Boiler efficiency measurement

Department of Energy Engineering

 Contents
Heat balance on boilers
Efficiency determination
Loss categories
Fluegas condensation principals
Seasonal efficiency
Emission evaluation
 Stoichiometry
Combustion is an oxidation process,
which is an exotherm chemical reaction:
Exotherm - heat is produced by reaction
Endotherm - heat is needed for keeping up reaction
Authoterm - neutral from heat viewpoint,
(reaction do not need or produce any heat)

Base equations of combustion:

C + O2 = CO2 + heat
2H2 + O2 = 2H2O + heat
S + O2 = SO2 + heat
 Air as Oxygen source for combustion
For combustion two component is needed:
Combustible element or material
Oxygen
But for feeding oxygen generally ambient air is used
except for some missile, military and welding techniques
Composition of air: Oxygen O2 21% [V/V, mol/mol]
Nitrogen N2 78% [V/V, mol/mol]
Others (CO2, rare gas, etc.)1% [V/V, mol/mol]
Simplification for combustion calculations:
Composition of air: Oxygen O2 21% [V/V, mol/mol]
Nitrogen N2 79% [V/V, mol/mol]
By mass: Oxygen O2 23.3% [m/m]
Nitrogen N2 76.7% [m/m]
 Excess air factor
A stoichiometric mixture of air and fuel is one that contains just
sufficient oxygen for the complete combustion of the fuel
- a mixture which has an excess of air is termed a weak mixture,
- and one which has a deficiency of air is termed a rich mixture.
Normally it is going to be burnt fuel totally in order to utilize all
the possibility for energy generation, which needs at least
theoretical air quantity or generally a bit more.

The excess air factor:

Air actually use A

= = [-]
Air stoichiometrically necessary A0
Determination of optimal excess air factor
 Excess air calculation from measured data

From equations: Vd = Vod + ( -1) Lo' ,

and
0.21 . ( -1) Lo' = O2fluegas . (Vod + ( -1) . Lo' )

taking into account that Vod y Lo' can get:

21
=
21 O2 fluegas
Excess air factor variation
Determination of optimal excess air factor
Depends on several conditions:
Fuel type, combustion system, burner construction,
pollutant emission limits, etc.
Some usual values of the excess air factor :
fuel
gas 1.03 - 1.3
oil 1.1 - 1.4
coarse solid fuel 1.4 - 2.0
pulverized solid fuel 1.2 1.5
 Heat balance on boilers

Input power sum is equal with output power sum: Qin = Qout
Input heat components:
Input heat in chemical bound of fuel. Qfuel = B Hi
Input physical heat of fuel: Qfuelphysical = B cpfuel (tin - tamb )
Input heat of hot air: Qair = B Lo cpair (tin tamb )
Other

Input heat: Qin = Qfuel + Qfuelphysical + Qin + Qother

Q& in
= B ( Hi + Lo' c pair ( tair tamb ) + c fuel ( t fuel t amb )) + Q& other
 Definition of boiler efficiency

Output power can be divided into two categories:

Qin = Quseful + Qloss

Quseful = Qin Qloss ,

Two forms of boiler efficiency determination can be gained.

Q& useful Q&

= =1 loss
boiler
Q& in
Q& in
direct indirect
 Direct efficiency

Useful heat power can be determined from mass flow rate

of heat transfer medium and from inlet and outlet enthalpy:
Quseful = m (hout hin )

For determination of direct boiler efficiency fuel and heat

transfer medium flow rate needs to be measured in addition
to inlet and outlet medium pressure measurement.
Direct efficiency does not give information about reasons
of boiler efficiency variation.
It does not give any idea how to reduce loss and increase
efficiency
 Indirect efficiency

Different types of loss can be separated into two groups:

Firing type losses
are originated from not total or not complete
combustion of the fuel, which means that unburnt
combustible parts remaining after combustion end
Heat exchanger type losses
means that some part of generated heat by combustion
goes to waste, not to useful purpose, not to heat transfer
medium
 Firing type losses

Different forms of firing losses: gas - unburnt gas (CO,CxHy)

soot - soot
coke - coke
flyash combustible part of flying ash
ash - combustible part of bottom ash

Considering above mentioned losses can be calculated the firing efficiency:

F =1-( gas+ soot+ coke+ flyash+ ash)

 Loss calculation
In case of oil and gas firing, when it fulfils environmental
protection requirements, firing loss is neglectable.
In case of solid fuel firing generally it is worth to take into
account.
In this case it is necessary to distinguish inlet fuel flow from
actually burning, fluegas-developing fuel flow.
Bfg = F B

Loss quantity can be determined from operational measurement

results.
Qloss = massflow burnable content heating value of burnable part

Loss factor is given by the ratio of loss heat power and input
power.
= Qloss / Qin
 Heat exchanger type losses

Heat exchanger type loss is the common name

of heat produced by combustion, but going
another direction than heat transfer medium,
which is actually loss.
Different forms of heat exchanger type losses:
fg fluegas heat loss
rad radiation heat loss
ashheat ash physical heat loss
 Fluegas heat loss
Heat delivered to the ambient air because flue gas has higher
temperature than initial or ambient one.
In all of the cases this is the largest loss, which determines
mainly the boiler efficiency.
At an up to date boiler it is generally in between fg = 5 - 10 %
At earlier constructions it is in between fg = 10 - 15 %
When fluegas is cooled below water vapor dew-point
temperature (which is generally in between 40-60C)
extra heat can be gained.
It can cause that overall boiler efficiency can be above 100 %
in case when input heat is calculated from LHV.
 Calculation of flue gas loss factor

fg = Qfg / Qin

Qfg = mfg (hfgout - hfgamb) = B (Vo+( -1) Lo) cpfg (tfgout tamb)

=
[ fg 0 +( 1) L 0 ]
K c fg t fgout K *r L 0 cair t amb
fg
Hi
 Fluegas heat loss
variation in case of
fuel oil S firing
Utilization of condensation heat
 Condensation of fluegas water content
Fluegas can be considered as ideal mixture of different
gas components
Accoding to Daltons law he pressure of a mixture of
gases can be defined as the summation of partial pressure
of each components:

When fluegas temperature drop down below saturation

temperature belonging to partial pressure of water in the
fluegas
Partial pressure of water in the fluegas:
VH 2O 11.12 H + water
p H 2O = pabs = pabs
V' V0 ' +( 1 ) L0 '
Saturation temperature and pressure values
Saturation temperature Saturation pressure
100 C 1 bar
60 C 0.2 bar
55 C 0.157 bar
50 C 0.12 bar
45 C 0.094 bar
40 C 0.074 bar
30 C 0.042 bar
20 C 0.023 bar
10 C 0.012 bar
0 C 0 bar
Variation of flue gas dew point with excess air factor

60

th( h) 55

50 .
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4

h
 Heating value ratio variation

Unit Lower Higher Conversion

Heating Value Heating Value factor
(LHV) (HHV)

Natural gas kWh/m3 10,4 11,5 1,11

Liquefied kWh/m3 8,9 9,8 1,11

natural gas

Liquefied kWh/m3 30,4 32,8 1,08

petroleum
gas
Light fuel oil kWh/l 10,0 10,6 1,06

Pellets/wood kWh/kg 4,9 5,5 1,12

bricks
 Radiation type loss

Radiation type loss is called the heat transferred to the ambient

air by outer surface of the boiler.
The name originates from ancient boiler construction, where
brick works actually radiated heat to the ambient. Nowadays this
heat is transferred mainly by convection, but the name remains
the same.
Actual value can be calculated according to heat transfer rules
considering actual insulation solution.
This loss factor varies in between rad = 0.5 - 1.0 %
referring to maximal load.
But the heat loss power is independent from load level, it is
constant.
(Qrad = const.).
This cause that loss factor is in inverse proportionality with load.
( 1% loss at nominal load increases up to 5% at 20% part load)
 Comparison of direct
and indirect boiler efficiency
Both methods shall give the same value. But in
real some difference can be experienced because
of measurement inaccuracies.
Generally determination by indirect method is
simpler, because fuel and heat transfer medium
measurement is not needed.
Furthermore indirect method gives information on
waste heat distribution and can be information
base of efficiency increment.
Direct method cannot be used for this purpose,
but it can be good control of indirect method.
Boiler efficiency variation at part load
 Efficiency variation
and assessment of seasonal efficiency

Standardized fuel input qF

qF = QF/(Q`K*tB)

= QH/(Q`K*tB)

with QK: Nominal boiler capacit

tB: Running time of the boiler
QF: Firing power
QH: Useful power 1/ K
Effective energy
From these values the average efficiency
a( ) can be calculated

a( )= * K/( - *qB + qB) Load dependent losses

q B/ K Load independent losses

0 Workload 1
Atmospheric premix type burner
 Atmospheric premix type burner
with open combustion system wall hung boiler
 Atmospheric premix type burner
with open combustion system floor standing boiler
 Atmospheric premix type burner
with open combustion system floor standing boiler
Examples for different combustion air supply

Open Closed Condensing type

Combustion system
Combustion system of condensation type boilers
Condensation type wall-hung boiler
Measurement arrangement
 Direct efficiency calculation
Quseful (
Vcw cw cw t cwout )
t cwin

where: Quseful useful power;

density of water at t cwin temperature

w
tcwin + t cwout
cw specific heat of water at temperature
2
t cwin tcwout in- and outlet temperature of cooling water

Qfiring Vgas Hi where Volume flow of natural gas;

Vgas
kJ
Hi := 34000 lower heating value
3
m
Direct efficiency of the boiler:
Quseful
D Qfiring
 Parameter dependence on temperature
Density of water
3
w(20C) = 998.5 kg/m
Specific heat variation of water:
4.2

4.195

cvm( t ) 4.19

4.185

4.18
15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85
t
.
 Flue gas heat loss calculation

=
[ fg 0 +( 1) L 0 ]
K c fg t fgout K *r L 0 cair tamb
fg
Hi

where air = 14.981 [kg/kg]

fg0= 15.981 [kg/kg]
cfg = 1.107 [kJ/kg]
cair = 1.04 [kJ/kg]
K: specific quantity of condensate water for 1 m3 or 1 kg natural gas
(from measured data)
r = 2510 kJ/kg evaporization heat of water
Hi Lower Heating Value by mass [kJ/kg]
 Density variation of natural gas

kg 273 p g + 101325
g0 := 0.72 3
( )
g t , p g := g0 t + 273 101325
m
0.72

0.7
g( t , 2000)

g( t , 2500)

g( t , 3000)
0.68

0.66
10 15 20 25 30
.
t
 Indirect efficiency calculation
ind = 100%- fg- rad

rad = .Aouter.(twall-tamb)/Qfiring [-]

Where:
= 20 W/m2K - heat transfer coefficient
Aouter outer surface of the boiler [m2]
twall outer surface temperature [C]
tamb ambient temperature [C]
 Evaluation of emission measurement

Measured oxygen content in fluegas: O2 := 4 %

21
Operational excess air factor: :=
21 O2 = 1.235

Refeence oxygen content of flue gas for evaluation of emission limits: O2r := 3 %

Measured emission values of combustion process dependent pollutants:

Nitrogen oxydes: NOx := 150 ppm
Carbon monoxyde: CO := 70 ppm
Unburnt hydrocarbons: CxHy := 18 ppm
 Evaluation of emission measurement

M NO2
M NO2 := 46 kg/kmol NOxm := NOx NOxm = 307.898
22.41 mg/m 3

Reference value: 21 O2r

NOxrm := NOxm NOxrm = 326.01 mg/m 3
21 O2

M CO
M CO := 28 kg/kmol COm := CO COm = 87.461
22.41 mg/m 3

21 O2r
Reference value: COrm := COm COrm = 92.606
21 O2 mg/m 3
M C4H10
M C4H10 := 58 kg/kmol CxHym := CxHy CxHym = 46.586 mg/m 3
22.41
21 O2r
Reference value: CxHyrm := CxHym CxHyrm = 49.327 mg/m 3
21 O2
 Summary and comparison of emission values

Emission values are refernced to dry (water free) fluegas

at 273K, 101,3 kPa, 3% oxygen content.

NOxrm = 326.01 mg/m 3 < 350 mg/m 3

COrm = 92.606 mg/m 3 < 100 mg/m 3

CxHyrm = 49.327 mg/m 3 < 50 mg/m 3

 Summary
You are already familiar with
Heat balance on boilers
Efficiency determination
Loss categories
Fluegas condensation principals
Seasonal efficiency
Emission evaluation
Thank You for Your Attention !