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Abbreviations: ADF Alternate day fasting; BMI Body mass index; CR Calorie restriction;
HOMA-IR Homeostatic model assessment-insulin resistance; IF Intermittent fasting
INTRODUCTION
A
t present, 35% of adults older than 20 years in
the United States have prediabetes.1 If no life-
From the Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, style changes are made to improve health,
University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Ill; Department of 15%30% of these individuals will develop type 2 dia-
Kinesiology and Nutrition, University of Illinois at Chicago,
Chicago, Ill.
betes within 5 years.1 A key strategy to prevent the
Submitted for publication January 15, 2014; revision submitted May
progression of prediabetes to type 2 diabetes is weight
5, 2014; accepted for publication May 8, 2014. loss.2 Accumulating evidence suggests that even modest
Reprint requests: Krista A. Varady, Department of Kinesiology and weight loss (5%7% of initial weight) helps to improve
Nutrition, University of Illinois at Chicago, 1919 West Taylor Street, several diabetes risk parameters, including fasting
Room 506F, Chicago, IL 60612; e-mail: varady@uic.edu. glucose, insulin, and insulin sensitivity.3,4
1931-5244/$ - see front matter Daily calorie restriction (CR) regimens are still the
2014 Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved. most common diet strategies implemented for weight
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.trsl.2014.05.013 loss.5 CR regimens involve reducing energy intake
1
Translational Research
2 Barnosky et al - 2014
every day by 20%50% of needs.5 Although CR is smoking on lipid metabolism),10 (10) sedentary or
effective for weight loss in some individuals, many peo- moderately active individuals, and (11) articles pub-
ple find this type of dieting difficult, as it requires vigi- lished after 2003. We chose 2003 as a cutoff date
lant calorie counting on a daily basis.6 People also grow because all the IF studies found were published within
frustrated with this diet, as they are never able to eat this time frame, and we wanted to use the same time
freely throughout the day. In light of these issues with frame for CR studies. Exclusion criteria were as fol-
CR, another approach termed intermittent fasting (IF) lows: (1) cohort and observational studies; (2) trials
has shown promise in achieving weight loss goals.7 IF that combined CR/IF with supplements, pharmacologic
differs from CR, in that it only requires an individual substances, or exercise; (3) diabetic; and (4) very active
to restrict energy 13 d/wk, and allows for ad libitum individuals or athletes. Ten CR trials and 9 IF trials were
food consumption on the nonrestriction days.7 Alternate found that matched these criteria. None of the papers
day fasting (ADF) is a subclass of IF, which consists of a retrieved implemented intention to treat analyses.
fast day (75% energy restriction) alternating with
a feed day (ad libitum food consumption). Recent
reviews suggest that IF and ADF are equally as effective BODY WEIGHT AND VISCERAL FAT MASS
as CR for weight loss cardioprotection.7,8 What has yet Obesity is a well-established risk factor for the devel-
to be elucidated, however, is whether IF and ADF elicit opment of type 2 diabetes. Findings from the Nurses
comparable improvements in diabetes risk indicators, Health Study demonstrate a 100-fold increase in diabetes
when compared with CR. Accordingly, the goal of this risk over 14 years in those with a BMI .35 kg/m2
review was to compare the effects of IF and ADF with compared with normal weight individuals.11 At least
daily CR on body weight, fasting glucose, fasting one contributing factor to insulin resistance that occurs
insulin, and insulin sensitivity in overweight and in obesity is the decrease in insulin-mediated peripheral
obese adults. glucose uptake.12 Weight loss results in substantial
reductions in insulin resistance, with every 1 kg lost asso-
ciated with a 16% reduction in estimated risk of devel-
METHODS oping diabetes.2
We performed a systematic search in MEDLINE The distribution of excess fat mass also contributes
PubMed using the following search strings: (1) inter- to the risk for metabolic derangements.13 In 1947, the
mittent fasting and weight loss, (2) alternate day fast- concept of regional fat distribution having different
ing and weight or alternate day calorie restriction, physiological and metabolic effects was first introduced
(3) calorie restriction and weight loss and insulin, by Vague.14 Over the subsequent decades, it has been
(4) caloric restriction and weight loss and obesity, shown that visceral obesity has a stronger correlation
and (5) calorie restriction and metabolic syndrome. with a risk for the development of diabetes, hyperten-
Two reviewers (A.B. and K.H.) separately screened sion, hyperlipidemia, hepatic steatosis, and coronary
the abstracts for inclusion and exclusion. Full text arti- artery disease compared with that of a gluteoemoral
cles were retrieved from all abstracts that were poten- fat distribution.13 The presence of visceral obesity has
tially relevant and were reviewed independently by also been shown to have a strong inverse relationship
the 2 researchers. The comprehensive literature search with insulin sensitivity.13 Evaluation of glucose disposal
revealed 108 articles under the umbrella category of rates by euglycemic insulin clamps and visceral adipose
IF and 4945 articles in the category of CR. Articles tissue by the computed tomography technique, illus-
that were excluded if they did not meet the inclusion trated an inverse association.15 Thus a higher visceral
criteria, were review articles, editorials, letters, com- fat content is correlated with lower insulin sensitivity.15
ments, or conferences proceedings. References of the Weight loss has been shown to decrease both visceral fat
retrieved articles were also screened for additional and improve markers of insulin sensitivity.16
studies. Inclusion criteria were as follows: (1) random- IF: effects on body weight and visceral fat mass. Body
ized control trials and nonrandomized trials, (2) total weight changes were assessed in 2 IF studies17,18 and 7
sample size $8 subjects, (3) primary endpoints of ADF studies19-25 (Table I). Findings from these trials
body weight and one or more relevant diabetes risk demonstrate 3%8% reductions in body weight after
parameter, (4) average daily energy restriction ,50% 324 weeks of treatment. Providing food to subjects on
(to exclude very low calorie diets that result in muscle the fast day appears to be a key factor in determining
wasting9), (5) trial duration between 3 and 24 weeks, greatest weight loss. For instance, the most pronounced
(6) male and female subjects, (7) age between 25 and weight loss was seen in a study performed by Johnson
75 years, (8) body mass index (BMI) between 25 and et al,21 where ADF subjects were provided with a
40 kg/m2, (9) nonsmokers (because of the effects of 320380 kcal meal replacement shake on each fast day.
Table I. Intermittent fasting: effect on body weight and type 2 diabetes risk parameters
Volume -, Number -
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Insulin
Average Fasting Fasting resistance/
Trial prescribed Body weight Body Visceral fat Lean mass Lean glucose insulin sensitivity
Reference Subjects length Intervention restriction/d (% change) weight (kg) (% change) (% change) mass (kg) (% change) (% change) (% change)
Barnosky et al
Bhutani et al24 n 5 32, MF 12 wk 1. Fast day: 75% CR, 1.35% 1.Y4% 1.Y3 WC BIA BIA 1.Y3% 1.Y11% HOMA-IR
43 6 3 y feed day: ad libitum 2.0% 2.0% 2.0 1.Y4% 1.Y1 1.Y2% 2.[3% 2.[1% 1.Y9%
Obese 2. Control: ad libitum 2.Y1% 2.0% 2.0% 2.[2%
fed every day
Food provided on the
fast day (week
3
14 only)
(Continued )
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4 Barnosky et al - 2014
Abbreviations: BIA, bioelectrical impedance analysis; CR, calorie restriction; DXA, dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry; F, female; HF, high-fat diet; HOMA-IR, homeostatic model of assessment for
restriction/d (% change) weight (kg) (% change) (% change) mass (kg) (% change) (% change) (% change)
resistance/
HOMA-IR
sensitivity
1.Y28%
2.[2%
Insulin body weight.21 Comparable decreases in body weight
(6%7%) were also noted in the other 8-week ADF
studies that provided food on the fast day.22,23,25
An exception to this rule is the ADF study by Bhutani
1.Y31%
2.[2%
Fasting
insulin
Significantly different from the control group (P , 0.05). Prescribed daily restriction estimated assuming 0% restriction (ie, 100% intake) on the ad libitum feed days.
1.Y6%
glucose
that food was only provided for the first 4 weeks of the
Fasting
2.[1%
DXA
1.Y3%
2.Y1%
2.Y1
1.Y7%
2.Y1%
1.35%
47 6 4 y
Volume -, Number -
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Insulin
Average Fasting Fasting resistance/
Trial prescribed Body weight Body Visceral fat Lean mass Lean glucose insulin sensitivity
Reference Subjects length Intervention restriction/d (% change) weight (kg) (% change) (% change) mass (kg) (% change) (% change) (% change)
Xydakis et al16 n 5 80, MF 6 wk 1.50% CR-high- 1.50% 1.Y7%* 1.Y18* WC 1.Y15%* 1.Y65%* HOMA-IR
47 6 1 y protein diet 1.Y8%* 1.Y70%*
Obese Food provided
Trussardi Fayh n 5 35, MF 6 wk 1.25% CR 1.25% 1.Y5%* 1.Y4* WC 1.Y3% 1.Y11%* HOMA-IR
et al26 30 6 6 y Food not provided 1.Y4%* 1.Y20%*
Obese
Prediabetic
Svendsen et al27 n 5 17, F 8 wk 1.50% CR-high- 1.50% 1.Y11%* WC 1.Y8%* 1.Y35%* HOMA-IR
25 6 3 y protein diet 1.Y22%* 1.Y32%*
Overweight Food not provided
Mollard et al28 n 5 40, MF 8 wk 1.25% CR-high- 1.25% 1.Y1% 1.Y1 WC 1.0% 1.[2% HOMA-IR
46 6 1 y fiber diet 1.Y2%* 1.[1%
Obese Food provided
Clifton et al29 n 5 62, F 12 wk 1.25% CR-LF diet 1.25% 1.Y11%* 1.Y10* 1.Y1%* 1.Y26%*
47 6 10 y 2.25% CR-high 2.25% 2.Y8%* 2.Y9* 2.Y2%* 2.Y41%*
Obese MUFA low-
Prediabetic protein diet
Food provided
De Luis et al30 n 5 40, MF 12 wk 1.25% CR-liquid diet 1.25% 1.Y8%* 1.Y8* WC BIA BIA 1.0% 1.Y24%* HOMA-IR
65 6 8 y 2.25% CR-food diet 2.25% 2.Y5%* 2.Y5* 1.Y5%* 1.Y1%* 1.Y1* 2.[1% 2.Y25% 1.Y25%*
Obese Food provided in the 2.Y4%* 2.Y3%* 2.Y1* 2.Y12%
liquid diet group
Agueda et al31 n 5 78, F 12 wk 1.25% CR every day 1.25% 1.Y9%* Y 8* WC DXA DXA 1.Y2%* 1.Y27%* HOMA-IR
37 6 7 y Food not provided 1.Y7%* 1.Y5%* 1.Y3* 1.Y30%*
Obese
Melanson et al32 n 5 157, MF 12 wk 1.30% CR-low 1.30% 1.Y5%* 1.Y4* 1.[1 1.[1% 1.Y16%* HOMA-IR
38 6 7 y energy density diet 2.30% 2.Y4%* 2.Y3* 2.Y1 2.[1% 2.Y8%* 1.Y17%*
Obese 2.30% CR-low 3.30% 3.Y4%* 3.Y4* 3.0 3.Y1% 3.Y12%* 2.Y7%*
Prediabetic glycemic index 3.Y17%*
diet
3.30% CR-portion
control diet
Food not provided
Larson-Meyer n 5 48, MF 24 wk 1.25% CR every day 1.25% 1.Y10% 1.Y8 CT DXA DXA 1.Y1% 1.Y29% OGTT-IS
et al33 2550 y 2.50% CR every day 2.50% 2.Y14% 2.Y11 1.Y28% 1.Y5% 1.Y3 2.[1% 2.Y15% 1.[27%*
Barnosky et al
Overweight until 15% body 3. No CR 3.0% 3.0 2.Y38% 2.6% 2.Y3 3.[2% 3.[2% 2.[52%*
weight lost 3.Y3% 3.0% 3.0 3.[11%
3. Control: ad libitum
fed every day
All food provided for
weeks 112 and
5
2224
(Continued )
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6 Barnosky et al - 2014
Abbreviations: BIA, bioelectrical impedance analysis; CR, calorie restriction; DXA, dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry; F, female; HOMA-IR, homeostasis model of assessment for insulin resistance; LF,
(% change) mass (kg) (% change) (% change) (% change)
resistance/
HOMA-IR
sensitivity
1.Y19%*
Insulin
compared with the 25% CR group (10% weight
loss).33 A faster rate of weight loss was also noted in
the other studies which implemented 50% CR16,27
when compared with the 25% CR trials.18,26,28-32 The
1.Y15%*
Fasting
insulin
1.Y2%
Fasting
1.Y2%*
1.Y4%*
1.Y6*
1.25%
n 5 54, F
3045 y
Obese
Harvie et al18
prevented in high-risk individuals with prediabetes.35,36 ADF, we will limit our discussion for glucose to
As expected, these studies have shown decreases in those trials that recruited prediabetic subjects.26,29,32
fasting glucose levels and improvements in glucose Results from these studies indicate that 612 weeks
tolerance. The Finnish Diabetes Prevention Study of 25%30% CR has virtually no effect on fasting
found a 58% reduction in the overall incidence of glucose concentrations.26,29,32 Moreover, modulating
diabetes in the intensive lifestyle group compared with the background nutrient composition of the diet (via a
that of controls with similar benefit seen in other high monounsaturated fat, low fat, or glycemic index
studies.35-37 diet) also does not appear to impact fasting glucose
IF: effects on fasting glucose and insulin levels. Changes levels.29,32 It will be of interest in future trials to
in fasting glucose were assessed in 2 IF studies17,18 and examine whether improvements in glucose can be seen
7 ADF studies19-25 (Table I). However, the present with greater energy restriction or longer treatment
discussion will be limited to studies that recruited durations in this population group.
prediabetic individuals,17,22,25 as it may not be scien- Fasting insulin levels were assessed in 10 CR
tifically valid to assess the effect of these diets on studies.16,18,26-33 However, our discussion will be
glucose and insulin levels of normoglycemic subjects. limited to those trials that recruited prediabetic subjects
Results from these trials demonstrate consistent yet only.26,29,32 Findings from these trials demonstrate
minor decreases (3%6%) in fasting glucose after fairly consistent reductions in insulin levels, ranging
812 weeks of treatment. The greatest decrease in from 11% to 41% after 612 weeks of treatment.26,29,32
glucose was observed in the study by Varady et al.25 In The most pronounced reductions in insulin (41%) were
this trial,25 participants were randomized to an ADF noted in the study by Clifton et al,29 which implemented
group (35% average daily CR) vs a control group (no a 25% CR-high monounsaturated fat-low-protein diet
restriction). After 12 weeks of diet, a 6% reduction intervention for 12 weeks. In a separate arm of this
in glucose concentrations was observed in the ADF study,29 less pronounced reductions in insulin (26%)
group relative to controls.25 Reductions in glucose were observed in response to a 25% CR-low-fat diet.
concentrations (3%4%) were also observed in the Thus, a background diet that is high monounsaturated
8-week ADF study by Varady et al22 and the 8-week fat may produce more optimal changes in insulin
IF study by Klempel et al.17 These less pronounced compared with a diet that is low in fat. The degree to
decreases in glucose are most likely because of the which insulin is lowered may also be related to amount
shorter intervention period imposed by these 2 studies, of weight loss. For instance, the study by Clifton et al29
that is 8 weeks17,22 vs the 12-week intervention imple- observed the greatest degree of weight loss (8%11%)
mented by Varady et al.25 when compared with the studies by Trussardi Fayh
Fasting insulin levels were assessed in 2 IF studies17,18 et al26 (5%) and Melanson et al32 (4%5%). Thus, there
and 5 ADF studies.19,21,22,24,25 However, as mentioned may be a dose-response relationship between weight loss
previously, only studies that recruited prediabetic in- and insulin lowering by CR in prediabetic individuals.
dividuals will be discussed here.17,22,25 In these trials,
decreases in fasting insulin ranged from 20% to 31%
INSULIN SENSITIVITY
after 812 weeks of treatment.17,22,25 Similar reduc-
tions in fasting insulin were seen with ADF (20%)22 Insulin resistance is seen in virtually all patients
and IF (21%)17 after 8 weeks of diet. Remarkably, these with type 2 diabetes and occurs early in the disease,
comparable decreases occurred despite the greater num- before overt diabetes is diagnosed. Both a decrease in
ber of fasting days implemented by the ADF study (34 insulin sensitivity and insulin deficiency are thought to
fast days)22 vs the IF study (1 fast day).17 However, it contribute to type 2 diabetes. Interventions directed
should be noted that, overall, both interventions prescri- at reducing body weight have shown promise for
bed the same level of energy restriction (35%40%).17,22 improving insulin sensitivity, and have also been shown
Thus, degree of restriction may be a stronger pre- to delay or prevent onset of type 2 diabetes.38
dictor of insulin lowering when compared with the IF: effects on insulin sensitivity. Changes in insulin
number of fasting days. The greatest decreases in sensitivity were assessed in 2 IF studies17,18 and 4
insulin concentrations (31%) were noted in the study ADF studies21,22,24,25 (Table I). Results from these
by Varady et al.25 These superior reductions are most trials demonstrate consistent improvements in insulin
likely the result of the longer intervention period sensitivity after 324 weeks of treatment in normo-
(12 weeks) used by this trial.25 glycemic and prediabetic subjects. The primary
CR: effects on fasting glucose and insulin levels. Fasting method of measuring insulin sensitivity was homeo-
glucose levels were assessed in all the CR studies static model assessment (HOMA-IR). In reviewing
reviewed here16,18,26-33 (Table II). Similar to IF and these results, it would appear as although the greatest
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8 Barnosky et al - 2014
improvements in insulin sensitivity occurred with considered when prescribing CR protocols to patients in
the highest amount of weight loss. For instance, in the a clinical setting. Unfortunately, none of these studies
ADF study by Johnson et al,21 subjects experienced included a follow-up period to investigate what happens
the greatest degree of weight loss (8%), which cor- when the individual ceases the diet altogether. Whether
responded to the largest decline in HOMA-IR (33%). insulin resistance rebounds more quickly after stopping
In the ADF trial by Bhutani et al,24 body weight a 50% CR protocol, vs a 25% protocol, warrants further
decreased by 4% from baseline, which produced investigation, as this may help in determining which
moderate reductions in HOMA-IR (9%). Impressive level of energy restriction should be prescribed for
reductions in insulin resistance were also noted by IF. longer-term success.
For instance, 23% decreases in HOMA-IR were noted
after 8 weeks of fasting 1 d/wk with a liquid diet.17
Moreover, 27% decreases in HOMA-IR were obser- SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: EFFECTIVENESS OF IF VS CR
FOR TYPE 2 DIABETES PREVENTION
ved after 24 weeks of fasting 2 d/wk.18 Weight loss in
these 2 IF trials was 4%17 and 7%,18 respectively. Body weight and visceral fat mass. Findings from the
Although reductions in body weight appear to be present review indicate that CR produces slightly supe-
an important factor in determining improvements in rior weight loss when compared with IF/ADF after
insulin sensitivity, no relationship between visceral fat similar durations of treatment. For instance, after
mass and insulin sensitivity could be established from 324 weeks of IF or ADF, 3%8% reductions in body
the studies reviewed here. This is most likely because weight were observed. As for CR, 624 weeks of diet
of the small number of studies, and because visceral produced reductions ranging from 4% to14%. Not sur-
fat mass was only measured indirectly via waist cir- prisingly, greater degrees of energy restriction and
cumference. Implementing techniques that can quan- longer treatment durations produced larger reductions
tify actual kilogram decreases in visceral fat mass in body weight. IF, ADF, and CR appear to be effective
(ie, magnetic resonance imaging), may help clarify the for reducing body weight in men and women, older and
relationship between abdominal fat reductions and younger adults, and prediabetic individuals. Similar
improvements in insulin sensitivity in future IF and decreases in visceral fat mass were also noted by all 3
ADF trials. interventions, and the degree to which visceral fat
CR: effects on insulin sensitivity. Modulations in insulin mass was reduced paralleled the degree of weight loss.
sensitivity by CR were assessed in 9 studies16,18,26-28,30-33 Glucose and insulin. The impact of IF, ADF, and
(Table II). Substantial improvements in insulin sensitivity CR on fasting glucose concentrations in prediabetic
after 624 weeks were noted in all but one CR study.28 subjects was variable. Although IF and ADF studies
The primary method for measuring insulin sensitivity demonstrated minor decreases in glucose (3%6%
was HOMA-IR, with the exception of the study by from baseline), CR studies general report no effect after
Larson-Meyer et al,33 which implemented an oral 612 weeks of diet. Fasting insulin, on the other hand,
glucose tolerance test. The most important factor in was highly responsive to all 3 interventions. In general,
determining improvement in insulin sensitivity appears insulin concentrations were reduced by 20%31% after
to be the degree of energy restriction imposed. For 812 weeks of IF and ADF, and by 11%41% after
instance, in the study by Xydakis et al,16 a 6-week 50% 612 weeks of CR. Reductions in insulin concentrations
CR-high-protein diet resulted in a 70% decrease in by IF, ADF, and CR appeared to be most strongly related
HOMA-IR. Similarly, Svendsen et al27 demonstrated to the degree the of imposed restriction and amount of
a 32% decrease in insulin resistance after 8 weeks of a weight loss.
high restriction regimen (50% CR combined with a Insulin sensitivity. Consistent improvements in insulin
high-protein background diet). Findings from 25% CR sensitivity were noted by all 3 interventions after
studies also demonstrated reductions in insulin resis- 324 weeks of treatment. These improvements occurred
tance,18,26,30,31 although these effects were less pro- in prediabetic subjects and subjects with normal fasting
nounced than the 50% CR studies. For example, Harvie glucose values. The degree to which insulin sensitivity
et al18 implemented a 25% CR protocol in overweight was improved appeared to be most strongly related
and obese subjects for 24 weeks, and a 15% decrease in to the degree of energy restriction and amount of total
HOMA-IR was observed. Likewise, Trussardi Fayh weight loss. This observation is supported by other
et al26 prescribed a 25% CR diet, and HOMA-IR studies in this field.39,40 For instance, in a study by
decreased by 20% from baseline. Although the higher Wing et al,39 subjects were randomized to either a
energy restriction diets (50% CR) seem to show a 400 kcal/d group or a 1000 kcal/d group, with the goal
greater decrease in HOMA-IR, sustainability of this of losing 11% of baseline body weight in both groups.
type of diet is likely to be challenging. This should be Results reveal that those individuals in the 400 kcal/d
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Volume -, Number - Barnosky et al 9
group had lower fasting glucose and increased insulin [3]. Andersen CJ, Fernandez ML. Dietary strategies to reduce
sensitivity when compared with the 1000 kcal/d group, metabolic syndrome. Rev Endocr Metab Disord 2013;14:
24154.
despite the same weight loss.39 Moreover, in an early [4]. Wycherley TP, Moran LJ, Clifton PM, Noakes M,
study by Henry et al,40 improvements in glycemic Brinkworth GD. Effects of energy-restricted high-protein,
control were noted within 3 days of starting a hypo- low-fat compared with standard-protein, low-fat diets: a meta-
caloric diet, suggesting that dietary restriction can analysis of randomized controlled trials. Am J Clin Nutr 2012;
affect glycemia even before actual weight loss occurs. 96:128198.
[5]. Omodei D, Fontana L. Calorie restriction and prevention of age-
Limitations. This review has a number of limitations.
associated chronic disease. FEBS Lett 2011;585:153742.
Firstly, the protocols, interventions, and populations [6]. Das SK, Gilhooly CH, Golden JK, et al. Long-term effects of 2
between studies are quite heterogeneous. This heteroge- energy-restricted diets differing in glycemic load on dietary
neity makes it difficult to draw clear conclusions from adherence, body composition, and metabolism in CALERIE: a
the data as a whole, and needs to be taken into consid- 1-y randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr 2007;85:
102330.
eration when interpreting the present findings. Sec- [7]. Varady KA. Intermittent versus daily calorie restriction: which
ondly, the number of studies that have been conducted diet regimen is more effective for weight loss? Obes Rev
in the IF and ADF field are very limited. Thus, it is 2011;12:e593601.
not possible to make clinical recommendations as to [8]. Varady KA, Hellerstein MK. Alternate-day fasting and chronic
the efficacy of these dietary restriction protocols for disease prevention: a review of human and animal trials. Am J
Clin Nutr 2007;86:713.
use by the general public. Thirdly, we were not able to [9]. Bryner RW, Ullrich IH, Sauers J, et al. Effects of resistance vs.
report weight loss as change in mass per week, because aerobic training combined with an 800 calorie liquid diet on lean
most of these studies only reported baseline and post- body mass and resting metabolic rate. J Am Coll Nutr 1999;18:
treatment body weight values. Including these data 11521.
would have offered an indication of trends in weight [10]. Kabagambe EK, Ordovas JM, Tsai MY, et al. Smoking, inflam-
matory patterns and postprandial hypertriglyceridemia. Athero-
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2013;7:1424.
In sum, IF, ADF, and CR regimens appear to be effec-
[13]. Lee MJ, Wu Y, Fried SK. Adipose tissue heterogeneity: implica-
tive for reducing body weight, although CR may result tion of depot differences in adipose tissue for obesity complica-
in slightly greater weight loss. As for visceral fat mass, tions. Mol Aspects Med 2013;34:111.
and fasting insulin and insulin sensitivity, the effect of [14]. Vague J. La differenciation sexuelle, facteur determinant des
IF, ADF, and CR on these diabetic risk parameters formes de lobesity. Presse Med 1947;30:33940.
[15]. Banerji MA, Lebowitz J, Chaiken RL, Gordon D, Kral JG,
appears comparable. Whether these regimens are effec-
Lebovitz HE. Relationship of visceral adipose tissue and
tive for glucose lowering remains uncertain, and war- glucose disposal is independent of sex in black NIDDM sub-
rants further investigation. Although these preliminary jects. Am J Physiol 1997;273:E42532.
findings show promise for the use of IF and ADF as [16]. Xydakis AM, Case CC, Jones PH, et al. Adiponectin, inflamma-
alternatives to CR for weight loss and type 2 diabetes tion, and the expression of the metabolic syndrome in obese in-
dividuals: the impact of rapid weight loss through caloric
risk reduction, clear conclusions cannot be drawn
restriction. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004;89:2697703.
because of the limited number of studies published in [17]. Klempel MC, Kroeger CM, Bhutani S, Trepanowski JF,
this field. Much work remains to be done to understand Varady KA. Intermittent fasting combined with calorie restric-
these diet strategies fully. tion is effective for weight loss and cardio-protection in obese
women. Nutr J 2012;11:98.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS [18]. Harvie MN, Pegington M, Mattson MP, et al. The effects of
intermittent or continuous energy restriction on weight loss
This work was funded by grants from the National and metabolic disease risk markers: a randomized trial in young
Institutes of Health (NIDDK T32DK080674, NHLBI overweight women. Int J Obes (Lond) 2011;35:71427.
1R01HL106228-01). [19]. Heilbronn LK, Smith SR, Martin CK, Anton SD, Ravussin E.
Alternate-day fasting in nonobese subjects: effects on body
Conflict of interests: None.
weight, body composition, and energy metabolism. Am J Clin
Nutr 2005;81:6973.
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