CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The purpose of this chapter is to provide a related literature and studies after the

thorough and in-depth search done by the researcher related to Solar Desalination Machine. A

review of other relevant research studies is also provided. Substantial literature has been

studied on different types of desalination process. A significant amount of research has been

done on desalination methods and also on the use of Renewable Energy Sources (RES) as a

source of power. This chapter focuses on the methods of desalination, in particular those

closely associated with the use of desalination, vacuum pump and photovoltaic cells.

Desalination

The desalination process has been known since ancient times, but perhaps the earliest

known seawater desalination process took place in AD 200, where Greek sailors, in their long

distance trips would boil seawater in a brass vessel and suspend large sponges on top of it to

absorb the vapors. The water extracted from the sponge was found to be potable. (Mohd,

2017).

Desalination or desalinization refers to any of several processes that remove the excess

salt and other minerals from water in order to obtain fresh water suitable for animal consumption

or irrigation, and if almost all of the salt is removed, for human consumption, sometimes

producing table salt as a by-product. (https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/desalination.htm)

Agrawal Aman, et al, state in their study about solar water distillation that human beings

need 1 or 2 litres of water a day to live. The minimum requirement for normal life in developing
 7

countries (which includes cooking, cleaning and washing clothes) is 20 litres per day .Yet some

functions can be performed with salty water and a typical requirement for distilled water is 5

litres per person per day. Therefore 2m2 of solar still are needed for each person served. Solar

stills should normally only be considered for removal of dissolved salts from water. For output of

1m3/day or more, vapour compression or flash evaporation will normally be least cost.

Different Desalination Processes

The two major types of technologies that are used around the world for desalination can

be broadly classified as either thermal or membrane. Thermal process involve the heating of

saline water and collecting the condensed vapor (distillate) to produce pure water while

membrane processes does not involve phase change. Within this two types there are sub-

categories that are identified in Table 1 and Table 2.

Table 1. Thermal Technology Desalination Process (Broggi, M. L. 2013)

Thermal Technology

Multi-Stage Flash Involves the use of distillation through several

Distillation (multi-stage) chambers.

Multi-Effect Distillation Occurs in a series of vessels (effects) and

uses the principles of evaporation and

condensation at reduced ambient pressure.

Vapor Compression Used in either in combination with other

Distillation processes such as Multi-Effect Distillation, or

by itself.
 8

Table 2. Membrane Technology Desalination Process (Broggi, M. L. 2013)

Membrane Technology

Electro-dialysis Utilizes an electrochemical

process whereby electric currents

transport salt ions selectively

through a membrane.

Reverse Osmosis Uses pressure as the driving

force to push saline water through

a semi-permeable membrane into

a product water steam and a

concentrated brine stream.

Solar Energy

Solar energy is very large, inexhaustible source of energy. The power from the sun

intercepted by the earth is approximately 1.81011 MW, which is many thousands times larger

than the present all commercial energy consumption rate on the earth. Thus in principle, solar

energy could supply all the present and future energy needs of the world on a continuous basis.

This makes it one of the most promising of all the unconventional energy sources. In addition to

its size, solar energy has two other factors in its favor. Firstly, unlike fossil fuels and nuclear power,

it is an environmentally clean source of energy. Secondly, it is free and available in adequate

quantity (Agrawal, 2013).

Solar energy is used to heat and cool buildings, to heat water for domestic and industrial

uses, to heat swimming pools, to power refrigerators, to operate engines and pumps, to desalinate

water for many more functions (http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/2234/1/2234_244.pdf, 2017).

 9

Solar Energy Conversion

Photovoltaic solar technology, which directly converts sunlight into electricity using panels

made of semiconductor cells. It was discovered by French physicist Edmond Becquerel in 1839

and was first used in industrial applications in 1954. The principle: an electric current occurs

when electrons are displaced. For this to happen, photons (light particles) excite the outermost

electrons of the atoms of certain semiconductor elements.

When sunlight hits the semiconductor, an electron springs up and is attracted to the n-

type semiconductor. This causes more negative electrons in the n-type semiconductor and more

positive electrons in the p-type, thus generating a flow of electricity in a process known as the

photovoltaic effect thus it produces an electrical current that eventually reaches the inverter,

where it gets converted into usable electricity source: (https://science.nasa.gov/science-

news/science-at-nasa/2002/solarcells).

Solar panels (also called solar modules) produce direct current (DC), which goes

through a power inverter to become alternating current (AC) electricity that we can use in the

home or office, like that supplied by a utility power company.

Seawater

Seawater, or salt water, is water from a sea or ocean. On average, seawater in the

worlds oceans has salinity of about 3.5% (35 g/L, or 0.600 M) This means that every kilogram

(roughly one litre by volume) of seawater has approximately 35 grams (1.2 oz) of dissolved salts

(pre-dominantly sodium (Na+) and Chloride (Cl)ions). Average density at the surface is 1.025

kg/l. Seawater is denser than both fresh water and pure water (density 1.0 kg/l at 4 C (39 F))

because the dissolved salts increase the mass by a larger proportion than the volume.
 10

The freezing point of seawater decreases as salt concentration increases. At typical salinity, it

freezes at about 2 C (28 F). The coldest seawater ever recorded (in a liquid state) was in

2010, in a stream under an Antarctic glacier, and measured 2.6 C (27.3 F). Seawater pH is

typically limited to a range between 7.5 and 8.4. However, there is no universally accepted

reference pH-scale for seawater and the difference between measurements based on different

reference scales may be up to 0.14 units. The thermal conductivity of seawater is 0.6 W/mK at

25C and a salinity of 35 g/kg. The thermal conductivity decreases with increasing salinity and

increases with increasing temperature.

Salinity
Salinity is used by oceanographers as a measure of the total salt content of seawater.

Although the vast majority of seawater has a salinity of between 3.1% and 3.8%, seawater is not

uniformly saline throughout the world. Where mixing occurs with freshwater runoff from river

mouths or near melting glaciers, seawater can be substantially less saline. The most saline

open sea is the Red Sea, where high rates of evaporation, low precipitation and river inflow, and

confined circulation result in unusually salty water. The salinity in isolated bodies of water (for

example, the Dead Sea) can be considerably greater still. The density of surface seawater

ranges from about 1020 to 1029 kg/m, depending on the temperature and salinity. Deep in the

ocean, under high pressure, seawater can reach a density of 1050 kg/m or higher. Seawater pH

is limited to the range 7.5 to 8.4. The speed of sound in seawater is about 1,500 m/s, and varies

with water temperature, salinity, and pressure.

 11

Table 3. Principal Constituents of Seawater (https://www.britannica.com/science/seawater/

Dissolved-inorganic-substances)

Ionic constituent g/kg of seawater moles/kg Relative

concentration

Chloride 19.162 0.5405 1.0000

Sodium 10.679 0.4645 0.8593

Magnesium 1.278 0.0526 0.0974

Sulfate 2.680 0.0279 0.0517

Calcium 0.4096 0.01022 0.0189

Potassium 0.3953 0.01011 0.0187

Carbon(inorganic) 0.0276 0.0023 0.0043

Bromide 0.0663 0.00083 0.00154

Boron 0.0044 0.00041 0.00075

Strontium 0.0079 0.00009 0.000165

Fluoride 0.0013 0.00007 0.000125

*Concentrations at salinity equal to 34.7.

**Ionic concentrations are conventionally expressed in molecular units. One mole per kilogram

is equivalent to 6.023(1023) ions or molecules per kilogram of seawater. The relative

concentrations in column 4 provide the number of ions of each constituent in one kilogram of

seawater as compared to the number of chloride ions in one kilogram of seawater.

 12

Related Studies

Types of Solar Desalination Unit

According to Lienhard, et al. (2012) solar stills can be classified as passive or active

stills. Passive stills will use only the solar energy falling into the unit. In active stills, an external

thermal energy source is added to the unit to aid heat addition to the salty or brackish water.

Additional heat could be provided by a concentrating solar panel, waste thermal energy, or a

conventional boiler. Another classification of solar still is based on the geometry: single slope as

shown in Fig. 1 or double slope glazing cover as shown in Fig. 2; conical solar still shown in Fig.

3; multiple-effect horizontal Fig. 4, or vertical solar stills, as shown in Fig. 5.

Figure 1. Single Slope Glazing Cover (Lienhard, et al. 2012)

Figure 2. Double Slope Glazing Cover (Lienhard, et al. 2012)

 13

Figure 3. Conical Solar still (Lienhard, et al. 2012)

Figure 4. Multiple-effect Horizontal Solar Still (Lienhard, et al. 2012)

 14

Figure 5. Vertical Solar Still (Lienhard, et al. 2012)

Solar Distillation/Solar Still Operation Principles

Belessiotis, Kalogirou, and Delyannis (2016) discussed the principles of solar distillation-

solar stills. The principle is the warning up of a mass of salty water in the air tide chamber of the

still. As the water warms up, currents are creating inside the water mass due to density

differences, forming steam in the surface which escapes to the air above. Steam generation

takes place in the temperature range 30C to about 80C, the mean range of operating

temperatures of a still. Steam generation is a more smooth operation than vaporization near

boiling point temperature. Boiling point vaporization may create bubbles that carry some salts or

other contaminants to the distillate. Evaporation of water is an energy consuming process. It

takes ~4218 kJ/kg-K to change phase from water to vapor at boiling point (100C) and ~4194

kJ/kg-K for mean water temperature in the basin of 75C. There exist a big variety of solar stills,

simple or more complicated, having internal or external parts which help to increase productivity

in some extent due to increase of evaporation area. A lot of mathematical models were also

presented by various researches. Most of the models are formulated for each special still

design, taking in consideration specific design details of the still.

 15

They also study the phase movement inside the still. In figure 6, presents schematically the

vapor/air mixture circulation inside the still. By increasing the water temperature in the basin the

air-vapor mixture above the basins water surface has higher temperature and lower density

than the air-vapor mixture immediately beneath the glass cover. Thus connection currents are

formed between the cover and water surface. The air-vapor mixture moves upwards by the

action of buoyancy due to density difference, coming in contact with the cooler inside cover

surface where it becomes saturated and partially condenses. The condensate thus formed runs

along the covers inside surface and is collected into the gutters. The bulk of air mass does not

participate due to low diffusion and heat conductance. For this reason, it is advantageous to

keep the distance between cover and water surface and the angle between cover and the

horizontal as small as possible, but high enough to allow free flow of condensate by gravity,

along the cover surface. The larger the temperature difference between water surface and cover

the more intense becomes air-vapor mixture circulation. This type of vapor circulation inside the

still applies for passive and for active solar still, but in the case of continuous feed water

circulation, even in small flow rates the whole procedure takes place in low turbulent flow.

Figure 6. Sketch of evaporation/condensation function of a single effect solar still (Belessiotis,

Kalogirou, and Delyannis, 2016)

 16

Thermal Analysis of Solar Desalination Unit/Solar Still

Hikmet S. Aybar (2006). An inclined solar water distillation (ISWD) system, which generates

distilled water (i.e., condensate) and hot water at the same time, was modeled and simulated. In

the parametric studies, the effects of feed water mass flow rate and solar intensity on the

system parameters were investigated. Finally, the system was simulated using actual deviations

of solar intensity and environment temperature during a typical summer day in North Cyprus.

The system can generate 3.55.4 kg (per m2 absorber plate area) distilled water during a day

(i.e., 7 am till 7 pm). The temperature of the produced hot water reached as high as 60C, and

the average water temperature was about 40C, which is good enough for domestic use,

depending on the type of feed water. The simulation results are in good agreement with the

experimental results.

Gajendra Singh , Shiv Kumar, G.N. Tiwari (2011), devolved a double slope hybrid (PVT)

active solar still which was designed, fabricated and experimentally tested under field conditions

for different configurations. Parallel forced mode configuration of the solar still will produce

higher yield than the other configurations and obtained as 7.54 kg/day with energy efficiency of

17.4%. The hourly exergy efficiency is also found to be highest for the same configuration and

reached as high as 2.3%. The comparative yield obtained is about 1.4 times higher than that

obtained for hybrid (PVT) single slope solar still. Annual yield is expected to be 1939 kg. The

estimated energy payback time is found to be 3.0 years and is about 30% less than the hybrid

(PVT) single slope solar still. The total cost of the fabricated still is about 14% less than hybrid

(PVT) single slope solar still.

Fedali Saida, Bougriou Cherif (2010), presents the thermal analysis of passive solar still.

Mathematical equations for water, absorber, glass and insulator temperatures yield and

efficiency of single slope basin have been derived. The analysis is based on the basic energy

balance for the solar still. A computer model has been developed to predict the performance of

the solar still. The operation governing equations of a solar still are solved by a Runge-Kutta
 17

numerical method. The numerical calculations indicated that the wind speed has an influence on

the glass cover temperature. It was noted that in sunshine duration, temperature of various

components of the distiller follows the evolution of solar radiation.

Rajesh Tripathi, G.N. Tiwari(2005), presented the thermal analysis of passive and active

solar distillation system by using the concept of solar fraction inside the solar still with the help

of AUTOCAD 2000 for given solar azimuth and altitude angle and latitude, longitude of the

place. Experiments have been conducted for 24 h (9 am to 8 am) for New Delhi climatic

conditions (latitude 28035' N, longitude 77012' E) during the months of November and

December for different water depths in the basin (0.05, 0.1 and 0.15 m) for passive as well as

active solar distillation system. Analytical expressions for water and glass cover temperatures

and yield have been derived in terms of design and climatic parameters. The following

conclusions were drawn:

The degree of agreement between theoretical and experimental results is more for

active mode as compared to passive mode of operation.

Solar fraction plays a very significant role in thermal modeling of solar still for active as

well as passive mode of operation.

Relative humidity should be measured inside the solar still, particularly, for higher depths

of water in the basin.

Temperature dependent internal heat transfer coefficients should be considered for

thermal modeling of solar stills.

M.K. Ghosal, GN. Tiwari, N.S.L. Srivastava(2002), concerned with seasonal analysis of

solar desalination system combined with a greenhouse. Analytical expressions for water

temperature, greenhouse room air temperature, glass cover temperature, flowing water mass

over the glass cover, hourly yield of fresh water and thermal efficiency have been derived in

terms of design and climatic parameters for a typical day of summer and winter period.
 18

Temperature rise of flowing water mass with respect to distance and time in solar still unit has

also been incorporated in the mathematical modeling. Based on the above results, the following

conclusions had been drawn:

The rate of increase in the yield of fresh water becomes steady after the length (L) of

south roof is 2.5 m.

The yield and the fall in greenhouse maximum room air temperature (Tr,max,)

decrease with increase of flow rate.

Tank Design

Rainbow Tanks (2014), discussed the difference between cylindrical and rectangular

tank. A cylindrical water tank has the least possible ratio of circumference to area i.e. less

surface area than a box-shaped water tank that holds the same amount of water. For this

reason, a spherical water tank requires less building material than its box-shaped equivalent

and is consequently more economical to build. A round structure is the strongest geometrical

structure and is stronger than box-like alternatives, according to Monolithic. Therefore, a round

structure will more successfully withstand the outward-directed force of the water stored within

and the force of wind and rain that impinges upon the structure from without. Because round

structures minimize the surface area through which heat can radiate, they keep the enclosed

water at a more constant temperature than box-like structures. As a result, the water is less

affected by ambient temperature fluctuations and also loses less heat in winter. Round tanks

are much easier to keep clean than those with corners. Corners are known to harbour microbes.

Drinking/Potable Water Requirements

According to APEC Water, pH value is a good indicator of whether water is hard or

soft. The pH of pure water is 7. In general, water with a pH lower than 7 is considered acidic,

and with a pH greater than 7 is considered basic. The normal range for pH in surface water
 19

systems is 6.5 to 8.5, and the pH range for groundwater systems is between 6 to 8.5. Alkalinity

is a measure of the capacity of the water to resist a change in pH that would tend to make the

water more acidic. The measurement of alkalinity and pH is needed to determine the

corrosiveness of the water. In general, water with a pH < 6.5 could be acidic, soft, and

corrosive. Acidic water could contain metal ions such as iron, manganese, copper, lead, and

zinc. In other words, acidic water contains elevated levels of toxic metals. Water with a pH > 8.5

could indicate that the water is hard. Hard water does not pose a health risk, but can also cause

aesthetic problems. These problems include an alkali taste to the water. The study says that the

pH value of the water is not a measure of the strength of the acidic or basic solution, and alone

cannot provide a full picture of the characteristics or limitations with the water supply. While the

ideal pH level of drinking water should be between 6-8.5, the human body maintains pH

equilibrium on a constant basis and will not be affected by water consumption. For example, our

stomachs have a naturally low pH level of 2 which is a beneficial acidity that helps us with food

digestion.

Belessiotis, Kalogirou, and Delyannis (2016) discussed about the quality of drinking

and utilization water. Natural waters may possess few characteristics that made them suitable

for drinking, domestic, or other uses. Exactly the same characteristics may be possessed by

desalinated water, which after desalination is posttreated to get the properties. Thus quality of

fresh water, natural or desalinated, is of great importance (WHO, 2004). For drinking water

specifications are very stringent according to the WHO. The highest TDS are 500 mg/L. Except

the WHO many nations have their own local specifications. Table 4 presents the recommended

and the higher permitted amounts, without health problems of main constituents in drinking

water. Chloride content higher than 600mg/L deteriorates water test and is corrosive to the

pipes of the distribution network.

 20

Table 4. Water Characteristics that Affect its Quality ((Belessiotis, Kalogirou, and Delyannis,

2016)

Characteristic Cause Remarks

Classification:
Affects suitability for
Soft: 0-60
Calcium and drinking and in some
Moderate Hard: 61-
Hardness magnesium ions in industries, as textile,
120
water paper, steam boilers,
Hard: 121-180
etc.
Very Hard: << 180
Molecule pH = 7.0 neutral
Affects the use and
pH dissociation, acids pH < 7.0 acidic
treatment of waters
and bases in water pH > 7.9 basic
The larger the It is measured by
Comes from conductance the electrical
Specific electrical
substances that form more ions in water conductivity, in
conductance
ions when dissolving (the more micromhos, in 1 m3
mineralized) water at 25C
<< 1000 ppm, fresh
<500 ppm is suitable 1-3 x 103 slight saline
All mineral
for drinking and 3-10 x 103 moderate
TDS substances dissolved
domestic use and 10-35 x 103 very
in water
industrial processing saline
<< 35 x 103 brine

Capability of Solar Desalination Unit for Substance Removal in Seawater

Generally, evaporation leaves behind all the substances of a fluid mixture, which have a

higher boiling point than the main fluid. For the case of solar distillation, the following

substances can efficiently be removed (residues in the distilled water 0.05%, (Hanson et al.,

2004; Foster and Eby-Martin, 2001)):

Arsenic, fluorides and heavy metals

Hardness (calcium, magnesium and other mineral compounds)

Molybdenum and selenium

Nitrates and chlorides

Manganese and ammonia

Dissolved solids
 21

Capacity of a passive solar still/desalination unit

Gregor Zieke (August, 2011) evaluate the amount of water produce by a passive solar

desalination unit. The maximum distillate output for the passive single-basin still occurs at the

month of March with estimated distillate volumes of 2.66 to 5.31 liters per square meter. The

minimum output is estimated for the month of December, with values ranging from 2.09 to 4.17

liters per square meter.

According to Deveraux Talagi, the rule of thumb for passive solar distillation is that it

requires an area of about one square metre to produce 4 litres of water per day, though this will

vary widely depending on location, weather, and the mean solar radiation in the area. Agrawal

et al. (2013) stated in their study that single basin stills generally produce about 0.8 liters per

sun hour per square meter. In the evaluation of their solar desalination unit they got the

temperature of water up to 60 degrees and 100 ml of distilled water in 4 hours with a surface

area of 1 sq feet.

Comparison of proposed study to other related studies

Table 5. Comparison of proposed study to other related studies

Feature

-use single/double slope glass cover

-use of thermal energy from sun alone

Related Studies/Project -use of solar concentrating and collector

Solar Desalination/Distillation Machine panel

-use of multi-stage basin

-use of vacuum pump

 22

-use of double-slope glass cover

-use of thermal energy from sun alone

Proposed Study -use of heater

Solar Desalination Machine -use of photovoltaic cell

-use of manually powered vacuum pump

-use of microcontroller for monitoring system

Synthesis

Most of solar desalination/distillation machine are passive type. They use only the solar

energy from the sun falling to the unit. This proposed study is classified as active still, because

there will be an addition of external heat to aid the thermal energy absorbed by the unit from the

sun. An electric heater will be used to add heat to the seawater. This device is responsible for

rising the temperature of the seawater to reach the saturation temperature or boiling

temperature and to increase the evaporation rate of seawater inside the basin. The electric

heater will get its power supply from the photovoltaic cell. The photovoltaic cell will not just

provide power to the heater but also to the microcontroller. A vacuum pump is used in this

machine to lower the pressure inside the unit. Lowering the pressure inside the unit also lower

the saturation temperature or boiling temperature of the seawater. A foot pedaled vacuum pump

will be used for it doesnt need power to run instead of using an electric vacuum pump that will

result to a larger photovoltaic cell which will be another expense. Another feature of this project

that is not commonly found in other studies is the use of microcontroller. The Arduino Uno will

be the microcontroller to be used because of its simple and accessible user experience and can

be easily understand. The researchers is already familiar to the principles and functions of

Arduino Uno compared to the other microcontrollers which are new to them, since they already

have experience using the microcontroller. Arduino Uno also is inexpensive compare to other
 23

microcontroller and is available in the country. Temperature, pressure and humidity sensors will

be interfaced with Arduino Uno to monitor the temperature, pressure, and humidity inside and

outside the unit. The construction of the desalination unit is almost the same with the other

studies. The unit will be made of double slope glazing cover and single stage basin. The only

difference is that the shape of the basin is a horizontal cylindrical trough. Having a

round/cylindrical tank lessen the surface area to be heat by the heater compare to a box shaped

tank. A cylindrical water tank requires less building material than its box-shaped equivalent and

is consequently more economical to build and is easier to clean compared to box-shaped tank

which has corners, since corners are known to harbor microbes. The material for basin is made

of aluminum due to its good conductivity and resistant to corrosion. The glazing cover for the

proposed project is also the same to other related projects which is made of ordinary window

glass.