THERMAL POWER PLANT

PANIPAT

A
TRAINING REPORT
Submitted in Partial fulfillment of their Requirement for the Award of the
Degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
(Electrical Engineering)
SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY:
Dr. NIDHIKA BIRLA SHUBHAM
H.O.D (Electrical Deptt.) (1215726)

Department of ELECTRICAL ENGG.

Seth Jai Prakash Mukand Lal Institute of Engg. & Technology
Radaur-135133 (Yamuna Nagar)
(Affiliated to Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, Haryana, India)

1
 DECLARATION

I declare that the project report entitled Thermal Power Plant is a bonafide record of
the work done by me in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the
certificate of Industrial Training and that the report or any part thereof is not being
submitted for the award of any other project.

Place: Panipat SHUBHAM

Roll No - 1215726

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

While brining out this project on Thermal Power Plant I would like to thank my
supervisor Mr. Sunil Kumar, for his valuable guidance, deep rooted interest, inspiration,
continuous encouragement & criticism throughout the period of project.
This acknowledgement would never be complete of I dont remember my faculty
members; to whom I owe all the successes I have achieved so far. The present work is
one of them.
In the end I am thankful to all other persons who helped me to complete this project and
gave me valuable information.

3
 INDEX
S.No. Content Pages

1. Certificate 2

2. Declaration 3
3. Acknowledgement 4
4. List of figure 8

5. Chapter-1 Introduction 9
1.1 Thermal Power Station 9
1.2 Input & Output 10
1.3 Rankine Cycle 12
1.4 How Electricity is generated 12

Coal cycle 13
Oil cycle
13
Air fuel gas cycle
Steam Water cycle 14

15
1.5 Efficiency 16
1.6 Cost of Electricity 18
6. Chapter -2 General Equipments used in Thermal stations 19
2.1 Cooling Tower 20
2.2 Step Up transformer & electricity Generator 21
2.3Steam Turbine 23

4
 Impulse Turbine 23
Reaction Turbine 24

2.4 Condenser 25

Surface Condenser 25

2.5 Deaerator 26
2.6 Super heater 29
2.7 Economizer 29
2.8 Air Preheater 30
2.9 Precipitator (ESP) 30
2.10 Fans & Auxilliaries 32
2.11 Flue Gas Stack 33
7. Chapter-3 Overview of electricity generation in power plant 34
3.1 Coal selection & grinding in mills 34
3.2 Boiler furnace, Steamdrum & economizer 35
3.3 Super heater 36
3.4 Turbine Stages 37
3.5 Re heater 37
3.6 Air Pre heater 37
3.7 Condensers 38
3.8 Condensate Pumps 38
3.9 Feed water heating & deaeration 38
3.10 Hp heater 41
3.11 Stack gas path & clean up 41
3.12 Boiler make up water 42

5
 LIST OF FIGURES

1. Overview of Panipat Thermal 9

2. Rankine cycle flow 12

3. Typical Diagram of thermal power station 19

4. Cooling towers 20

5. Steam turbine 24

6. Typical water cooled surface condenser 26

7. Deaerator 27

8. Typical tray type deaerator 28

9. Typical spray type deaerator 28

10. Fan applications in power plant 32

11. Coal Mill 34

12. HP Heaters 41

6
 CHAPTER1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Thermal Power Station

A thermal power station is a power plant in which the prime mover is steam driven.
Water is heated, turns into steam and spins a steam turbine which drives an electrical
generator. After it passes through the turbine, the steam is condensed in a condenser and
recycled to where it was heated; this is known as a Rankine cycle. The greatest variation
in the design of thermal power stations is due to the different fuel sources. Some prefer to
use the term energy center because such facilities convert forms of heat energy into
electricity[1]. for district heating, or for desalination of water as well as delivering
electrical power. A large part of human CO2 emissions comes from fossil fueled thermal
power plants; efforts to reduce these outputs are various and widespread.

Fig:-(1) Overview

7
1.2 INPUTS & OUTPUTS
There are three major inputs or raw materials required for the type of thermal power
station. These are :

1.) WATER
2. ) FUEL OIL
3.) COAL

1.) WATER.
The raw water required for the thermal power station has been taken from a canal
through a channel. This water is lifted by RAW WATER PUMPS and is fed into
CLARIFIERS to remove the turbidity of the water. The clean water is stored in CLEAR
WELLS, from there it is sent to WATER TREATMENT PLANTS, COOLING WATER
SYSTEMS and SERVICE WATER SYSTEMS.
The water in the WATER TREATMENT PLANT is FILTERED and
DEMINERALISED. The filtered water is sent to PLANT and COLONY through
plant and colony potable pumps. The DEMINERALISED WATER (D.M water) is
stored in bulk storage tanks for use in boiler and turbine. The cooling water for
condensation of steam is circulated with the help of CONDENSATE WATER ( C.W
) PUMPS through COOLING TOWERS. The hot water from the outlet of the
condenser is sprayed in the cooling towers to reduce its temperature. Some part of it
is used in cooling various auxiliaries in plant through BEARING COOLING WATER
PUMPS.

8
2.) FUEL OIL
In this power house, three types of fuel oil are used, for preheating and at Low load of
the boiler due to less problems faced in ignition of oil rather than coal. These three
types are:

HIGH SPEED DIESEL OIL.

HEAVY FURNANCE OIL.
LOW SULPHER HEAVY STOCK.

3.) COAL
The coal reaches the Power Station in RAILWAY WAGONS. The unloading of coal
from railway wagons i
The high speed diesel oil reaches Power Station by TANKERS. The oil is decanted
through pumps and is stored in BULK STORAGE TANKS. The H.F.O & L.S.H.S
comes to site through rail tankers. As this oil is viscous, it is heated with steam and
decanted with pumps. The oil is stored in bulk storage tanks with steam heating coils.
H.F.O & L.S.H.S is burnt in the furnace of Boiler after atomizing with steam.

It is done mechanically by tilting the wagon by WAGGON TIPPLER. The coal is then
sent to COAL CRUSHER by conveyor belts. The crushed coal (about 20 mm) is sent
either to coal mill bunkers or storage yard. The coal is also transported to coal bunkers
from storage yard through conveyor belts when the coal wagons are not available.
The crushed coal stock for 15 days to 1 month is kept in coal stock yard. The coal from
the mill bunkers goes to coal mills through RAW COAL FEEDERS where it is further
pulverized to powder form & is then transported to the furnace of the boiler with the
help of PRESURED AIR from PRIMARY AIR (P.A.) FANS. In PTPS direct
pressurized pulverized fuel firing system has been used.

9
1.3 Rankine Cycle

1.Scottish engineer William Rankine(1820-1872) developed a theory of steam cycles.

2.Heat is added in a water boiler, where the water becomes steam.
3.Steam is fed to a steam turbine, which generates mechanical energy

fig (2) Rankine Cycle fLow with reheat

1.4 HOW ELECTRICITY GENERATED

The complete and complex process of electricity generation in TPS can be divided
into four major cycles for the sake of simplicity. The main systems are discussed in these
cycles in a step by step manner and some useful drawings are also enclosed. The four
cycles are:-
1. COAL CYCLE
2. OIL CYCLE
3. AIR FLUE GAS CYCLE
4. STEAM WATER CYCLE

10
1. COAL CYCLE
The simplest of the above four cycles is the coal cycle. In this cycle as explained earlier
crushed coal of about 20mm is transported by conveyor belts to the coal mill bunkers.
From here the coal goes to coal mills through raw coal feeders. In the coal mills the
coal is further pulverized (crushed) to powder form. The temperature of the coal mills
are maintained at 180-200 degree centigrade by a suitable mixture of hot & cold air. The
air comes from PRIMARY AIR FANS (P.A FANS) which are 2 in Nos.- A&B. The
outlet duct after combining gets divided into two. One duct goes to the AIR HEATERS
(A.H- A&B) where primary air is heated by the hot flue gases in a HEAT
EXCHANGER. This duct provides hot air & the other one provided cold primary air.
A suitable mixture of these hot & cold air is fed to the coal mills to maintain their
temperature This is done to remove moisture of coal..
More over this primary air is also used for transportation of powdered coal from coal
mills to the four corners of the boiler by a set of four pipes There are six coal mills -
A,B,C,D,E&F and their outlets in the Boiler are at different elevations. The high
temperature of the primary air does not alLow the air coal mixture to choke the duct
from mill to boilers. A portion of the primary air is further pumped to high pressure
and is known as seal air. It is used to protect certain parts of mills like bearings etc.
where powered coal may pose certain problems in the functioning of the mill. When
the air coal mixture enters the boiler it catches fire in the firing zone and some ash
along with clinkers settles down. This is removed periodically by mixing it with water
to make slurry.

2. OIL CYCLE
In the oil cycle the oil is pumped and enters the boiler from four corners at three
elevations. Oil guns are used which sprays the oil in atomized form along with steam
so that it catches fire instantly. At each elevation and each corner there are separate
igniters which ignite the fuel oil. There are flame sensors which sense the flame and
send the information to the control room.

11
3. AIR & FLUE GAS CYCLE
For the proper combustion to take place in the boiler right amount of Oxygen or air is
needed in the boiler. The air is provided to the furnace in two ways - PRIMARY AIR &
SECONDARY AIR. Primary air is provided by P.A. fans and enters the boiler along
with powdered coal from the mills. While the secondary air is pumped through
FORCED DRAFT FANS better known as F.D Fans which are also two in numbers
A&B. The outlet of F.D fans combine and are again divided into two

Which goes to Steam coiled Air pre heaters (S.C.A.P.H) A&B where its temperature is
raised by utilizing the heat of waste steam. Then it goes to Air Pre heater-A&B where
secondary air is heated further utilizing the heat of flue gases. The temperature of air is
raised to improve the efficiency of the unit & for proper combustion in the furnace.
Then this air is fed to the furnace. From the combustion chamber the flue gases travel to
the upper portion of the boiler and gives a portion of heat to the PLATIUM SUPER
HEATER. Further up it comes in contact with the REHEATER and heats the steam
which is inside the tubes of reheated. Then it travels horizontally and comes in contact
with FINAL SUPER HEATER. After imparting the heat to the steam in super heater flue
gases go downward to the ECONOMIZER to heat the cold water pumped by the
BOILER FEED PUMPS(B.F.P.) these all are enclosed in the furnace. After leaving the
furnace the flue gases go to the Air Heaters where more heat of the flue gases is
extracted to heat primary and secondary air. Then it goes to the ELECTROSTATIC
PRECIPITATORS (E.S.P.) Stage A&B where the suspended ash from the flue gases is
removed by passing the flue gas between charged plates. Then comes the INDUCED
DRAFT FAN (I.D.Fan) which sucks air from E.S.P. and releases it to the atmosphere
through chimney. The pressure inside the boiler is kept suitably beLow the atmospheric
pressure with the help of I.D. Fans so that the flame does not spread out of the openings
of boiler and cause explosion. Further very Low pressure in the boiler is also not
desirable because it will lead to the
Quenching of flame.

12
4. STEAM WATER CYCLE
The most complex of all the cycles is the steam & water cycle. Steam is the working
substance in the turbines in all the thermal and nuclear power plants. As there is very
high temperature and pressure inside the boiler, initially water has to be pumped to a
very high pressure. Water has also to be heated to a suitably high temperature before
putting it inside the boiler so that cold water does not cause any problem.
Initially cold water is slightly heated in Low pressure heaters. Then it is pumped to a
very high pressure of about 200 Kg/Cm2 by BOILER FEED PUMPS- A & B. After
this it is further heated in high pressure heaters by taking the heat from the high
pressure steam coming from various auxiliaries and / or turbines. Then this water
goes to the economizer where its temperature is further raised by the flue gases. This
hot water then goes to the BOILER DRUM. In the boiler drum there is very high
temperature and pressure. It contains a saturated mixture of boiling water and steam
which are
in equilibrium. The water level in the boiler is maintained between certain limit. From
here relatively cold water goes down to the water header situated at the bottom, due to
difference in density. Then this cold water rises gradually in the tubes of the boiler on
being heated. The tubes are in the form of water walls. These tubes combine at the top in
the hot water header. From here the hot water and steam mixture comes back to the
boiler drum completing the small loop. From the boiler drum hot steam goes to
PLATIUM SUPER HEATER situated in the upper portion of the boiler. Here the
temperature of the steam is increased. Then it goes to the FINAL SUPER HEATER.
Here its temperature is further increased. The turbine is a three cylinder machine with
HIGH PRESSURE ( H.P ), INTERMEDIATE PRESSURE ( I.P ) & LOW
PRESSURE ( L.P ) casings taking efficiency into account the .
The turbine speed is controlled by HYDRO DYNAMIC GOVERNING SYSTEM.
The three turbines are on the same shaft which is coupled with
GENERATOR. The generator is equipped with D.C EXCITATION
SYSTEM. The steam from the final super heater comes by MAIN STEAM LINE to the
H.P turbine. After doing work in the H.P turbine its temperature is reduced. It is sent

13
back to the boiler by COLD REHEAT LINE to the REHEATER. Here its temperature is
increased and is sent to the I.P turbine through HOT REHEAT LINE.
After doing work in the I.P turbine steam directly enters L.P turbine. The pressure of L.P
turbine is maintained very Low in order to reduce the condensation point of steam. The
outlet of L.P turbine is connected with condenser. In the condenser, arrangement is made
to cool the steam to water. This is done by using cold water which is made to fLow in
tubes. This secondary water which is not very pure gains heat from steam & becomes hot.
This secondary water is sent to the cooling towers to cool it down so that it may be reused
for cooling. The water thus formed in the condenser is sucked by CONDENSATE
WATER PUMPS (C.W. PUMPS) and is sent to deaerator.

A suitable water level is maintained in the hot well of condenser. Water or steam
leakages from the system is compensated by the make up water ,line from storage
tanks which are connected to the condenser. The pressure in side condenser is
automatically maintained less then atmospheric pressure and large volume of steam
condense here to form small volume of water. In the Deaerator the water is sprayed to
small droplets & the air dissolved in it is removed so that it may not cause trouble at high
temperatures in the Boiler. More over, the water level which is maintained constant in the
Deaerator also acts as a constant water head for the BOILER FEED PUMPS. Water from
Deaerator goes to the Boiler feed pumps after the heated by L.P. Heaters. Thus the water
cycle in the boiler is completed and water is ready for another new cycle. This is a
continuous and repetitive process.

1.5 Efficiency

The energy efficiency of a conventional thermal power station, considered as salable

energy as a percent of the heating value of the fuel consumed, is typically 33% to 48%.
This efficiency is limited as all heat engines are governed by the laws of
thermodynamics. The rest of the energy must leave the plant in the form of heat. This
waste heat can go through a condenser and be disposed of with cooling water or in
cooling towers. If the waste heat is instead utilized for district heating, it is called co-

14
generation. An important class of thermal power station is associated with desalination
facilities; these are typically found in desert countries with large supplies of natural gas
and in these plants, freshwater production and electricity are equally important co-
products.
Since the efficiency of the plant is fundamentally limited by the ratio of the absolute
temperatures of the steam at turbine input and output, efficiency improvements require
use of higher temperature, and therefore higher pressure, steam. Historically, other
working fluids such as mercury have been used in a mercury vapor turbine power plant,
since these can attain higher temperatures than water at Lower working pressures.
However, the obvious hazards of toxicity, high cost, and poor heat transfer properties,
have ruled out mercury as a working fluid.

Above the critical point for water of 705 F (374 C) and 3212 psi (22.06 MPa), there is
no phase transition from water to steam, but only a gradual decrease in density. Boiling
does not occur and it is not possible to remove impurities via steam separation. In this
case a super critical steam plant is required to utilize the increased thermodynamic
efficiency by operating at higher temperatures. These plants, also called once-through
plants because boiler water does not circulate multiple times, require additional water
purification steps to ensure that any impurities picked up during the cycle will be
removed. This purification takes the form of high pressure ion exchange units called
condensate polishers between the steam condenser and the feed water heaters. Sub-
critical fossil fuel power plants can achieve 3640% efficiency. Super critical designs
have efficiencies in the Low to mid 40% range, with new "ultra critical" designs using
pressures of 4400 psi (30.3 MPa) and dual stage reheat reaching about 48% efficiency.

Current nuclear power plants operate below the temperatures and pressures that coal-fired
plants do. This limits their thermodynamic efficiency to 3032%. Some advanced reactor
designs being studied, such as the Very high temperature reactor, advanced gas-cooled
reactor and supercritical water reactor, would operate at temperatures and pressures
similar to current coal plants, producing comparable thermodynamic efficiency.

15
1.6 Cost Of Electricity

The direct cost of electric energy produced by a thermal power station is the result of cost
of fuel, capital cost for the plant, operator labour, maintenance, and such factors as ash
handling and disposal. Indirect, social or environmental costs such as the economic value
of environmental impacts, or environmental and health effects of the complete fuel cycle
and plant decommissioning, are not usually assigned to generation costs for thermal
stations in utility practice, but may form part of an environmental impact assessment.

16
 Chapter 2

General Equipments Used in Thermal Stations

Fig:- (3) Typical diagram of a coal-fired thermal power station

1. Cooling tower 10. Steam Control valve 19.Superheater
2. Cooling water pump 11. High pressure steam turbine 20.F.D. Fan
3. Transmission line (3-phase) 12. Deaerator 21.Reheater
4. Step-up transformer (3-phase) 13. Feed water heater 22.Air Intake
5. Electrical generator (3-phase) 14. Coal conveyor 23.Economiser
6. Low pressure steam turbine 15. Coal Bunker 24.APH
7. Condensate pump 16. Coal pulverizer 25.Precipitator
8. Surface condenser 17. Boiler steam drums 26.I.D.Fan
9. Intermediate pressure steam turbine 18. Bottom ash hopper 27.Flue gas stk.

17
2.1 Cooling Tower

Cooling towers are heat removal devices used to transfer process waste heat to the
atmosphere. Cooling towers may either use the evaporation of water to remove process
heat and cool the working fluid to near the wet-bulb air temperature or in the case of
closed circuit dry cooling towers rely solely on air to cool the working fluid to near the
. . .

...
Fig:-(4) COOLING TOWERS

dry-bulb air temperature. Common applications include cooling the circulating water
used in oil refineries, chemical plants, power stations and building cooling. The towers

18
vary in size from small roof-top units to very large hyperboloid structures that can be up
to 200 meters tall and 100 meters in diameter, or rectangular structures that can be over
40 meters tall and 80 meters long. Smaller towers are normally factory-built, while larger
ones are constructed on site.

Industrial cooling towers can be used to remove heat from various sources such as
machinery or heated process material. The primary use of large, industrial cooling towers
is to remove the heat absorbed in the circulating cooling water systems used in power
plants, petroleum refineries, petrochemical plants, natural gas processing plants, food
processing plants, semi-conductor plants, and for other industrial facilities such as in
condensers of distillation columns, for cooling liquid in crystallization, etc.[2] The
circulation rate of cooling water in a typical 700 MW coal-fired power plant with a
cooling tower amounts to about 71,600 cubic meters an hour (315,000 U.S. gallons per
minute) and the circulating water requires a supply water make-up rate of perhaps 5
percent (i.e., 3,600 cubic meters an hour).

Hyperboloid (a.k.a. hyperbolic) cooling towers have become the design standard for all
natural-draft cooling towers because of their structural strength and minimum usage of
material. The hyperboloid shape also aids in accelerating the upward convective air
fLow, improving cooling efficiency. They are popularly associated with nuclear power
plants. However, this association is misleading, as the same kind of cooling towers are
often used at large coal-fired power plants as well.

2.2 Step Up Transformer (3-phase) & Electric Generator

In electricity generation, an electric generator is a device that converts mechanical energy

to electrical energy. A generator forces electrons in the windings to flow through the
external electrical circuit. It is somewhat analogous to a water pump, which creates a
flow of water but does not create the water inside. The source of mechanical energy may

19
be a reciprocating or turbine steam engine, water falling through a turbine or waterwheel,
an internal combustion engine, a wind turbine, a hand crank, compressed air or any other
source of mechanical energy.
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
through inductively coupled conductorsthe transformer's coils. A varying current in the
first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core and
thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field
induces a varying electromotive force (EMF), or "voltage", in the secondary winding.
This effect is called mutual induction.

If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary
winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the
transformer to the load. In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary
winding (Vs) is in proportion to the primary voltage (Vp), and is given by the ratio of the
number of turns in the secondary (Ns) to the number of turns in the primary (Np) as
follows:

By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating

current (AC) voltage to be "stepped up" by making Ns greater than Np, or "stepped
down" by making Ns less than Np.

In the vast majority of transformers, the windings are coils wound around a ferromagnetic
core, air-core transformers being a notable exception.

Transformers range in size from a thumbnail-sized coupling transformer hidden inside a

stage microphone to huge units weighing hundreds of tons used to interconnect portions
of power grids. All operate with the same basic principles, although the range of designs
is wide. While new technologies have eliminated the need for transformers in some
electronic circuits, transformers are still found in nearly all electronic devices designed

20
for household ("mains") voltage. Transformers are essential for high-voltage electric
power transmission, which makes long-distance transmission economically practical.

2.3 Steam Turbine

A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized
steam, and converts it into rotary motion. Its modern manifestation was invented by Sir
Charles Parsons in 1884.

It has almost completely replaced the reciprocating piston steam engine primarily
because of its greater thermal efficiency and higher power-to-weight ratio. Because the
turbine generates rotary motion, it is particularly suited to be used to drive an electrical
generator about 80% of all electricity generation in the world is by use of steam
turbines. The steam turbine is a form of heat engine that derives much of its improvement
in thermodynamic efficiency through the use of multiple stages in the expansion of the
steam, which results in a closer approach to the ideal reversible process.

2.3.1 Impulse Turbine

An impulse turbine has fixed nozzles that orient the steam flow into high speed jets.
These jets contain significant kinetic energy, which the rotor blades, shaped like buckets,
convert into shaft rotation as the steam jet changes direction. A pressure drop occurs
across only the stationary blades, with a net increase in steam velocity across the stage.

As the steam fLows through the nozzle its pressure falls from inlet pressure to the exit
pressure (atmospheric pressure, or more usually, the condenser vacuum). Due to this
higher ratio of expansion of steam in the nozzle the steam leaves the nozzle with a very
high velocity. The steam leaving the moving blades has a large portion of the maximum

21
velocity of the steam when leaving the nozzle. The loss of energy due to this higher exit
velocity is commonly called the "carry over velocity" or "leaving loss".

Fig:-(5) STEAM TURBINE

2.3.2 Reaction Turbine

In the reaction turbine, the rotor blades themselves are arranged to form convergent
nozzles. This type of turbine makes use of the reaction force produced as the steam
accelerates through the nozzles formed by the rotor. Steam is directed onto the rotor by
the fixed vanes of the stator. It leaves the stator as a jet that fills the entire circumference
of the rotor. The steam then changes direction and increases its speed relative to the speed
of the blades. A pressure drop occurs across both the stator and the rotor, with steam
accelerating through the stator and decelerating through the rotor, with no net change in

22
steam velocity across the stage but with a decrease in both pressure and temperature,
reflecting the work performed in the driving of the rotor.

2.4 Condenser

1. Surface Condenser

Surface condenser is the commonly used term for a water-cooled shell and tube heat
exchanger installed on the exhaust steam from a steam turbine in thermal power stations.
These condensers are heat exchangers which convert steam from its gaseous to its liquid
state at a pressure below atmospheric pressure. Where cooling water is in short supply, an
air-cooled condenser is often used. An air-cooled condenser is however significantly
more expensive and cannot achieve as Low a steam turbine exhaust pressure as a water
cooled surface condenser.

Surface condensers are also used in applications and industries other than the condensing
of steam turbine exhaust in power plants. In thermal power plants, the primary purpose of
a surface condenser is to condense the exhaust steam from a steam turbine to obtain
maximum efficiency and also to convert the turbine exhaust steam into pure water
(referred to as steam condensate) so that it may be reused in the steam generator or boiler
as boiler feed water.

(*) Why is it required?

The steam turbine itself is a device to convert the heat in steam to mechanical power. The
difference between the heat of steam per unit mass at the inlet to the turbine and the heat
of steam per unit mass at the outlet to the turbine represents the heat which is converted
to mechanical power. Therefore, the more the conversion of heat per pound or kilogram
of steam to mechanical power in the turbine, the better is its efficiency. By condensing
the exhaust steam of a turbine at a pressure below atmospheric pressure, the steam

23
pressure drop between the inlet and exhaust of the turbine is increased, which increases
the amount of heat available for conversion to mechanical power. Most of the heat
liberated due to condensation of the exhaust steam is carried away by the cooling medium
(water or air) used by the surface condenser.

The diagram depicts a typical water-cooled surface condenser as used in power stations
to condense the exhaust steam from a steam turbine driving an electrical generator as well
in other applications. There are many fabrication design variations depending on the
manufacturer, the size of the steam turbine, and other site-specific conditions.

fig :-(6) Typical water-cooled surface condenser

2.5 Deaerator

A deaerator is a device that is widely used for the removal of air and other dissolved
gases from the feed water to steam-generating boilers. In particular, dissolved oxygen in
boiler feed waters will cause serious corrosion damage in steam systems by attaching to
the walls of metal piping and other metallic equipment and forming oxides (rust). Water
also combines with any dissolved carbon dioxide to form carbonic acid that causes
further corrosion. Most deaerators are designed to remove oxygen down to levels of 7
ppb by weight (0.005 cm/L) or less.

24
There are many different horizontal and vertical deaerators available from a number of
manufacturers, and the actual construction details will vary from one manufacturer to
another. Figures 2.4 and 2.5 are representative schematic diagrams that depict each of the
two major types of deaerators

Fig :-( 7) DEAERATOR

There are two basic types of deaerators, the tray-type and the spray-type:-

The Tray-type (also called the cascade-type) includes a vertical domed deaeration
section mounted on top of a horizontal cylindrical vessel which serves as the deaerated
boiler feed water storage tank.

25
 fig (8) : A Typical tray-type deaerator.

The Spray-type consists only of a horizontal (or vertical) cylindrical vessel which serves
as both the deaeration section and the boiler feed water storage tank.

fig :-(9) A Typical spray-type deaerator

26
2.6 Superheater

A superheater is a device used to convert saturated steam or wet steam into dry steam
used for power generation or processes. There are three types of superheaters namely:
radiant, convection, and separately fired. A superheater can vary in size from a few tens
of feet to several hundred feet (a few meters or some hundred meters).

A radiant superheater is placed directly in the combustion chamber.

A convection superheater is located in the path of the hot gases.

A separately fired superheater, as its name implies, is totally separated from the boiler.

2.7 Economizer

Economizers (US), or economizers (UK/international), are mechanical devices intended

to reduce energy consumption, or to perform another useful function like preheating a
fluid. The term economizer is used for other purposes as well. Boiler, power plant, and
(HVAC) uses are discussed in this article. In simple terms, an economizer is a heat
exchanger.

2.7.1 Its use in Boilers

In boilers, economizers are heat exchange devices that heat fluids, usually water, up to
but not normally beyond the boiling point of that fluid. Economizers are so named
because they can make use of the enthalpy in fluid streams that are hot, but not hot
enough to be used in a boiler, thereby recovering more useful enthalpy and improving the
boiler's efficiency. They are a device fitted to a boiler which saves energy by using the
exhaust gases from the boiler to preheat the cold water used to fill it (the feed water).
27
2.8 Air Preheater

An air preheater (APH) is a general term to describe any device designed to heat air
before another process (for example, combustion in a boiler) with the primary objective
of increasing the thermal efficiency of the process. They may be used alone or to replace
a recuperative heat system or to replace a steam coil.

In particular, this article describes the combustion air preheaters used in large boilers
found in thermal power stations producing electric power from e.g. fossil fuels,
biomasses or waste.

The purpose of the air preheater is to recover the heat from the boiler flue gas which
increases the thermal efficiency of the boiler by reducing the useful heat lost in the flue
gas. As a consequence, the flue gases are also sent to the flue gas stack (or chimney) at a
Lower temperature, allowing simplified design of the ducting and the flue gas stack. It
also allows control over the temperature of gases leaving the stack (to meet emissions
regulations, for example).

2.9 Precipitator(ESP)

An electrostatic precipitator (ESP), or electrostatic air cleaner is a particulate collection

device that removes particles from a flowing gas (such as air) using the force of an
induced electrostatic charge. Electrostatic precipitators are highly efficient filtration
devices that minimally impede the flow of gases through the device, and can easily
remove fine particulate matter such as dust and smoke from the air stream. In contrast to
wet scrubbers which apply energy directly to the flowing fluid medium, an ESP applies
energy only to the particulate matter being collected and therefore is very efficient in its
consumption of energy (in the form of electricity).

28
ESPs continue to be excellent devices for control of many industrial particulate
emissions, including smoke from electricity-generating utilities (coal and oil fired), salt
cake collection from black liquor boilers in pulp mills, and catalyst collection from
fluidized bed catalytic cracker units in oil refineries to name a few. These devices treat
gas volumes from several hundred thousand ACFM to 2.5 million ACFM (1,180 m/s) in
the largest coal-fired boiler applications. For a coal-fired boiler the collection is usually
performed downstream of the air preheater at about 160 C (320 deg.F) which provides
optimal resistivity of the coal-ash particles. For some difficult applications with Low-
sulfur fuel hot-end units have been built operating above 371 C (700 deg.F).

2.10 Fans & Auxiliaries

Pumps--A pump is a machine for raising a liquid - a relatively incompressible fluid - to

a higher level of pressure or head.

Compressors--A compressor is a machine for raising a gas - a compressible fluid - to a

higher level of pressure.

Blowers--A blower is a machine for moving volumes of a gas with moderate increase of
pressure.

Fans--A fan moves large amounts of gas with Low increase in pressure.

*.Fans cause pressure increase by:

Centrifugal force created by rotation of the column of air trapped between two blades.
Kinetic energy is supplied to the air through the impeller.
29
Total pressure = velocity head + static pressure.
(*) Why Fan is required?

When a gas is forced through a duct system, a loss in pressure occurs. This loss in
pressure is called system resistance.

System resistance is composed of two components:

*Friction losses and
*Dynamic losses.

Fig:-(10) Fan Applications in Power Plant

30
2.11 Flue Gas Stack

A flue gas stack is a type of chimney, a vertical pipe, channel or similar structure through
which combustion product gases called flue gases are exhausted to the outside air. Flue
gases are produced when coal, oil, natural gas, wood or any other fuel is combusted in an
industrial furnace, a power plant's steam-generating boiler, or other large combustion
device. Flue gas is usually composed of carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor as well as
nitrogen and excess oxygen remaining from the intake combustion air. It also contains a
small percentage of pollutants such as particulate matter, carbon monoxide, nitrogen
oxides and sulfur oxides. The flue gas stacks are often quite tall, up to 400 meters (1300
feet) or more, so as to disperse the exhaust pollutants over a greater area and thereby
reduce the concentration of the pollutants to the levels required by governmental
environmental policy and environmental regulation.

When the flue gases are exhausted from stoves, ovens, fireplaces, or other small sources
within residential abodes, restaurants, hotels, or other public buildings and small
commercial enterprises, their flue gas stacks are referred to as chimneys.

31
 Chapter - 3
Overview of Electricity Generation in
Power Plant

The generation of electricity in RGTPP power plant is as shown in the diagram. The
diagram tells the overall procedure of conversion of coal to electricity.

The various stages through which coal goes in RGTPP thermal power plan are:-

3.1 Coal Selection & Grinding in Mills

Here the coal used is peat, which is a poor quality of coal. To make it good, we blend it
with Indonesian coal of highly superior quality. In comparison to it many other industries
are designed for lignite (brown coal) are increasingly used in locations as varied as
Germany. Lignite is a much younger form of coal than black coal. It has a Lower energy
density than black coal and requires a much larger furnace for equivalent heat output.
Such coals may contain up to 70% water and ash, yielding Lower furnace temperatures
and requiring larger induced-draft fans.

Fig:-(11) coal mill

32
3.2 Boiler Furnace, Steam Drum & Economizer

The coal enters from the 4 corners of boilers through 8 pipes arranged at each elevation.
At first the LDO & HFO are used to ignite the coal but once the burning starts the air is
sufficient to continue it. The water from the boiler drum goes along the boiler in 6 pipes
and circulate it in through motors as the natural siphon is not sufficient. These are then
passed to superheater tubes.

The boiler is a rectangular furnace about 50 feet (15 m) on a side and 130 feet (40 m) tall.
Its walls are made of a web of high pressure steel tubes about 2.3 inches (58 mm) in
diameter.

Pulverized coal is air-blown into the furnace from fuel nozzles at the four corners and it
rapidly burns, forming a large fireball at the center. The thermal radiation of the fireball
heats the water that circulates through the boiler tubes near the boiler perimeter. The
water circulation rate in the boiler is three to four times the throughput and is typically
driven by pumps. As the water in the boiler circulates it absorbs heat and changes into
steam at 700 F (371 C) and 3,200 ps.It is separated from the water inside a drum at the
top of the furnace. The saturated steam is introduced into superheat pendant tubes that
hang in the hottest part of the combustion gases as they exit the furnace. Here the steam is
superheated to 1,000 F (500 C) to prepare it for the turbine.

Once water inside the boiler or steam generator, the process of adding the latent heat of
vaporization or enthalpy is underway. The boiler transfers energy to the water by the
chemical reaction of burning some type of fuel.

The water enters the boiler through a section in the convection pass called the
economizer. From the economizer it passes to the steam drum. Once the water enters the
steam drum it goes down to the Lower inlet water wall headers. From the inlet headers

33
the water rises through the water walls and is eventually turned into steam due to the heat
being generated by the burners located on the front and rear water walls (typically). As
the water is turned into steam/vapor in the water walls, the steam/vapor once again enters
the steam drum. The steam/vapor is passed through a series of steam and water separators
and then dryers inside the steam drum. The steam separators and dryers remove water
droplets from the steam and the cycle through the water walls is repeated. This process is
known as natural circulation.

The boiler furnace auxiliary equipment includes coal feed nozzles and igniter guns, soot
bLowers, water lancing and observation ports (in the furnace walls) for observation of the
furnace interior. Furnace explosions due to any accumulation of combustible gases after a
trip-out are avoided by flushing out such gases from the combustion zone before igniting
the coal.

The steam drum (as well as the super heater coils and headers) have air vents and drains
needed for initial start up. The steam drum has internal devices that removes moisture
from the wet steam entering the drum from the steam generating tubes. The dry steam
then fLows into the super heater coils.

3.3 Superheater

After the steam is conditioned by the drying equipment inside the steam drum, it is piped
from the upper drum area into tubes inside an area of the furnace known as the super
heater, which has an elaborate set up of tubing where the steam vapor picks up more
energy from hot flue gases outside the tubing and its temperature is now superheated
above the saturation temperature. The superheated steam is then piped through the main
steam lines to the valves before the high pressure turbine.
The steam after being heated on the boiler side walls is heated in the superheater at up to
nearly 1500 degree Celsius.

34
3.4 Turbine Stages

The turbine generator consists of a series of steam turbines interconnected to each other
and a generator on a common shaft. There is a high pressure turbine at one end, folLowed
by an intermediate pressure turbine, two Low pressure turbines, and the generator. As
steam moves through the system and loses pressure and thermal energy it expands in
volume, requiring increasing diameter and longer blades at each succeeding stage to
extract the remaining energy. The entire rotating mass may be over 200 metric tons and
100 feet (30 m) long. It is so heavy that it must be kept turning sLowly even when shut
down (at 3 rpm) so that the shaft will not bow even slightly and become unbalanced. This
is so important that it is one of only five functions of blackout emergency power batteries
on site. Other functions are emergency lighting, communication, station alarms and turbo
generator lube oil.

Superheated steam from the boiler is delivered through 1416-inch (360410 mm)
diameter piping to the high pressure turbine where it falls in pressure to 600 psi
(4.1 MPa) and to 600 F (320 C) in temperature through the stage. It exits via 2426-
inch (610660 mm) diameter cold reheat lines and passes back into the boiler where the
steam is reheated in special reheat pendant tubes back to 1,000 F (500 C). The hot
reheat steam is conducted to the intermediate pressure turbine where it falls in both
temperature and pressure and exits directly to the long-bladed Low pressure turbines and
finally exits to the condenser.

The generator, 30 feet (9 m) long and 12 feet (3.7 m) in diameter, contains a stationary
stator and a spinning rotor, each containing miles of heavy copper conductorno
permanent magnets here. In operation it generates up to 21,000 amperes at 24,000 volts
AC (504 MWe) as it spins at either 3,000 or 3,600 rpm, synchronized to the power grid.
The rotor spins in a sealed chamber cooled with hydrogen gas, selected because it has the
highest known heat transfer coefficient of any gas and for its Low viscosity which
reduces wind age losses. This system requires special handling during startup, with air in

35
the chamber first displaced by carbon dioxide before filling with hydrogen. This ensures
that the highly explosive hydrogenoxygen environment is not created.

The power grid frequency is 60 Hz across North America and 50 Hz in Europe, Oceania,
Asia (Korea and parts of Japan are notable exceptions) and parts of Africa.

The electricity flows to a distribution yard where transformers step the voltage up to 115,
230, 500 or 765 kV AC as needed for transmission to its destination.
The steam turbine-driven generators have auxiliary systems enabling them to work
satisfactorily and safely. The steam turbine generator being rotating equipment generally
has a heavy, large diameter shaft. The shaft therefore requires not only supports but also
has to be kept in position while running. To minimize the frictional resistance to the
rotation, the shaft has a number of bearings. The bearing shells, in which the shaft rotates,
are lined with a Low friction material like Babbitt metal. Oil lubrication is provided to
further reduce the friction between shaft and bearing surface and to limit the heat
generated.

3.5 Reheater

Power plant furnaces have a re heater section containing tubes heated by hot flue gases
outside the tubes. Exhaust steam from the high pressure turbine is rerouted to go inside
the re heater tubes to pickup more energy to go drive intermediate or Lower pressure
turbines.

36
3.6 Air Preheater (APH)

Air through APH passes are the flue gases which gives heat to the APH so that air going
into the boiler for causing combustion can be heated and also the air which maintains the
proper temp of the grinding mill.

3.7 Condensers

The condensers used are surface condensers. Typically the cooling water causes the
steam to condense at a temperature of about 35 C (95 F) and that creates an absolute
pressure in the condenser of about 27 kPa (Template:Convert/in Hg), i.e. a vacuum of
about 95 kPa (Template: Convert/in Hg) relative to atmospheric pressure. The large
decrease in volume that occurs when water vapor condenses to liquid creates the Low
vacuum that helps pull steam through and increase the efficiency of the turbines.

The heat absorbed by the circulating cooling water in the condenser tubes must also be
removed to maintain the ability of the water to cool as it circulates. This is done by
pumping the warm water from the condenser through either natural draft, forced draft or
induced draft cooling towers (as seen in the image to the right) that reduce the
temperature of the water by evaporation, by about 11 to 17 C (20 to 30 F)expelling
waste heat to the atmosphere. The circulation flow rate of the cooling water in a 500 MW
unit is about 14.2 m/s (500 ft/s or 225,000 US gal/min) at full load.

3.8 Feed water heating and deaeration

The feed water used in the steam boiler is a means of transferring heat energy from the
burning fuel to the mechanical energy of the spinning steam turbine. The total feed water
consists of recirculated condensate water and purified makeup water. Because the
metallic materials it contacts are subject to corrosion at high temperatures and pressures,

37
the makeup water is highly purified before use. A system of water softeners and ion
exchange demineralizers produces water so pure that it coincidentally becomes an
electrical insulator, with conductivity in the range of 0.31.0 microsiemens per
centimeter. The makeup water in a 500 MWe plant amounts to perhaps 20 US gallons per
minute (1.25 L/s) to offset the small losses from steam leaks in the system.

The feed water cycle begins with condensate water being pumped out of the condenser
after traveling through the steam turbines. The condensate fLow rate at full load in a 500
MW plant is about 6,000 US gallons per minute (400 L/s).

The water fLows through a series of six or seven intermediate feed water heaters, heated
up at each point with steam extracted from an appropriate duct on the turbines and
gaining temperature at each stage. Typically, the condensate plus the makeup water then
fLows through a deaerator that removes dissolved air from the water, further purifying
and reducing its corrosiveness. The water may be dosed folLowing this point with
hydrazine, a chemical that removes the remaining oxygen in the water to beLow 5 parts
per billion (ppb) It is also dosed with pH control agents such as ammonia or morpholine
to keep the residual acidity Low and thus non-corrosive.

38
3.9 HP Heaters

Water is then passed into HP heaters before they are delivered to economizers so that
proper heating of feed water should be possible.

Fig:- (12) HP Heater

3.10 Stack gas path and clean up

As the combustion flue gas exits the boiler it is routed through a rotating flat basket of
metal mesh which picks up heat and returns it to incoming fresh air as the basket rotates,
This is called the air preheater. The gas exiting the boiler is laden with fly ash, which are
tiny spherical ash particles. The flue gas contains nitrogen along with combustion

39
products carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides. The fly ash is removed by
fabric bag filters or electrostatic precipitators. Once removed, the fly ash byproduct can
sometimes be used in the manufacturing of concrete.

Fly ash is captured and removed from the flue gas by electrostatic precipitators or fabric
bag filters (or sometimes both) located at the outlet of the furnace and before the induced
draft fan. The fly ash is periodically removed from the collection hoppers beLow the
precipitators or bag filters. Generally, the fly ash is pneumatically transported to storage
silos for subsequent transport by trucks or railroad cars.

3.11 Boiler make up water (DM water)

Since there is continuous withdrawal of steam and continuous return of condensate to the
boiler, losses due to bLow down and leakages have to be made up to maintain a desired
water level in the boiler steam drum. For this, continuous make-up water is added to the
boiler water system. Impurities in the raw water input to the plant generally consist of
calcium and magnesium salts which impart hardness to the water. Hardness in the make-
up water to the boiler will form deposits on the tube water surfaces which will lead to
overheating and failure of the tubes. Thus, the salts have to be removed from the water,
and that is done by a water demineralising treatment plant (DM).A DM plant generally
consists of cation, anion, and mixed bed exchangers. Any ions in the final water from this
process consist essentially of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions, which recombine to
form pure water. Very pure DM water becomes highly corrosive once it absorbs oxygen
from the atmosphere because of its very high affinity for oxygen.

The capacity of the DM plant is dictated by the type and quantity of salts in the raw water
input. However, some storage is essential as the DM plant may be down for maintenance.
For this purpose, a storage tank is installed from which DM water is continuously
withdrawn for boiler make-up. The storage tank for DM water is made from materials not
affected by corrosive water, such as PVC. The piping and valves are generally of

40
stainless steel. Sometimes, a steam blanketing arrangement or stainless steel doughnut
float is provided on top of the water in the tank to avoid contact with air. DM water
make-up is generally added at the steam space of the surface condenser (i.e., the vacuum
side). This arrangement not only sprays the water but also DM water gets deaerated, with
the dissolved gases being removed by an air ejector attached to the condenser.

41
REFERENCES
1. Thomspon, Sylvanus P. (1888), Dynamo-electric machinery: a manual for
students of electrotechnics. London: E. & F.N. Spon. p. 140.
2. McNeil, Ian (1996). An Encyclopaedia of the History of Technology ([New ed.].
ed.). London: Routledge. p. 369. ISBN 978-0-415-14792-7.
3. Jack Harris (14 January 1982), "The electricity of Holborn", New Scientist
4. Nuclear Power Plants Information, by International Atomic Energy Agency
5. Wiser, Wendell H. (2000). Energy resources: occurrence, production, conversion,
use. Birkhuser. p. 190. ISBN 978-0-387-98744-6.
6. SWEB's Pocket Power Stations
7. J.C. Hensley (Editor) (2006). Cooling Tower Fundamentals (2nd ed.). SPX
Cooling Technologies.
8. Beychok, Milton R. (1967). Aqueous Wastes from Petroleum and Petrochemical
Plants (4th ed.). John Wiley and Sons. LCCN 67019834. (Includes cooling tower
material balance for evaporation emissions and blowdown effluents. Available in
many university libraries)
9. Riverkeeper, Inc. v. U.S. EPA, 358 F.3d 174, 181 (2d Cir. 2004) (A single power
plant might impinge a million adult fish in just a three-week period, or entrain
some 3 to 4 billion smaller fish and shellfish in a year, destabilizing wildlife
populations in the surrounding ecosystem.).

42