Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Juhani Norokallio
June 2015
POSIVA OY
Olkiluoto
FI-27160 EURAJOKI, FINLAND
Phone (02) 8372 31 (nat.), (+358-2-) 8372 31 (int.)
Fax (02) 8372 3809 (nat.), (+358-2-) 8372 3809 (int.)
POSIVA 2015-01
Juhani Norokallio
Posiva Oy
June 2015
POSIVA OY
Olkiluoto
FI-27160 EURAJOKI, FINLAND
Phone (02) 8372 31 (nat.), (+358-2-) 8372 31 (int.)
Fax (02) 8372 3809 (nat.), (+358-2-) 8372 3809 (int.)
ISBN 978-951-652-243-5
ISSN 1239-3096
Posiva-raportti Posiva Report Raportin tunnus Report code
POSIVA 2015-01
Posiva Oy
Olkiluoto Julkaisuaika Date
FI-27160 EURAJOKI, FINLAND
June 2015
Puh. 02-8372 (31) Int. Tel. +358 2 8372 (31)
Nimeke Title
GEOLOGICAL AND GEOTECHNICAL MAPPING PROCEDURES IN USE IN THE
ONKALO
Tiivistelm Abstract
This report describes and evaluates the geological and geotechnical mapping procedures used in
the ONKALO underground rock characterization facility. The described procedures will also be
applied in the repository tunnels.
At present, the geological mapping procedures used in ONKALO are divided into three different
stages: round mapping, systematic mapping and supplementary studies. The main purpose of the
round mapping stage is to obtain geological data for the geotechnical assessment of the rock
mass for excavation purposes, especially for the design of tunnel reinforcement. At this stage,
the round is also 3D-photographed. The round mapping is performed from below the shotcreted
roof of the previous round. The systematic mapping takes place soon after the roof of the round
has been shotcreted. Most of the geological data is gathered during this phase and after the
mapping, all observations are measured with a tachymeter to obtain precise location data. The
supplementary studies comprise several mapping phases, which include mapping of the
significant fractures (Tunnel Crosscutting Fractures - TCF), detailed mapping and descriptions
of deformation zone intersections, as well as petrological and mineralogical sampling. Many of
these features are already recognized during the round and systematic mapping, but their
detailed definition and description is completed during this last mapping phase.
Over time, several improvements have been made to the mapping procedures used in ONKALO.
The current mapping methods give both detailed information and an extensive view of the
geology of the excavated areas. However, the development of the mapping procedure is still
undergoing as described at the end of this report.
Avainsanat - Keywords
POSIVA 2015-01
Posiva Oy
Olkiluoto Julkaisuaika Date
FI-27160 EURAJOKI, FINLAND
Keskuu 2015
Puh. 02-8372 (31) Int. Tel. +358 2 8372 (31)
Nimeke Title
ONKALOSSA KYTETTVT GEOLOGISET JA GEOTEKNISET KARTOITUS-
MENETELMT
Tiivistelm Abstract
Avainsanat - Keywords
ONKALO, geologinen kartoitus, geotekninen kartoitus, kartoitusmenetelmt, katkokartoitus,
systemaattinen kartoitus, tydentvt tutkimukset, kehittmistarpeet.
ISBN ISSN
ISBN 978-951-652-243-5 ISSN 1239-3096
Sivumr Number of pages Kieli Language
54 Englanti
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
TIIVISTELM
1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 3
2 CURRENT MAPPING PRACTICE.......................................................................... 5
2.1 Mapping procedures ....................................................................................... 5
2.1.1 Round mapping ........................................................................................... 5
2.1.1.1 Rock mass quality (Q classification).................................................... 6
2.1.1.2 Main fracture orientations and overall geologic description ................ 8
2.1.2 Systematic mapping .................................................................................... 8
2.1.2.1 Rock mass quality (Q classification).................................................... 9
2.1.2.2 Friction Angle and Waviness Angle................................................... 10
2.1.2.3 Lithology ............................................................................................ 11
2.1.2.4 Ductile deformation ........................................................................... 14
2.1.2.5 Brittle deformation ............................................................................. 14
2.1.2.6 Number of fractures and fracture spacing ......................................... 15
2.1.2.7 Fracture length .................................................................................. 15
2.1.2.8 Fracture filling width .......................................................................... 15
2.1.2.9 Alteration ........................................................................................... 15
2.1.2.10 Water leakages ............................................................................. 16
2.1.3 Supplementary studies.............................................................................. 16
2.1.3.1 Tunnel crosscutting fractures (TCF) .................................................. 16
2.1.3.2 Deformation zone intersections ......................................................... 18
2.1.3.3 Other supplementary studies ............................................................ 19
2.1.4 Mapping of deposition holes ..................................................................... 19
2.2 Description of the mapping parameters ........................................................ 21
3 EVALUATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF MAPPING PROCEDURE ................... 35
3.1 Round mapping ............................................................................................. 35
3.2 Systematic Mapping ...................................................................................... 35
3.2.1 Leucosome content ................................................................................... 35
3.2.2 Type of the mineralogical alteration .......................................................... 35
3.3 Supplementary studies ................................................................................. 35
3.3.1 Deformation zone intersections................................................................. 35
3.3.1.1 Water leakage ................................................................................... 35
REFERENCES: ............................................................................................................ 39
4 APPENDICES: ...................................................................................................... 41
2
3
1 INTRODUCTION
This report presents current geological and geotechnical mapping procedures for all the
excavated areas in the ONKALO, e.g. the access tunnel, the four demonstration tunnels
and the technical rooms, together with brief geological descriptions (Chapter 2). For
more detailed geological descriptions, see Nordbck (2013). Some considerations
regarding the development of the mapping parameters and procedures are presented at
the end of the report (Chapter 3).
Against this background, the geological and geotechnical mapping procedures in the
ONKALO have been revised and improved several times to meet the different demands
of excavation and research.
Several different classification systems for defining the geotechnical properties of hard
rock have been developed, mainly due to the wide variety of properties that the bedrock
exhibits. Posiva has chosen three of these classification systems and uses them
concurrently when assessing the rock properties, in order to obtain a wide diversity in
the geotechnical classification. The three systems that Posiva uses are the Rock Quality
Designation (RQD) of Deere et al. (1967), the Q classification system of Barton et al.
(1974), Grimstad & Barton (1993) and Barton (2002) and the RG classification
(Rakennusgeologinen kallioluokitus) of Korhonen et al. (1974) and Gardemeister et al.
(1976). The Q classification system is the most widely used one in the world and is the
main classification scheme used in the ONKALO tunnel. The RG classification system
was developed for Finnish conditions and is therefore a good supplement to the other
systems.
The principles of naming rocks at Olkiluoto have been laid out in the working report A
system of Nomenclature for Rocks in Olkiluoto" (Mattila 2006). This nomenclature,
which was developed in particular for the migmatitic gneisses at Olkiluoto, recognises
three groups: veined gneiss, stromatic gneiss and diatexitic gneiss (Krki & Paulamki
2006). The pervasive foliation, which is typical of the Olkiluoto site, is classified using
a unique classification system developed by Milnes et al. (2006), which takes into
account the intensity and type of the foliation. Deformation zones intersecting the
ONKALO are described using the methodology explained in Milnes et al. (2007) and
used in the geological modelling of the Olkiluoto site (Paulamki et al. 2006, Mattila et
al. 2008). This methodology is derived from the fault rock classification system
proposed by Sibson (1977) and further developed by Scholz (2002) and has proved to
be particularly suitable for the different types of deformation zones occurring in the
high-grade metamorphic rocks at Olkiluoto.
At present, the geological and geotechnical mapping takes place in three different
stages; round mapping, systematic mapping and supplementary studies. The first stage,
4
round mapping, is a geotechnical mapping procedure to assess the rock quality soon
after excavation. Systematic mapping is the main geological mapping stage, and this is
when the main part of the geological information is obtained. The supplementary
studies include, for example, the definition of Tunnel Crosscutting Fractures (TCF, see
definition below, Section 2.1.3.1), the recognition and description of deformation zone
intersections, and water leakage mapping.
This report is divided into three chapters, where Chapter 1 is the introduction and
Chapter 2 describes current, i.e. existing, mapping practices with some examples.
Descriptions of the mapping parameters are also included in Chapter 2. Future
development needs are discussed in Chapter 3, in the light of experience gathered by the
mapping teams to date, and some changes to these practices are proposed. The
Appendices contain the determination tables and spreadsheets at present in use for
mapping purposes, in association with the three types of mapping which are being
carried out: Description of the various Q parameters are presented in Appendix 1;
round mapping in Appendix 2; systematic geological mapping in Appendices 3 and 4;
and supplementary studies (e.g. characterisation of deformation zone intersections), in
Appendix 5. Also, the abbreviations used for fracture-filling minerals used in the
systematic geological mapping of the ONKALO access tunnel are presented on
Appendix 6.
Several improvements have been made to the mapping procedure as well as to the
mapping spreadsheets since the first report describing and explaining the geological and
geotechnical mapping practice used in the ONKALO access tunnel (Engstrm &
Kemppainen 2008) was published. These changes are presented and discussed in the
current report and also further development ideas are presented. The procedures
associated with round mapping, systematic mapping and geological deformation zone
mapping are presented in detail in the following instructions: POS-001497 Onkalon
geologinen kartoitus, 1. vaihe (round mapping), POS-001995, ONKALON geologisen
kartoituksen suorittaminen, toinen vaihe (systematic mapping) and POS-016468
geologisen deformaatiovyhykkeen kartoitus ONKALOssa (deformation zone mapping).
5
The guidelines for geological and geotechnical mapping to be used in the ONKALO
access tunnel were set out and published in the Underground Characterisation and
Research Programme (UCRP) (Posiva 2003). This report stated that the mapping should
be carried out in three steps: Step 1 - tunnel face mapping; Step 2 - tunnel window
mapping; and Step 3 - supplementary studies. The current mapping practice follows
these guidelines, although the content of each step has been revised and renamed during
the construction of the ONKALO access tunnel; and further changes have been made in
the mapping procedure since the previous evaluation report (Engstrm & Kemppainen
2008). In addition, development of the mapping procedure is still taking place, in
preparation for the construction of the final repository tunnels. The main aim is to
achieve a more accurate and detailed geological model for the ONKALO area, as well
as to optimize the procedures for mapping the repository rooms.
The geological and geotechnical mapping procedures currently used in the ONKALO
tunnels have been specially developed by Posiva, to obtain as much information as
possible from the tunnel in the time that is available for research, as excavation and
mapping are required to operate simultaneously. The total time necessary for the
mapping of one round (ca. 5 m section of tunnel) obviously varies depending on the
tunnel profile, the rock quality and the level of fracturing. During excavation, the walls,
roof and floor of the tunnel are mapped, whereas the tunnel face is only mapped for
completely excavated tunnels and rooms. The geological and geotechnical mapping is
divided into three separate stages, which are carried out in a manner which affects the
normal tunnel excavation procedures as little as possible. The three mapping stages and
the approximate times required for each are:
In addition to the various tunnels, geological and geotechnical mapping will be carried
out in deposition holes. The procedure (described in Section 2.1.4) has been developed
during the construction of the demonstration facilities and the associated experimental
deposition holes, and is still likely to go through some further development.
The round mapping is performed as soon as possible after each excavation round, its
main purpose being to obtain geological data for the geotechnical assessment of the
rock mass for excavation purposes. Therefore, the main parameters to be obtained in the
round mapping are the six parameters required by the Q classification system (see
Section 2.1.1.1). These parameters are gathered from fractures more than 1 m in length.
Since 2011 the round mapping has been performed below the shotcreted roof of the
previous round from the tunnel face. The shotcreting of the last excavated round is
carried out soon after the round mapping procedure, so this is only opportunity for
6
obtaining observations from the tunnel roof. It is, therefore, very important to notice
deformation zone intersections (see Section 2.1.3.2.) and long fractures (see Section
2.1.3.1.) at this stage and to measure them with a tachymeter. The locations of the
measured fractures are also denoted in the Remarks field of the mapping data sheet by
the letter K (indicating the roof), O (indicating the right wall) or V (indicating the left
wall). This helps those who need to make use of the geological data, for example to
investigate fracture densities, but have not experienced the situation in the tunnel.
A detailed description of the various parameters used in the round mapping is given in
Section 2.2 and the spreadsheet used for the round mapping is attached as Appendix 2.
The Q classification is performed for each and every round that is excavated and Q
values are determined separately for the left wall, the right wall and the roof of the
tunnel. The data obtained are plotted on a graph developed by Grimstad & Barton
(1993) to assess the amount and type of support required for the investigated tunnel
section (Figure 2-1). The graph is a tool to assist in decision making for the excavation
team, when considering whether temporary tunnel support is required.
7
Figure 2-1. Diagram used for estimating the need for tunnel support in the
ONKALO access tunnel (from Grimstad & Barton 1993).
The Q classification scheme (Barton et al. 1974; Grimstad & Barton 1993) is used in
order to determine the rock mass quality in the ONKALO tunnel. A first assessment of
the rock mass quality is carried out during the round mapping stage, but the final
evaluation of the rock mass quality is carried out during the systematic mapping (see
Section 2.1.2). A description of the various Q parameters is presented in Appendix 1,
and the spreadsheet used for processing the data in Appendix 4 (See Table 2-2 for
descriptions). The Q parameters are defined for each excavated round of the ONKALO
tunnel and are calculated using the following equations (Barton et al. 1974; Grimstad &
Barton 1993):
RQD J r J RQD J r
Q * * w and Q *
Jn J a SRF Jn Ja
The rock quality designation (RQD) is defined on the basis of a visual estimation of the
total amount of fracturing in the tunnel for each mapped section. Also, the other
parameters are estimated visually. These parameters are: the joint set number (Jn), the
joint roughness number (Jr), the joint alteration number (Ja), the joint water reduction
number (Jw) and the stress reduction factor (SRF).
8
In the round mapping phase the orientations and fracture profiles of main fractures
exceeding 1 m in length are observed (for details see Appendix 2). The function is not
to observe all fractures more than 1 m in length but as many as needed to obtain a good
overview of the geological properties. More detailed mapping is carried out later in the
systematic mapping phase. If some of the fractures continue from one wall to the other
(also seen on the tunnel face), or if they crosscut the roof, they are accurately measured
with a tachymeter to obtain their exact locations.
At this stage, the round is also digitally photographed and scanned (systematic digital
imaging.) Previously, photographs were obtained using two digital cameras to obtain
stereographic images, but the current method, which has already been used in
demonstration tunnels 3 and 4, is to use one camera and transform 2D digital data into
3D using a 3D measurement application.
During the round mapping a small sketch is drawn in the spreadsheet for fractures that
can be traced from one wall of the tunnel to the other (passing through the face of the
tunnel). The sketch illustrates the trace of the fracture on both walls and on the face of
the tunnel, thus preventing the same fracture being given a different name on each wall
of the tunnel in subsequent excavated sections, where it might not be possible to see the
fracture trace in the face of the tunnel. This process also helps distinguishing these
fractures later when the systematic mapping is performed. A sketch is also made if a
fracture continues from one excavated round to another, even if the fracture trace
follows only one of the walls or if the fracture is measured with a tachymeter.
In the round mapping phase, the rock type (see Section 2.1.2.3.) as well as grain size
variations are determined from both walls and from the roof. Grain size is placed into
one of four different categories: 1) <1 mm. 2) 1-5 mm. 3) 5-50 mm and 4) >50 mm.
Water leakages are also observed, but the amount of flow is measured later (see
Sections 2.1.2.10 and 2.1.3.3).
The systematic geological mapping was originally performed tens to hundreds of metres
behind the active tunnel face, commonly in 10 m long sections (i.e. two rounds). The
current practice is that after the roof of the last excavated round has been shotcreted, the
tunnel walls and floor are cleaned to check if any remains of explosives could be found
after blasting. This revision provides an opportunity of mapping the tunnel floor, and
the systematic mapping is now carried out round-by-round in 3-6 m long sections. The
spreadsheet used in the systematic geological mapping is attached as Appendix 3. All
mapping data are collected in a single table sheet and the structural elements are
described as single observations and marked on the tunnel wall with corresponding
numbers. The table sheet includes designation details, such as the chainage from the
beginning to the end of the mapped section and other tunnel-specific data. For each
mapped section, a detailed lithological description is made. The structural observations
include, in addition to the fracture-specific data, fields for rock type, foliation, folding,
deformation phase and samples. The fracture attribute data include orientation, trace
length, displacement, surface morphology, filling materials, aperture, termination,
9
undulation, water leakages and, for fractures with discernible movement, lineation (or a
so-called F vector). All fractures with trace lengths greater than 25 cm are measured.
The Q parameters observed in the round mapping phase are occasionally redefined
during the systematic mapping stage, based on the detailed fracture data collected from
all fractures with a trace length of 1 m or greater. For each section, the Q and Q' values
are calculated for the 1st quarter, 3rd quarter, average and median, where the joint
roughness (Jr) and alteration (Ja) numbers alter. The median values are then used to
determine the rock mass quality (Q and Q' values) for the investigated section, as shown
in Figure 2-2 and Appendix 4.
The joint set number (Jn) is first estimated visually, but later verified from stereograms,
and the Jr and Ja numbers are calculated (1st quarter, 3rd quarter, average and median),
(see Table 2-2 and Appendix 4). The other three parameters (RQD, Jw and SRF) are
also re-evaluated during this detailed mapping, and form the basis for the design of the
permanent tunnel support for the ONKALO tunnel.
Figure 2-2. Map of rock mass quality (Q value) variations using Gemcom Surpac 3D
program, ONKALO access tunnel chainage 3580-3670.
10
For each joint set, the number of fractures, mean Jr and Ja numbers, mean orientation,
friction angle, waviness angle and mean length are calculated using the Dips program
and Excel (Appendix 4). All fractures less than 1 m in length are excluded from these
calculations. The friction angle () takes into account the ratio between the mean value
of the roughness (Jr) and alteration (Ja) numbers in the fractures, calculated using the
following equation (Barton 2002):
Jr o
' tan 1 ( )
Ja
The friction angle varies from the extremes of clean-and-rough-and-discontinuous (79)
to slickensided-and-thinly-clay-filled (2) (Barton 2002).
The waviness angle is calculated using the simplification that the fracture undulates like
a right-angled triangle, as shown in Figure 2-3; accordingly, the following equation is
used in the calculation:
Undulation (cm / m)
Waviness angle tan 1 ( )
50cm
Figure 2-3. Illustration showing the assumptions used in the calculation of the
waviness angle.
11
2.1.2.3 Lithology
The mapping of lithology in the ONKALO tunnel is carried out according to the
principles laid down in the working report A system of Nomenclature for Rocks in
Olkiluoto" (Mattila 2006). The gneisses at Olkiluoto usually have a migmatitic
appearance and, therefore, the descriptive terminology of migmatites (Wimmenauer &
Bryhni 2007) provides a useful basis. In the migmatites, the leucosome is the
leucocratic, light-coloured portion, usually showing magmatic textures. Mesosome is
the name given to the mesocratic (light grey coloured) part of the rock, showing
metamorphic textures, in this case mostly mica gneiss. Melanosome is the melanocratic
(dark grey to black) part, which occurs as biotite-rich stripes (schlieren) or narrow bands
in the migmatite.
On the basis of their migmatite structure, the migmatitic gneisses at Olkiluoto can be
divided into three groups: veined gneiss (VGN), diatexitic gneiss (DGN) and stromatic
gneiss (SGN) (Krki & Paulamki 2006). The leucosome of the veined gneiss occurs as
discontinuous streaks and lenses with some features similar to large-scale augen
structures. Planar, sheet-like leucosome bands and layers characterise the stromatic
gneiss. The migmatite structure of the diatexitic gneiss is irregular, and the leucosome
occurs as diffuse patches in the mesosome. The amount of the leucosome in all
migmatitic gneisses varies from 20% to more than 80%, the average lying within the
range 2040%.
The lithological mapping in the ONKALO tunnel is performed during the systematic
mapping phase. A short description of the lithology for every mapped section can be
found in the Notes line at the heading of the mapping sheet (see Table 2-3, and
Appendix 3). The classification of the various rock types is defined on a visual basis
and this poses a challenge, especially when deciding on the types for the different
migmatitic structures in gneisses. This is due to the gradational changes in the structures
associated with these migmatitic gneisses. An example of the results of lithological
mapping in the ONKALO access tunnel is shown in Figure 2-4.
Figure 2-4. Lithological units in the ONKALO access tunnel at chainages between
35803670.
12
The veined gneiss consists of a foliated mica gneiss mesosome and discontinuous,
granitic leucosome streaks, lenses and boudins, around which the mesosome foliation
combines (Figure 2-5A). The greyish mica gneiss mesosome is small- to medium-
grained, relatively homogeneous and the laths of mica minerals are aligned, forming a
foliation. The leucosome component (1060%) is whitish or occasionally reddish,
medium- to coarse-grained, non-foliated granite or pegmatitic granite. The veined
gneiss is usually distinctly banded (Figure 2-5B), and folding and boudinage of
leucosome veins is also present.
The veined gneiss typically passes gradationally into diatexitic gneiss. Like the veined
gneiss, the diatexitic gneiss consists of a mica gneiss mesosome and a pegmatite granite
leucosome, but it usually has a much higher proportion of leucosome and a larger grain
size than the veined gneiss. The diatexitic gneiss has irregular, schlieren-like structures
and a nebulitic appearance (Figure 2-5C). The mesosome is usually medium-grained
and the rock is in some places weakly banded. Folding is occasionally observed in the
diatexitic gneiss.
The stromatic gneiss (SGN) is composed of foliated mica gneiss mesosome and granitic
leucosome veins, aligned parallel to foliation planes. The greyish mica gneiss
mesosome is small- to medium-grained and relatively homogenous and the laths of
mica minerals are aligned, forming a foliation. The leucosome or neosome component
is whitish or occasionally reddish, medium- to coarse-grained, non-oriented granite or
pegmatitic granite forming planar sheet-like bands and veins (Figure 2-5D).
In addition to the gneissic rocks, pegmatitic granite (PGR) is included in the main rock
types in Olkiluoto. The pegmatitic granite is a coarse-grained rock type that typically
contains large feldspar phenocrysts. The PGR has a pale whitish-greyish or reddish-
pinkish colour and the wider sections and dykes enclose mafic melanosome patches
(biotite schlieren) (Figures 2-5E and 2-5F). The pegmatitic granite is present in many
places in the tunnel as dykes and veins of various sizes. The dykes are mostly parallel to
the foliation of the surrounding gneisses, but some are cross-cutting. The pegmatitic
granite also appears as larger bodies that show an indefinite contact with the
surrounding gneisses, which often differs from the more distinct lithological contacts
encountered during drillcore logging.
In addition to these main rock types, this part of the tunnel also contains countless mica
gneiss (MGN), quartz gneiss (QGN) and mafic gneiss (MFGN) inclusions and lenses,
which vary considerably in shape and size. The mica gneiss is typically fine-grained and
consists of quartz, biotite and feldspars in variable proportions. The protolith of the
mica gneiss is thought to be psammitic. More calcic, skarn-like variants also exist, and
they can be identified by their layered, rimmed appearance, where the different layers
probably represent different sedimentary protoliths. The inclusions are very often
elongated parallel to the foliation and are commonly more densely fractured than the
surrounding rock (Figure 2-5G). Typically, the inclusions contain planar, smooth
fractures with calcite and pyrite fillings.
13
A B
C D
E F
G
Figure 2-5. Representative photographs of the main lithologies encountered in the ONKALO
access tunnel. A) Moderately-banded VGN with moderate amounts of thin PGR neosome veins,
chainage 4475-4480, view towards SW. B) Distinctly-banded VGN with whitish coarse-
grained PGR neosome veins, chainage 4045, view towards NE. C) The diatexitic gneiss at
chainage 3645-3650 has irregular, schlieren-like structures and a nebulitic appearance, view
towards NE. D) Symmetrically-banded SGN at chainage 3595, view towards S. E) Whitish,
coarse-grained PGR in the roof of the tunnel at chainage 4445, view toward S. F) Coarse-
grained, reddish PGR at chainage 3775, view towards N. G) Coarse-grained, reddish PGR
with abundantly fractured MGN inclusions at chainage 3935, view towards NE.
14
The geological mapping of ductile features includes observations of foliations, fold axes
and fold axial planes. These features are mapped during the systematic mapping phase
and the data are collected on the same data sheet as the fracture data (Appendix 3). In
addition to the systematic foliation mapping, intensively-foliated deformation zones are
investigated in more detail during the supplementary studies, with the aim of
distinguishing high-grade ductile deformation zones (HGI, see Section 2.1.3.2).
The foliation is classified according to a system that takes into account the intensity and
type of foliation (Milnes et al. 2006). The intensity is classified from 03,
corresponding to intensity values from non-existent to high. The different foliation
types are gneissic (GNE), banded (BAN), schistose (SCH), irregular (IRR) and massive
(MAS). The intensity of foliation in the gneissic, banded and schistose types is
described using values 13. The intensity value for irregular and massive types is 0.
The systematic fracture mapping is the most detailed and time-consuming part of the
geological mapping process in the ONKALO tunnel. The fracture attribute data includes
orientation, number of fractures clustered together, the space between these clustered
fractures, trace length, displacement, the surface and fillings, aperture, termination,
undulation, main rock type for the fracture, water leakage from the fracture and
lineation (or a so-called F vector) for fractures with any discernible movement. After the
mapping, all observations are measured with a tachymeter to obtain precise data on
fracture locations (Figure 2-6). These data are compatible with the Gemcom Surpac
3D program, the use of which is a considerable improvement from the early state of
ONKALO mapping, when all fracture and foliation observations were drawn as a sketch
on paper and later digitised into a scanned 3D tunnel point cloud using the Gemcom
Surpac3D program.
Figure 2-6. Visualisation of the fracture data measured from demonstration tunnel 1
(ONK-TDT-4399-44) in the Gemcom Surpac 3D program. The red colour marks the
left wall, the green the right wall and the blue colour marks the roof and the floor of the
ONKALO tunnel.
15
Fractures within the same mapped section, having the same attribute data, can be
considered to be clustered. Clustering of the fractures means that if two or more closely-
spaced fractures have the same attribute data (orientation, roughness, fracture
mineralogy, etc.), they are grouped together. However, to obtain the correct statistical
attribute data, all fractures within these clusters are taken into account when the data are
processed. The upper limit of fractures clustered together is 10 and the maximum
distance between the fractures is 1 m. It is important to ensure that the attribute data are
identical for all clustered fractures. This prevents the oversimplification of the mapping
data and ensures a high standard in the systematic mapping procedures in the ONKALO
access tunnel.
The minimum fracture trace length measured is 0.25 m, which was proposed in the
previous evaluation report (Engstrm & Kemppainen 2008). This minimum limit is
considered reasonable, since it is a real challenge for the geologist to observe all the
short fractures during the mapping stage. Also, the difference between natural fractures
and fractures induced by the process of excavation is difficult to distinguish when
considering very short fractures (less than 0.25 m). As mentioned in the previous
evaluation report, fewer than 10% of the fractures in chainage 0-2405 had a trace length
of 0.24 m or less; the cut-off of 0.25 m is also reasonable in the light of discrete fracture
network models (Engstrm & Kemppainen 2008).
The improved procedure for observing fracture filling width and the fracture filling
minerals was introduced after the evaluation report (Engstrm & Kemppainen 2008). In
the actual systematic mapping spreadsheet, there are columns for 12 main fracture
filling minerals and their widths and a column for the total filling width. The
improvement has increased the accuracy of the data collected from the tunnel and
enhanced the modelling of individual fractures. It also makes comparison of data
between the drillholes and the tunnel easier.
2.1.2.9 Alteration
According to the current geological model (Posiva 2012), the bedrock at Olkiluoto was
subjected to extensive hydrothermal activity and local metasomatic alteration, which
were linked to the tectonic and depositional evolution of the rock mass. Zones with high
permeability have repeatedly acted as pathways for hydrothermal fluids. Weathering
processes and the circulation of meteoric water have also contributed to the alteration of
the bedrock. The main alteration types are kaolinisation and illitisation (formation of
clay minerals), carbonatisation, graphitisation and sulphidisation. Some seritisation and
epidotisation also occurs.
mentioned in the Notes line at the heading of the mapping sheet. (see Table 2-3, and
Appendix 3).
Fracture-specific water leakages, where present, are also characterised during the
systematic geological mapping, as well as during round mapping (Appendix 3). The
characterisation of the water leakages is based on visual observations using the
following classification (Lehtinen & Hirvonen 2007) (1-5):
In the ONKALO, supplementary studies are carried out after round mapping and
systematic mapping. The supplementary studies include mapping of the TCFs, detailed
mapping and descriptions of deformation zone intersections, hydrogeological mapping
as well as petrological, mineralogical and hydrogeochemical sampling. For practical
reasons, all these studies are performed after the two main mapping stages.
TCFs observed in the ONKALO are measured and numbered in a sequential manner.
The TCFs are accurately measured with a tachymeter to obtain the exact coordinates of
the fracture traces (Figure 2-7). TCFs are already recognized during the round and
systematic mapping, but their detailed definition and description is completed during
this last mapping phase. Also, so-called M-fractures (Major Fractures) that have a
significant length, but do not fulfil TCF criteria, are also measured and numbered in a
sequential manner.
17
The RG classification is used for the definition of TCF fractures, so that every fracture
determined as a TCF is at least a RiI fracture zone (Table 2-1).
One or a few nearly planar fractures, with a length over 20 m or that clearly continue
RiI
outside the tunnel.
RiIII Densely fractured section, where fracture spacing is less than 10 cm.
RiIV-Rk3 Fractured section, where fracture spacing is 10-30 cm. Clay filled fractures.
Densely fractured section, where fracture spacing is less than 10 cm. Clay filled
RiIV-Rk4
fractures.
Figure 2-7. Visualisation of accurately measured TCFs using the Gemcom Surpac 3D
program, ONKALO access tunnel chainage 3480-3500.
18
An important part of the supplementary studies and the geological mapping is the
definition and description of deformation zones that intersect the tunnel (see the
spreadsheet attached as Appendix 5). In the deformation zones, the bedrock is more
fractured, deformed or altered than in the surrounding rock. The type of the deformation
zone intersection is determined following the methodology explained in Milnes et al.
(2007) and used in the geological modelling of the Olkiluoto site (Paulamki et al.
2006, Mattila et al. 2008). This methodology is derived from the fault rock
classification of Sibson (1977), which was further developed by Scholz (2002). The
deformation zones can be divided into five categories, two with brittle and two with
ductile character and one intermediate category (Table 2-2). Brittle deformation zones
display cohesionless or low-cohesive deformation products: gouge, breccia, fractured
rock and their partially- or wholly-mineralized equivalents, whilst the semi-brittle and
ductile deformation zones display cohesive deformation products (Milnes et al. 2007).
In the ONKALO tunnels, the hydrogeological mapping is carried out once a year to
assess how water leakages in the tunnel change during construction. These data will be
used to assist in the planning of research activities and to determine how well the
grouting and shotcreting of the tunnel have performed. In addition, all new water-
conductive fractures appearing during excavation are characterized in detail.
Also, Schmidt hammer testing of the major rock types of the excavated section is carried
out during this supplementary mapping stage to measure the surface hardness and
penetration resistance of the rock.
Petrological sampling is carried out systematically along the main tunnel up to chainage
4515, while mineralogical and hydrogeochemical sampling is carried out at specific
locations.
The mapping procedure used in deposition holes differs somewhat from the mapping
procedure used for tunnels. No round mapping is carried out and the geological
mapping starts directly from systematic mapping. Determining the exact locations of the
observations made in a deposition hole is challenging, because the use of a tachymeter
in a deposition hole is severely limited or even impossible. Therefore, deposition holes
are laser scanned and the data used to obtain a detailed image, on which all observations
are drawn, and later digitized into a 3D layout using the Gemcom Surpac program
(See Figure 2-8). It is also possible to take digital photos, and by using a 3D
measurement application, to determine exact coordinates for all the observations.
Supplementary studies are carried out where required. For example, deformation zones
might already have been described, while mapping the tunnel hosting the deposition
hole. In that case, a short description can be written in the notes field of the mapping
20
The mapping parameters are mainly the same as those used in tunnel mapping. The
main difference is that the term HCF (Hole Crosscutting Fracture) is used instead of
TCF. The HCF is defined as one continuous fracture, which crosscuts the whole
perimeter of a deposition hole, or crosscuts both the floor and the apparent roof of the
hole, i.e. a fracture without visible termination on the hole surface.
A large number of geological and geotechnical parameters are recorded during the three
mapping stages - the round mapping, the systematic mapping and supplementary studies
- in the ONKALO. Descriptions and examples of these parameters are presented below.
The information in the data acquisition spreadsheets is divided into three sections: a
heading (Table 2-3), a Q classification (Table 2-4) and the other structure parameters
(Table 2-5). The two separate mapping stages, round mapping and systematic mapping,
are described in adjacent columns to show which parameters are mapped during the
different phases. Table 2-3 illustrates (with examples) the descriptive part of the data
acquisition spreadsheet used for the two mapping stages. The spreadsheet for
deformation zones is also similarly divided and is shown in Table 2-6.
Table 2-4 illustrates the rock mechanical (Q classification) part of the data acquisition
spreadsheet for the two mapping stages. This Table also contains a column denoting
which parameters are calculated and which are estimated during the mapping (see
Appendix 4: spreadsheet used in the processing).
22
Table 2-3. Description of the geological data acquisition spreadsheet headings used during
mapping in the ONKALO access tunnel. A grey box indicates that that mapping parameter is
used in only one of the two mapping stages.
1-12 Official
Geologist abbreviation
(acquired from
TVO permit
NJK = Juhani Norokallio NJK = Juhani Norokallio
database) of the
RMAA= Emmi Eroma RMAA = Emmi Eroma
geologist and/or
assistant who
completed the
mapping.
1-13 Page The page number
if several pages
Numerical value Numerical value
are used.
Table 2-4. Description of the Q value part of the geological data acquisition spreadsheet used
during mapping in the ONKALO access tunnel. A grey box indicates that that mapping
parameter is used in only one of the two mapping stages.
Table 2-5. Description of the various mapping parameters used in the ONKALO access tunnel.
A grey box indicates that that mapping parameter is used in only one of the two mapping stages.
The dashed sections indicate that no new values/limits are proposed for that mapping
parameter.
3-17 If above is Y,
Fracture then the ID (Joint Joint ID
termination ID) of the JO, TCF number.
#2 (to) fracture it
combines with.
3-18 Rock Rock type that VGN,DGN,
type code the structural SGN,PGR,
element mostly VGN, DGN,
JO, TCF,
SGN, PGR,
occurs in. See JO, TCF, FOL, MGN,QGN,
rock type codes MGN,QGN,
FOL FAX, TGG,KFP,
in section 3.1. TGG, KFP,
AXP, LIN
DB, MFGN
DB,MFGN
3-20 Intensity of
Foliation foliation, see 0-3
FOL
(intensity) details in Section
3.2.
3-21 Water Current water Dry,
leakage leakage from a Damp,
(fractures) fracture, see Dry, Damp, Wet,
details in Section Wet,
3.7. JO, TCF JO, TCF
Dripping, Dripping,
Flowing
Flowing
Table 2-6. Description of the geological data acquisition spreadsheet headings used during
zone intersection mapping in the ONKALO access tunnel.
4-14 Water The rating for the water inflow and Dry, Damp, Wet, Dripping, Flowing
leakage pressure effects, which may cause
outwash of discontinuity infillings.
4-15 Sketch Mention if sketch is drawn yes, no
4-16 Sample Mention if sample is taken yes, no
4-17 Connection Name of the formerly mapped zone ONK-BFI-4377
to previously which in high probability is a part of
known the same larger deformation zone.
intersections/defo
rmation zones
4-18 Fracture Fracture codes of those fractures, 55_1, 60_58
code(s) (within which are within the core
the core zone/damage zone. Codes are given in
zone/within the systematic mapping phase.
damage zone)
4-19 Zone 1. Contains description, width (m), Ri For details, see Appendix 5
Characteristics of Class and Q Classification of the pre
the "Pre core, core, damage zone
damage zone"
4-20 Zone 2. Contains description, width (m), Ri For details, see Appendix 5
Characteristics of Class and Q Classification of the core
the "Core zone" zone
4-21 Zone 3. Contains description, width (m), Ri For details, see Appendix 5
Characteristics of Class and Q Classification of the post
the "Post core, core, damage zone
damage zone"
34
35
The current mapping procedure is described in Chapter 2. Many changes have been
made since Engstrm & Kemppainen (2008) was published and the development of the
mapping procedure is still continuing. In this Chapter, the possible changes to and
development of the mapping procedure for the ONKALO tunnel (and associated
openings) are listed and discussed.
All input and ideas for improving the geological and geotechnical mapping procedures
are welcome.
No requirements for the development of round mapping practises have been identified
up to date.
It is suggested that two new columns should be added in the systematic mapping
spreadsheet to provide more accurate information about each mapped section - one for
the leucosome content of the section and the other for the type of the mineralogical
alteration of the section.
It is suggested that two columns be added in the systematic mapping spreadsheet for
more detailed description of the mineralogical alteration. One column would be needed
to indicate the type of the alteration and one to describe the mineral(s) present. The
categories for the alteration type would be pervasive alteration, fracture controlled
alteration and none, if no mineralogical alteration is observed in the mapped section.
The alteration mineral column would indicate which mineral is replacing the original
mineral particles (e.g. graphite, calcite, kaolinite).
During the detailed mapping of the deformation zone intersections, the location of
possible water leakages should be recorded, i.e. whether the leakage is located within
the pre-core, core, or post-core zone. In addition, a more detailed description of the
36
leakage(s) should be provided, and if feasible, the locations of the main leakages should
be measured with the tachymeter. Possible changes to the mapping sheet should be
evaluated.
37
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to thank Paula Kosunen (Posiva Oy) and Tim McEwen (McEwen
consulting) for reviewing the report and for valuable and constructive comments. The
author would also like to give a special thanks to Emmi Eroma for starting this project.
38
39
REFERENCES:
Barton, N. 2002. Some new Q-value correlations to assist in site characterization and
tunnel design. International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 39 (2002)
Elsevier Science Ltd. p. 185216.
Barton, N. Lien & R. Lunde, J. 1974. Engineering classification of rock masses for the
design of tunnel support. Rock Mechanics, Vol 6, No 4, p. 189236.
Deere, D.U., Hendron, A.J., Patton, F.D. & Cording, E.J. 1967. Design of surface and
near surface construction in rock. In Failure and breakage of rock, proc. 8th U.S. symp.
rock mech., (ed. C. Fairhurst), 237-302. New York: Soc. Min. Engrs, Am. Inst. Min.
Metall. Petrolm Engrs.
Gardemeister, R., Johansson, S., Korhonen, P., Patrikainen, P., Tuisku, T. & Vhsarja,
P. 1976. Application of the Finnish engineering geological classification (in Finnish).
Espoo, Finland: Technical Research Centre of Finland, Geotechnical laboratory,
Research note 25, 39 p.
Grimstad, E. & Barton, N. 1993. Updating of the Q-system for NMT. Proc. of the
International Symposium on Sprayed Concrete. Fagernes, Norway. Kompen, E. Opsahl,
Berg. Norwegian Concrete Association, p. 4666.
Krki, A. & Paulamki, S. 2006. Petrology of Olkiluoto. Eurajoki, Finland: Posiva Oy.
Posiva 2006-02. 77 p.
Korhonen, K-H., Gardemaister, R., Jskelinen, H., Niini, H. & Vhsarja, P. 1974.
Rakennusgeologinen kallioluokitus (The Engineering geological bedrock classification
in Finnish). Technical Research Centre of Finland, Geotechnical laboratory, Research
note 12, 78 p.
Lehtinen, A. & Hirvonen, H. 2007. Water sampling from the leaking structures and
fractures after grouting in ONKALO 2005-2006. Eurajoki, Finland: Posiva Oy. Posiva
2006-28.
Mattila, J., Aaltonen, I., Kemppainen, K., Wikstrm, L., Paananen, M., Paulamki, S.,
Front, K., Gehr, S., Krki, A. & Ahokas, T. 2008. Geological model of the Olkiluoto
site, Version 1.0. Working report 2007-92. Posiva Oy, Eurajoki. 510 p.
Milnes, A. G., Hudson, J. A., Wikstrm, L. & Aaltonen, I., 2006. Foliation: Geological
Background, Rock Mechanics Significance, and Preliminary Investigations at Olkiluoto.
Working Report 2006-03. Posiva Oy, Eurajoki. 79 p.
40
Milnes, A. G., Aaltonen, I., Ahokas, T., Front, K., Gehr, S., Kemppainen, K., Krki,
A., Mattila, J., Paananen, M., Paulamki, S. & Wikstrm, L. 2007. Geological Data
Acquisition for Site Characterisation at Olkiluoto: a Framework for the Phase of
Underground Investigations. Working report 2007-32. Posiva Oy, Eurajoki. 133 p.
Paulamki, S., Paananen, M., Front, K., Gehr, S., Krki, A., Aaltonen, I., Ahokas, T.,
Kemppainen, K., Mattila, J. & Wikstrm, L. 2006. Geological model of the Olkiluoto
site, Version 0. Working report 2006-37. Posiva Oy, Eurajoki. 355 p.
Posiva Oy, 2012. Olkiluoto Site Description 2011 (ISBN 978-951-652-179-7). Posiva
Report 2011-02. Posiva Oy, Eurajoki.
Scholz, C.H. 2002. The Mechanics of Earthquakes and Faulting. 2nd Edition.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom.
Sibson, R.H., 1977. Fault rocks and fault mechanisms. Journal of the Geological
Society (London), 133, p. 191-214.
Wimmenauer, W. & Bryhni, I. 2007. Migmatites and related rocks. In Fettes, D. and
Desmons, J. (eds.) Metamorphic Rocks A Classification and Glossary of Terms.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom. p. 43-45.
41
4 APPENDICES:
Appendix 1: Description of the various Q parameters: RQD, Jn, Jr, Ja, Jw and SRF.
Appendix 2: Spreadsheet used in the round mapping of the ONKALO access tunnel.
Appendix 3: Spreadsheet used in the systematic geological mapping of the ONKALO
access tunnel.
Appendix 4: Spreadsheet used in the processing of the systematic geological mapping
data acquired in the ONKALO access tunnel.
Appendix 5: Spreadsheet used for mapping deformation zone intersections in the
ONKALO access tunnel.
Appendix 6: Fracture filling mineral abbreviations used in systematic geological
mapping of the ONKALO access tunnel.
42
43
Appendix 1. Description of RQD (1), Jn (2), Jr (3), Ja (4), Jw (5) and SRF (6) (Grimstad &
Barton 1993).
44
45
Appendix 2. Spreadsheet used in the round mapping of the ONKALO access tunnel.
46
47
Appendix 3. Spreadsheet used in the systematic mapping of the ONKALO access tunnel.
48
49
Appendix 5. Spreadsheet used for the mapping of deformation zone intersections in the
ONKALO access tunnel.
ZONE INTERSECTION
DATA IMPORT
30_2,30_4,30_3,30_14,30_13,30_9,30
ONKTDT439944BFI22.3,ONKTT4399 30_5,30_7
Dry No No _10,30_30,30_31,30_23,30_27,30_26,
BFI62.6 ,30_6.
30_28.
Zone1 Characteristics of the "Pre core zone, damage zone" Hanging wall
Description Width (m)
Theprecorezoneispoorlydevelopedandthecorebeginsstraightfromintactrockinboth 1
walls.Theonlyexceptionisthefloorwherefaultconnectedfracturesformaprecore
influencezonethatis11.5mwide.Thewallrockbefore,withinandaftert Ri-Class
RiII
Q-CLASSIFICATION
RQD Jn Jr Ja Jw SRF Q Q-quality
100 0.5 3 4 1 5 30.000 Good
Zone2 Characteristics of the "Core zone" HWD
Description Width (m)
Thecorezoneconsistsofa220cmwide,intensivelyfracturedgraphiteandsulphiderich 0.1
core.Inthefloora~5cmwidecalcitecementedbrecciahasbeendevelopedinsomeparts
ofthecore.Theprofileofthemainfaultplanevariesfromplanartosli
Ri-Class
RiIVRk4
Q-CLASSIFICATION
RQD Jn Jr Ja Jw SRF Q Q-quality
20 2 0.5 6 1 5 0.167 VeryPoor
Zone3 Characteristics of the "Post core zone, damage zone" Footwall
Description Width (m)
Thepostcorezoneconsistsofincreasedfracturingoccuringafterthecorezone.Thepost 1
corezonealsocontainslargeamountsofsuphidesandgraphiteintherockmatrixandon
thefracturesurfaces.Thesemineralsoccurintherockmatrixitselfandt
Ri-Class
RiII
Q-CLASSIFICATION
RQD Jn Jr Ja Jw SRF Q Q-quality
80 4 0.5 4 1 5 0.500 VeryPoor
52
53
BT = biotite KV = quartz
CC = calcite LM = laumontite
CU = chalcopyrite MH = molybdenite
DO = dolomite MK = pyrrhotite
EP = epidote MO = montmorillonite
GR = graphite MS = feldspar
GS = gismondite MU = muscovite
HB = hydrobiotite NA = nakrite
HE = hematite PA = palygorsgite
IL = illite PB = galena
KA = kaolinite SR = sericite
KL = chlorite VM = vermiculite
KM = K-feldspar ZN = sphalerite
54
LIST OF REPORTS
POSIVA-REPORTS 2015
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