtosuitvaryinggroundconditions.

+Canbeinstalledinverylargediameters.

+Endenlargementuptotwoorthreediametersarepossibleinclays.

+Materialofpilesisnotdependentonhandlingordrivingconditions.

+Canbeinstalledinverylonglengths.

Concreteisnotplacedunderidealconditionsandcannotbesubsequentlyinspected.

Waterunderartesianpressuremaypipeuppileshaftwashingoutcement.

Cannotbereadilyextendedabovegroundlevelespeciallyinriverandmarinestructures.

Boringmethodsmayloosensandyorgravelysoilsrequiringbasegroutingtoachieveeconomicalbase
resistance.

Steelpiles

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MadeofsectorsintheformofH,Xorofthickpipes(seefig.6).Theyaresuitableforhandlinganddrivingin
longlengths.Theirrelativelysmallcrosssectionalareacombinedwiththeirhighstrengthmakespenetration
easierinfirmsoil.Theycanbeeasilycutofforjoinedbywelding.IfthepileisdrivenintoasoilwithlowpH
value,thenthereisariskofcorrosion,butriskofcorrosionisnotasgreatasonemightthink.Althoughtar
coatingorcathodicprotectioncanbeemployedinpermanentworks.

Itiscommontoallowforanamountofcorrosionindesignbysimplyoverdimensioningthecrosssectional
areaofthesteelpile.Inthiswaythecorrosionprocesscanbeprolongedupto50years.Normallythespeedof
corrosionis0.20.5mm/yearand,indesign,thisvaluecanbetakenas1mm/year

a)Xcrosssection b)Hcrosssection c)steelpipe

Figure6Steelpilescrosssections

AdvantagesanddisadvantagesofSteelpiles

+Thepilesareeasytohandleandcaneasilybecuttodesirelength.

+Canbedriventhroughdenselayers.Thelateraldisplacementofthesoilduringdrivingislow(steelsectionH
orIsectionpiles)canberelativelyeasilysplicedorbolted.

+Canbedrivenhardandinverylonglengths.

+Cancarryheavyloads.

Thepileswillcorrode,

Willdeviaterelativelyeasyduringdriving.

Arerelativelyexpensive.

Compositepiles

Combinationofdifferentmaterialsinthesameofpile.Asindicatedearlier,partofatimberpilewhichis
installedabovegroundwatercouldbevulnerabletoinsectattackanddecay.Toavoidthis,concreteorsteel
pileisusedabovethegroundwaterlevel,whilstwoodpileisinstalledunderthegroundwaterlevel(seefigure
7).

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Figure7:Protectingtimberpilesfromdecay:
a)byprecastconcreteuppersectionabovewaterlevel.
b)byextendingpilecapbelowwaterlevel

Classificationofpilewithrespecttoeffectonthesoil

Asimplifieddivisionintodrivenorboredpilesisoftenemployed.

Drivenpiles

Drivenpilesareconsideredtobedisplacementpiles.Intheprocessofdrivingthepileintotheground,soilis
movedradiallyasthepileshaftenterstheground.Theremayalsobeacomponentofmovementofthesoilin
theverticaldirection.

Figure8:drivenpiles

Boredpiles

Boredpiles(Replacementpiles)aregenerallyconsideredtobenondisplacementpilesavoidisformedby
boringorexcavationbeforepilesisproduced.Pilescanbeproducedbycastingconcreteinthevoid.Somesoils
suchasstiffclaysareparticularlyamenabletotheformationofpilesinthisway,sincetheboreholewallsdo
notrequirestemporarysupportexceptclothtothegroundsurface.Inunstableground,suchasgravelthe
groundrequirestemporarysupportfromcasingorbentoniteslurry.Alternativelythecasingmaybe

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permanent,butdrivenintoaholewhichisboredascasingisadvanced.Adifferenttechnique,whichisstill
essentiallynondisplacement,istointrude,agroutoraconcretefromanaugerwhichisrotatedintothe
granularsoil,andhenceproducedagroutedcolumnofsoil.

Therearethreenondisplacementmethods:boredcastinplacepiles,particularlypreformedpilesand
groutorconcreteintrudedpiles.

Thefollowingarereplacementpiles:

Augered

Cablepercussiondrilling

Largediameterunderreamed

Typesincorporatingprecasteconcreteunite

Drilledintubes

Minipiles

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