LABORATORY WORK #1

The study of liquid viscosity

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LABORATORY WORK #1

The study of liquid viscosity

The purposes of the work

1. Study the phenomenon of the liquid viscosity.

2. Study Stocks method of viscosity determination.

3. Master Vernier caliper. Measure the coefficient of liquid viscosity.

Devices:

The cylindrical pipe with a glycerin, stopwatch, Vernier caliper, scale, tweezers,
small lead balls.
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The brief theory

1 Introduction
1.1 Fluids
Fluid is general name for liquids and gases. A fluid has no definite shape.
When subjected to compression? All fluids show a decrease in volume. But in the
case of liquids the decrease in volume is so small that for all practical purposes,
liquids may be considered to be incompressible.

2. Viscosity
2.1 Explanation

Suppose we have a beaker containing water as shown in Fig 1 and we set the
water into rotation with a glass rod. It will be found to rotate in coaxial cylindrical
layers. When stirring stop, the velocities of layers are seen to decrease gradually
and finally the water comes to rest. It shows that the friction forces exist between
liquid layers and they try to eliminate a motion. This phenomenon is named a
viscosity.

Fig 1 the velocities of the liquid layers when it rotating

A viscosity is property of fluids due to which the friction force between fluids
layers or a viscous drag retards flow.
This friction force acts tangentially on the layers of the fluid.
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2.2. Viscosity of the fluid

The frictional force between two layers of fluid is specified by formula.

dv
F fr A (1)
dx
dv
Here A square of layers contact, - velocity gradient i.e. a rate of velocity
dt
change in a perpendicular direction of movement, a viscosity (coefficient of
viscosity). According to (1)
F fr
(2)
dv
A
dx

Therefore, viscosity is the ratio of the frictional force to the square of

layers contact and the velocity gradient.
N s
The SI unit of viscosity is [ ] Pa s .
m2
Viscosities of all fluids are strongly temperature dependent, increasing for
gases and decreasing for liquids as the temperature increases. Furthermore the
viscosity of Newtonian fluid is independent of the velocity. In contrast the
viscosity of non-Newtonian fluid depends on velocity and type of fluid flow.
Usually the non-Newtonian fluids are suspension of corpuscles in a liquid. One
example is blood. As a velocity and its gradient increase, the blood corpuscles
deform and become oriented to facilitate flow, causing to decrease. The
examples of Newtonian fluids are water, alcohol, mercury.
For the description of viscosity one uses the relative viscosity rel.

rel (3)
0

Here 0 is viscosity of water at 20C.

2.3. Types of fluid flow

The flow line is the path of an individual particle in a moving fluid. In

steady flow every element passing through a given point follows the same flow line.
In this case the map velocity at various points in space remains constant,
although the velocity of a particle may change in both magnitude and direction
during a motion.

The flow is called laminar flow, if it is steady and neighboring layers slide
smoothly past each other. On the contrary the irregular and chaotic flow is called
turbulent flow (Fig 2).

a b

Fig 2 Flow lines (a laminar flow, b turbulent)

2.4. Reynolds number

The type of fluid flow in a long cylindrical pipe can be defined by Reynolds
number.
vR
Re (4)

Here density of fluid, v velocity of fluid, R radius of pipe.

If Re 1000 , then a flow is laminar. If Re 1500 , then a flow is turbulent. If
1000 Re 1500 , then a flow is unstable and it can change randomly.
2.5. The continuity equation
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The mass of moving fluid doesnt change as it flows. This leads to an

important quantitative relationship called the continuity equation. Consider a
portion of flow tube between two stationary cross sections with areas A1 and A2
(Fig. ). The fluid speeds at these sections are v1 and v2 respectively. During a small
time interval dt the fluid at moves a distance v1dt, so a cylinder of fluid with height
v1dt and volume dV1=A1v1dt flows into the tube across A1. During this same
interval a cylinder of volume dV2=A2v2dt flows out the tube across A2.

v1 v2
A1 A2

v2dt

v1dt
Fig 3 Fluid flow across variable cross section
Lets consider the case of an incompressible fluid so that the density has
the same value at all points. The mass dm1 flowing into the tube across A1 in time
dt is dm1=A1v1dt. Similarly the mass dm2 that flows across in the same time is
dm2=A2v2dt. In steady flow the total mass in the tube is constant, so dm1=dm2 and
A1v1dt=A2v2dt, or
A1v1=A2v2
Its the continuity equation for an incompressible fluid. The rate at which
dV
volume crosses a section of the tube is volume flow rate .
dt
dV
Av (5)
dt
Otherwise the continuity equation for an incompressible fluid
dV
Av const (6)
dt

2.6. Poiseuilles equation

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Fig 4 shows the flow speed profile for laminar flow of a viscous fluid in a
long cylindrical pipe. The speed is greatest along the axis and zero at the pipe wall.

Fig 4 Speed profile for a viscous fluid

One could derive the flow speed v at a distance r from the axis of a pipe with
radius R by applying (7).
p1 p 2 2
v (R r 2 ) (7)
4L

Here p1 and p2 are the pressures at the two ends of a pipe with a length L.
The volume flow rate is
R R
dV
dt
vdA
0
v2rdr
0
(8)

It follows from this

dV p1 p2 R 4
(9)
dt L 8

This relation is called Poiseuilles equation. As is easy to see, the volume

flow rate varies as the fourth power of the radius R. If radius R doubles, the volume
flow rate increases by a factor of 16. On the stipulation that it is constant if R
doubles, a difference of pressure p1-p2 increases by a factor of 16. This relation is
important for circulatory system. Blood flow in arteries and veins can be controlled
over a wide range by relativity small changes in vessel diameter. Slight narrowing
of arterioles due to arteriosclerosis can result in elevated blood pressure and added
strain on the heart muscle.
2.7. Stocks force

When a body moves through a viscous medium, a body produces a relative

motion between layers of the fluid. The layer in contact with a body moves with
the velocity of the body itself and the layer next to it, has lesser velocity the next
still lesser and so on, while the layer at a considerable distance from a body
remains at rest. As the result of this relative motion, one appears a backward
dragging force, which opposes the motion of the body. This force increases with
increase in velocity of the moving body and balances the driving force. After that
the body moves with a constant (terminal) velocity. To deduce this backward
dragging force Stoke made the following assumptions:
a) The medium extends up to infinity and is homogeneous.
b) The body moving through the medium is spherical in shape and is
smooth.
c) The velocity is small.
d) There is no slip between body and the medium.
Based on these assumptions Stoke deduces the formula for backward
dragging force (Stocks force):
Fst 6rv (10)
Here is a viscosity of the fluid, r is a radius of the ball, v is the terminal
velocity of the body moving.

2.8. Viscosity determination on Stocks method

The coefficient of viscosity can be determined by a method of a falling ball

(Stocks method) in a viscous environment. The following forces work on the ball.
Fig 5.
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Fst

Fbu

Fgr

Fig 5 the forces working on ball during falling in a fluid

a) Gravity:
4 3
Fgr mg r b g (11)
3
Here r is a radius of the ball, b is a density of a ball, and g is gravity
acceleration.
b) Buoyancy force:
4 3
Fbu r fl g (12)
3
Here fl is a density of a fluid.
c) Stocks force:
Fst 6rv (13)
d) Total force:

R Fgr Fbu Fst or R Fgr Fbu Fst (14)
The gravity and buoyancy force are constant. Stocks force is proportional to
velocity. Hence Stocks force increase from a beginning of a movement up to

moment as it with buoyancy force balances the gravity. As the total force R
reaches zero terminal speed set in.
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According to (14)
R Fgr Fbu Fst 0

4 3 4
r b g r 3 fl g 6rv 0
3 3
2 r2
g ( b fl ) (15)
9 v

Stocks method is very simple for determination of viscosity but a great

amount of a liquid is necessary for making of this experiment.

2.9. Blood viscosity

The relative viscosity of blood plasma is equal 1.7 2.2, relative viscosity of
blood 4.5-5. Blood viscosity mainly depends on red corpuscles content less on
proteins content in the blood plasma. Venous blood viscosity greater than arterial
blood one due to the fact that carbonic acid gas (CO2) expands red corpuscles.
Blood viscosity grows by water loss and increase of proteins content. It
decreases by anemia (quantity of red corpuscles decrement).
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4. Practical work

4.1 Preliminary measurement diameter of the balls

a) Master the Vernier caliper using user guide.

b) Measure the diameter of a small lead ball D in the three different

places.

c) Write the results in a table 1 in the rows of block 1.

Table 1

Block D (mm) Davr (m)

4.2. Measurement of liquid viscosity

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Read from the beginning to end.

a) Throw the ball into cylindrical pipe as it is possible closer to an axis of
the cylinder.

b) Measure the time t of ball passage between two lines in top and bottom
part of a tube. While ball passages the top line start stopwatch and stop it
when ball passages bottom line. Write this result in the table 2.

c) Repeat 4.1 b), c) and 4.2 a), b) with four other balls.

d) Measure distance l between two lines and write this result in the table 2.

Table 2

Number of Davr l t v avr || |avr|

experiment %
m m s m/s Pas Pas Pas Pas
1

4.3. Data of experiments processing

a) Calculate simple average of D for every ball.

3

D D2 D3 D i
Davr 1 i 1

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b) Write the results of Davr from the table 1 in table 2.

c) Calculate velocities v for every experiment.
l
vi
ti

here i number of experiment

d) Calculate viscosity for every experiment according to (15). See

value of b and fl on the tablet from above the tube.

e) Calculate simple average of .

5

i
avr i 1

f) Calculate absolutely error || for every experiment.

| i || i avr |

g) Calculate simple average of ||.

5

| i |
| | avr i 1

h) relative error
| | avr
100%
avr

i) Calculate the relative viscosity rel of the liquid.

4.4. Copybook preparation for a class

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a) Write in your notebook the text of page 1.

b) After that, write in your notebook title Practical work.

c) Write title Diameter measurement, draw the table 1 and reserve a

place for the calculations (4.3).
d) Write title Viscosity measurement, draw the table 2 and reserve a
place for the calculations (4.3).
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CONTROL QUESTIONS #1

1. What are fluids? What properties have they got?

2. What is the viscosity? Explain its appearance.
3. What is the frictional force between two layers of fluid? Write and explain the
formula.
4. What are the coefficient of viscosity and relative viscosity?
5. What are Newtonian fluid and non-Newtonian fluid?
6. What is the flow line? Draw the flow lines for the laminar and turbulent flows.
7. What are laminar and turbulent flows? Draw the flow lines.
8. Write and explain the formula for Reynolds number.
9. How does one determinate the character of flow with help of Reynolds
number?
10. What is volume flow rate? Decide dependence of volume flow rate on cross
section and fluid speed.
11. Decide the continuity equation for an incompressible fluid.
12. Draw a speed profile for a viscous fluid.
13. Decide and explain Poiseuilles equation.
14. How does change of blood vessels radius appear affect upon blood pressure?
15. How does a backward dragging force, which opposes the motion of a body in
a fluid?
16. Enumerate the assumptions for Stocks law.
17. Write and explain the formula for Stocks force.
18. Draw the figure and formulas for the forces working on ball during falling in a
fluid.
19. Decide a formula of viscosity according to Stocks method.
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20. How much is relativity viscosity of blood and blood plasma? What do they
depend on?