Review of Elementary

Mechanics of Materials
Mechanics of Materials-Method

1. Deformation; symmetry, prior knowledge, experiment,

etc.

2. Strain; exact or approximate solution from deformation

3. Stress; constitutive relationship

4. Load; integration, equilibrium equations

5. Displacement; inversion of deformation-load

relationship, integration of strain, energy method
 Axial Tension/
Compression

Deformation : Planes originally normal to axis remain normal, but their separation changes

Strain : =
Member must be prismatic
Stress : = Material of member be homogenous
Load must be directed axially along
P= centroidal axis of member
Load : Stress-Strain in linear elastic range

Displacement : =
 Torsion
Member must be prismatic and with
circular cross-section
Material of member- homogenous and
linearly elastic
Torque T applied at ends of member
Angle of twist at any cross-section of
member is small

Deformation : Planes originally normal to axis remain normal, their separation remains same,
But they rotate in their own plane, ie, around to the axis

Strain :
=
Stress : =

= = 2 =
Load :

Displacement : =
 Pure Bending

Limited to bending relative to principal

axis
Material of member- homogenous and
linearly elastic
Applied to small deflections

Deformation : Planes originally normal to axis remain normal, on the average

their separation remains same, but they rotate around axis of moment

Strain : =

Stress : =

2
Load : = 2

1
Displacement : =
Methods of Analysis
Relation between
(1) Load and Stress
(2) Load and Deflection

(1) Equilibrium Equations Method of Mechanics of materials

or
(2) Compatibility conditions Method of general continuum
(3) Constitutive Relations

Simple Member Complex Load Method of Mechanics of Material

Complex Member Complex Load Continuum Mechanics

MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Tensile Stress-Strain Diagram- to
determine specific material properties in design

Important Observations

Tensile specimen subjected to strain under load P, if

becomes 0, when P goes to 0, material strained
within elastic limit
Under loading if strain is linearly proportional to P,
material has strained within limit of linear elasticity
Elastic Limit (EL) : Maximum stress for which material
remains perfectly elastic
TENSION SPECIMEN OF ALLOY STEEL

F
B
Stress ()

A u

O f
Strain ()
TENSION SPECIMEN OF ALLOY STEEL PROPERTIES & CHARACTERISTICS

Y=YS J
L
A
PL
Stress ()

M K
O p e
EL > PL Strain ()
 Proportional Limit ( ): Stress at the limit of
linear elasticity ( > )

When load produces stress that exceeds

elastic limit- strain doesnt disappear upon
loading , permanent strain (p) remains.

Elastic Strain (e) : Strain that is recovered when load is

removed

Total Strain = p+ e
Yield Strength (Y)

Used to predict the load that initiates inelastic behavior

in a member
Yield point, value of stress at which there is a significant
increase in strain with little or no increase in stress.

Ultimate tensile strength u

Maximum stress attained in engineering stress- strain

diagram.
Strain Hardening
When material is loaded beyond yield stress, it maintains
an ability to resist additional strain with increase in stress.
This response is strain hardening.

During strain hardening, material loses cross-sectional area

due to elongation
Before point C: Strain hardening > loss resulting from area
reduction
At point C: Strain hardening effect balanced by effect of
area reduction
Pt C to F: Weakening effect of area reduction dominates,
and engineering stress decreases until specimen ruptures
at F
Modulus of Elasticity
Or Youngs Modulus
Stress proportional to strain within elastic limit.
Constant of proportionality used
Geometrically= slope of stress-strain relation

Percent Elongation
Value of elongation (f) of gauge length L at
rupture divided by gauge length
Percentage elongation of alloy steel = 23%
Measure of ductility of material
GEOMETRY OF DEFORMED SPECIMEN AT DIFFERENT POINTS ALONG STRESS-
STRAIN CURVE
Stress-Strain Diagram for Mild Steel or
Structural Steel
Presence of upper yield point (yu) and lower yield point
(yL)
Stress required to initiate yield in structural steel is larger
than stress required to continue the yielding process.
At lower yield, the stress remains essentially constant for
increasing strain until strain hardening causes the curve
to rise.
Flat portion of stress-strain diagram extend over a strain
range of 10 to 40 times the strain at yield point.
Upper yield point ignored in design assuming that stress
initiating yield is lower yield point stress.
TENSION SPECIMEN OF STRUCTURAL STEEL

A F
YU
Stress ()

YL =Y
B
u

O
Strain ()
Modulus of Resilience
Measure of energy per unit volume (energy density)
absorbed by a material upto time it yields under load
Area under stress- strain diagram to yield point
Modulus of resilience= Y2/E
Use: Differentiating among materials for application in
which energy absorption is critical
Modulus of Toughness
Measure of ability of material to absorb energy prior to
fracture
Strain energy per unit volume in material at fracture
Strain energy density= Area under stress strain diagram
to fracture
Greater modulus of toughness- Greater ability of
material to absorb energy without fracturing
To avoid material failure under impact or seismic load-
larger modulus of toughness
Modulus of rupture
Maximum tensile or compressive stress in the
extreme fibers of a beam loaded to failure in
bending
For materials having low plastic deformation-
wood, concrete
Does not represent max bending stress

Poissons ratio
Dimensionless measure of lateral strain
occurring in a member owing to strain in its
loaded direction
 Failure Analysis
Designers Role

Determine Possible Modes of Establish failure criteria to

failure predict failure modes

Response of Structural system to loads

Comprehensive stress analysis of the system

Material of System

Manner or history of loading

Critical Parameters that
signal onset of failure
Stress
Strain
Displacement
Load
No of load cycles
Combination of all
 Factor of Safety
Based on theory
. = or experimental observation

Rn- Critical parameter associated with failure or nominal resistance

Rw- Safe working magnitude of that same parameter

Factor of safety must account for unknowns such as

(1)Variability of loads
(2)Differences in material properties
(3)Deviations from intended geometry
(4)Our Ability to predict critical parameters

Industrial Safety- F.S= 1~3

Aircraft and Space Vehicle Design F.S=1, critical to reduce weight of the vehicle
Nuclear reactor industry, F.S=5, safety of primary importance
 Design Inequality employed to relate load
effects to resistance

Qi- Effect of particular working or service load such as internal pressures or

temperature change
N- no of load types considered

Observations
Single factor of safety inadequate to account for all
unknowns
Each of particular load type will exhibit its own statistical
variability
Appropriate load and resistance factors applied to both
sides of design inequality
 LIMIT STATE DESIGN
Statistical variation of
individual loads is
accounted in i

i load factors for load effects Qi

- resistance factor for nominal capacity Rn Variability in resistance
associated with
material properties,
geometry etc
Advantage: Produces a more reliability throughout the system represented by
Modes of Failure
 When a Structural member is subjected to
load
Response depends on
Type of material
Environmental conditions
Manner of loading
(1) Failure by excessive deflection
(a) Elastic Deflection
(b) Deflection caused by creep
(2) Failure by general yielding
(3) Failure by fracture
(a) Sudden fracture of brittle materials
(b) Fracture of cracked or flawed members
(c )Progressive fracture
(4) Failure by instability
Failure by excessive elastic deflection
Occurs under
(a) Deflection under conditions of stable equilibrium
stretch of a tension member
angle of twist of shaft
deflection of an end-loaded
cantilever beam
Failure by excessive elastic deflection

(b) Buckling or sudden deflection associated with unstable

equilibrium and resulting in total collapse of member.
Axial load applied gradually to a slender column
exceeds Euler load.
(c) Elastic deflections that are the associated with
vibration of a member
failure of member resulting from objectionable noise
shaking forces
collision of moving parts with
stationary parts

Significant Equations for design or Significant property of

material

Role of Stress
Stresses do not limit loads applied to the member.
Load carrying capacity is not increased by making member of
stronger material
Effective method: Changing shape or increasing dimensions of
its cross sections
Failure by general yielding (plastic deformation)

Inelastic deformation of a considerable portion of

member
Different from localized yielding of small portion of
member.

Gear Tooth Failure by

Plastic Deformation

Presence of bent teeth

Cracks in gear tooth root
fillets
Polycrystalline metals- composed of small units- crystals or
grains
Crystals have slip planes. Resistance to shear stress is relatively
small in slip planes
Under elastic loading
before slip occurs, crystal is distorted due to stretching
or compressing of atomic bonds from their equilibrium state.
On removing load- crystal returns to its undistorted shape and
no permanent deformation exist.
Under load applied up to yield strength
crystals gets distorted + defects in crystals known as
dislocations move in slip planes by breaking and reforming
atomic bonds.
On removing load, distortion of crystal is recovered.
Movement of dislocations remain as permanent deformation
Strain Hardening Concept

After sufficient yielding, in some crystals

under a given load, no further yielding takes
place without an increase in load. due to
dislocation entanglements- which resist
motion of dislocations.
Higher and higher stress needed to push new
dislocations through these entanglements.
This increased resistance developed after
yielding- Strain Hardening or Work Hardening
 The Way out?
if a member that fails by yielding is replaced
with a material of higher yield stress
Result ? mode of failure may change to that
of elastic deflection, buckling or excessive
mechanical vibration.
So the entire basis of design needs to be
changed when conditions are altered to
prevent a given mode of failure
 Failure by fracture
Members break (fracture) before either elastic deflection
or general yielding occurs.

(1) Sudden fracture of brittle material

Function satisfactorily in resisting loads under static
conditions
Material breaks suddenly with no evidence of plastic
deformation
Ultimate strength (u) is taken as measure of max
utilizable strength of material.
(2) Fracture of flawed members

Member made of ductile metal and subjected to static

tensile loads- will not fracture in brittle manner- if it is
free of flaws and temperature is not unusually low.
In presence of flaws, ductile materials under go
brittle fracture at normal temperature.
Notch toughness , ability of material to absorb energy
in presence of notch- parameter that governs failure
mode
Dynamic loading and low temperature also increase
tendency of material to fracture in a brittle manner.
(3) Progressive Fracture

Metal is subjected to repeated cycles of stress

it may fail, provided repeated stress is greater than
fatigue strength.
Minute cracks start at multiple points- at points of high
localized stress-such as abrupt changes in section and
gradually spread by fracture of material at edges of
cracks where stress is highly concentrated.
Progressive fracture continues until member finally
breaks. This is also called fatigue failure
Failure by Instability
(Buckling)
Members fail by sudden catastrophic, lateral
deflection (instability or buckling).
Pin ended slender column subjected to axial
compressive load P.
Elastic buckling occurs when load P reaches
critical value
Pcr= 2EI/L2
E- Modulus of elasticity
I- M.I of cross section
L- Member length
Prepared Based on
(1) Advanced Mechanics of Materials- Boresi &
Schmidt, 6th edition

Compiled by
Dr.G.R.Sabareesh
Department of Mechanical Engineering