1

1
CONCEPT OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Unit Structure :
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Meaning and nature of teacher education1
CONCEPT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
Unit Structure :
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Meaning and nature of teacher education
1.3 Need, scope and objectives of teacher education
1.4 Changing context of teacher education in the Indian scenario
1.5 Changing context of teacher education in the global scenario
1.6 Let us sum up
1.0 OBJECTIVES :
After reading this unit, you will be able to :
Explain the meaning of teacher education.
Discuss the nature of teacher education.
Enumerate the objectives of teacher education.
Describe the scope of teacher education.
Explain the changing context of teacher education in the Indian
scenario.
Analyze the changing context of teacher education in the global
scenario.
1.1 INTRODUCTION :
An educational institution performs a significant function of
providing learning experiences to lead their students from the
darkness of ignorance to the light of knowledge. The key personnel
in the institutions who play an important role to bring about this
transformation are teachers. As stated by NCTE (1998) in Quality
Concerns in Secondary Teacher Education, The teacher is the most
important element in any educational program. It is the teacher who
is mainly responsible for implementation of the educational process
at any stage. This shows that it is imperative to invest in the
preparation of teachers, so that the future of a nation is secure. The
2
importance of competent teachers to the nations school system can
in no way be overemphasized. The National Curriculum Framework
2005 places demands and expectations on the teacher, which need to
be addressed by both initial and continuing teacher education.
1.2 MEANING AND NATURE OF TEACHER
EDUCATION :
Meaning of Teacher Education :
It is well known that the quality and extent of learner
achievement are determined primarily by teacher competence,
sensitivity and teacher motivation.
The National Council for Teacher Education has defined
teacher education as A programme of education, research and
training of persons to teach from pre-primary to higher education
level.
Teacher education is a programme that is related to the
development of teacher proficiency and competence that would
enable and empower the teacher to meet the requirements of the
profession and face the challenges therein.
According to Goods Dictionary of Education Teacher
education means, all the formal and non-formal activities and
experiences that help to qualify a person to assume responsibilities
of a member of the educational profession or to discharge his
responsibilities more effectively.
In 1906-1956, the program of teacher preparation was called
teacher training. It prepared teachers as mechanics or technicians. It
had narrower goals with its focus being only on skill training. The
perspective of teacher education was therefore very narrow and its
scope was limited. As W.H. Kilpatric put it, Training is given to
animals and circus performers, while education is to human beings.
Teacher education encompasses teaching skills, sound
pedagogical theory and professional skills.
Teacher Education = Teaching Skills + Pedagogical theory +
Professional skills.
Teaching skills would include providing training and practice in the
different techniques, approaches and strategies that would help the
3
teachers to plan and impart instruction, provide appropriate
reinforcement and conduct effective assessment. It includes effective
classroom management skills, preparation and use of instructional
materials and communication skills.
Pedagogical theory includes the philosophical, sociological and
psychological considerations that would enable the teachers to have
a sound basis for practicing the teaching skills in the classroom. The
theory is stage specific and is based on the needs and requirements
that are characteristic of that stage.
Professional skills include the techniques, strategies and approaches
that would help teachers to grow in the profession and also work
towards the growth of the profession. It includes soft skills,
counseling skills, interpersonal skills, computer skills, information
retrieving and management skills and above all life long learning
skills.
An amalgamation of teaching skills, pedagogical theory and
professional skills would serve to create the right knowledge,
attitude and skills in teachers, thus promoting holistic development.
Nature of Teacher Education :
1) Teacher education is a continuous process and its pre-service and
in-service components are complimentary to each other.
According to the International Encyclopedia of Teaching and
Teacher education (1987), Teacher education can be considered
in three phases : Pre-service, Induction and In-service. The three
phases are considered as parts of a continuous process.
2) Teacher education is based on the theory that Teachers are
made, not born in contrary to the assumption, Teachers are
born, not made. Since teaching is considered an art and a
science, the teacher has to acquire not only knowledge, but also
skills that are called tricks of the trade.
3) Teacher education is broad and comprehensive. Besides preservice
and in-service programmes for teachers, it is meant to be
involved in various community programmes and extension
activities, viz adult education and non-formal education
programmes, literacy and development activities of the society.
4) It is ever-evolving and dynamic. In order to prepare teachers who
are competent to face the challenges of the dynamic society,
Teacher education has to keep abreast of recent developments
and trends.
4
5) The crux of the entire process of teacher education lies in its
curriculum, design, structure, organization and transaction
modes, as well as the extent of its appropriateness.
6) As in other professional education programmes the teacher
education curriculum has a knowledge base which is sensitive to
the needs of field applications and comprises meaningful,
conceptual blending of theoretical understanding available in
several cognate disciplines. However the knowledge base in
teacher education does not comprise only an admixture of
concepts and principles from other disciplines, but a distinct
gestalt emerging from the conceptual blending, making it
sufficiently specified.
7) Teacher education has become differentiated into stage-specific
programmes. This suggests that the knowledge base is adequately
specialized and diversified across stages, which should be
utilized for developing effective processes of preparing entrant
teachers for the functions which a teacher is expected to perform
at each stage.
8) It is a system that involves an interdependence of its Inputs,
Processes and Outputs.
Check Your Progress :
1. Explain the meaning of Teacher Education.
2. Describe the nature of Teacher Education.
5
1.3 NEED, SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES OF TEACHER
EDUCATION :
Need of teacher education :
The American Commission on Teacher Education rightly observes,
The quality of a nation depends upon the quality of its citizens.
The quality of its citizens depends not exclusively, but in critical
measure upon the quality of their education, the quality of their
education depends more than upon any single factor, upon the
quality of their teacher.
In his Call for Action for American Education in the 21st
Century in 1996, Clinton indicated that :
Every community should have a talented and dedicated teacher
in every classroom. We have enormous opportunity for ensuring
teacher quality well into the 21st century if we recruit promising
people into teaching and give them the highest quality
preparation and training.
The need for teacher education is felt due to the following reasons;
1) It is common knowledge that the academic and professional
standards of teachers constitute a critical component of the
essential learning conditions for achieving the educational goals
of a nation. The focus of teacher preparation had to shift from
training to education if it had to make a positive influence on the
quality of curriculum transaction in classrooms and thereby pupil
learning and the larger social transformation. The aspects that
need greater emphasis are;
the length of academic preparation,
the level and quality of subject matter knowledge,
the repertoire of pedagogical skills that teachers possess to
meet the needs of diverse learning situations,
the degree of commitment to the profession,
sensitivity to contemporary issues and problems and
the level of motivation.
This is not possible if teacher preparation focused only on
training. Holistic teacher building is necessary and therefore
teacher education needed more emphasis than mere training.
6
2) Educating all children well depends not only on ensuring that
teachers have the necessary knowledge and skills to carry out
their work, but also that they take responsibility for seeing that
all children reach high levels of learning and that they act
accordingly.
3) People come to teacher education with beliefs, values,
commitments, personalities and moral codes from their
upbringing and schooling which affect who they are as teachers
and what they are able to learn in teacher education and in
teaching. Helping teacher candidates examine critically their
beliefs and values as they relate to teaching, learning and subject
matter and form a vision of good teaching to guide and inspire
their learning and their work is a central task of teacher education
(Fieman-Nemser, 2001).
4) The National Academy of Education Committees Report
(Darling-Hammond and Bransford, 2005) wrote that :
On a daily basis, teachers confront complex decisions that rely
on many different kinds of knowledge and judgement and that
can involve high stakes outcomes for students future. To make
good decisions, teachers must be aware of the many ways in
which student learning can unfold in the context of development,
learning differences, language and cultural influences, and
individual temperaments, interests and approaches to learning.
In addition to foundational knowledge about the areas of learning
and performance listed in the above quotation, teachers need to
know how to take the steps necessary to gather additional
information that will allow them to make more grounded
judgements about what is going on and what strategies may be
helpful. More importantly, teachers need to keep what is best for
the student at the centre of their decision making.
5) Teacher education like any other educational intervention, can
only work on those professional commitments or dispositions
that are susceptible to modification. While we cant remake
someones personality, we can reshape attitudes towards the
other and develop a professional rather than a personal role
orientation towards teaching as a practice.
6) The Ministry of Education document Challenge of Education :
A Policy Perspective (1985) has mentioned, Teacher
performance is the most crucial input in the field of education.
7
Whatever policies may be laid down, in the ultimate analysis
these have to be implemented by teachers as much through their
personal example as through teaching learning processes. India
has reached the threshold of the development of new
technologies which are likely to revolutionise the classroom
teaching. Unless capable and committed are teachers in service,
the education system cannot become a suitable and potential
instrument of national development.
The teacher is required to acquire adequate knowledge, skills,
interests and attitudes towards the teaching profession. The teachers
work has become more complicated and technical in view of the new
theories of psychology, philosophy, sociology, modern media and
materials. The teacher can be made proficient with well planned,
imaginative pre-service and in-service training programmes.
Scope of Teacher Education :
The scope of teacher education can be understood in the following
ways;
Teacher education at different levels of education
Triangular basis of teacher education
Aspects of teacher education
Teacher Education at different levels of Education : Teacher
education reaches teachers at all levels of education, namely Preprimary,
Primary, Elementary, Secondary, Higher Secondary and the
Tertiary. The needs and requirements of students and education vary
at each level. Hence level and stage-specific teacher preparation is
essential. Teacher education also helps in the development of
teaching skills in teachers of professional institutions. The teachers
in professional institutions have only the theoretical and practical
knowledge of their respective subjects. They require specialized
teacher training inputs to deal with students entering their
professions. Teacher education also reaches special education and
physical education. Thus where there are teachers, there would be
teacher education.
The knowledge base is adequately specialized and diversified
across stages, in order to develop effective processes of preparing
entrant teachers for the functions which a teacher is expected to
perform at each stage.
8
Triangular Basis of Teacher education : Construction of the
relevant knowledge base for each stage of education requires a high
degree of academic and intellectual understanding of matter related
to teacher education at each stage. This involves selection of
theoretical knowledge from disciplines cognate to education,
namely, psychology, sociology and philosophy, and converting it
into forms suitable for teacher education. Teacher education derives
its content from the disciplines of Philosophy, Sociology and
Psychology. These disciplines provide the base for better
understanding and application of Teacher education. The
Philosophical basis provides insights to the student teachers about
the implications of- the various schools of philosophy, ancient and
modern philosophical thoughts, educational thoughts of
philosophical thinkers on education and its various aspects such as
curriculum construction and discipline. The Sociological basis helps
the student teachers to understand the role of society and its
dynamics in the educational system of a nation and the world at
large. It encompasses the ideals that influence national and
international scenes. The Psychological basis helps the student
teachers develop insights into students psychological make-up. This
enables the student teachers to understand their self, their students
and the learning situations such that they are able to provide
meaningful and relevant learning experiences to their students.
Aspects of Teacher Education : Teacher education is concerned
with the aspects such as, who (Teacher Educator), whom (Student
teacher), what (Content) and how (Teaching Strategy). Teacher
education is dependent upon the quality of teacher educators. The
quality of pedagogical inputs in teacher education programmes and
their effective utilization for the purpose of preparing prospective
teachers depend largely on the professional competence of teacher
educators and the ways in which it is utilized for strengthening the
teacher education programme. Teacher education, thus, first deals
with the preparation of effective teacher educators.
Teacher education reaches out to the student teachers by
providing the relevant knowledge, attitude and skills to function
effectively in their teaching profession. It serves to equip the student
teachers with the conceptual and theoretical framework within which
they can understand the intricacies of the profession. It aims at
creating the necessary attitude in student teachers towards the
stakeholders of the profession, so that they approach the challenges
posed by the environment in a very positive manner. It empowers
the student teachers with the skills (teaching and soft skills) that
would enable them to carry on the functions in the most efficient and
9
effective manner. Teacher education therefore pays attention to its
content matter.
Objectives :
Vision of teacher education :
Teacher education has to become more sensitive to the
emerging demands from the school system. For this, it has to prepare
teachers for a dual role of;
Encouraging, supportive and humane facilitator in teaching
learning situations who enables learners (students) to discover
their talents, to realize their physical and intellectual
potentialities to the fullest, to develop character and desirable
social and human values to function as responsible citizens; and,
An active member of the group of persons who make conscious
effort to contribute towards the process of renewal of school
curriculum to maintain its relevance to the changing societal
needs and personal needs of learners, keeping in view the
experiences gained in the past and the concerns and imperatives
that have emerged in the light of changing national development
goals and educational priorities.
These expectations suggest that teacher operates in a larger
context and its dynamics as well as concerns impinge upon her
functioning. That is to say, teacher has to be responsive and sensitive
to the social contexts of education, the various disparities in the
background of learners as well as in the macro national and global
contexts, national concerns for achieving the goals of equity, parity,
social justice as also excellence.
To be able to realize such expectations, TE has to comprise such
features as would enable the student teachers to
Care for children, and who love to be with them;
Understand children within social, cultural and political contexts;
View learning as a search for meaning out of personal
experience;
Understand the way learning occurs, possible ways of creating
conductive conditions for learning, differences among students in
respect of the kind, pace and styles of learning.
10
View knowledge generation as a continuously evolving process
of reflective learning.
Be receptive and constantly learning.
experience, and knowledge generation as a continuously
evolving process of reflective learning.
View knowledge not as an external reality embedded in
textbooks, but as constructed in the shared context of teachinglearning
and personal experience.
Own responsibility towards society, and work to build a better
world.
Appreciate the potential of productive work and hands-on
experience as a pedagogic medium both inside and outside the
classroom.
Analyze the curricular framework, policy implications and texts.
Have a sound knowledge base and basic proficiency in language.
The objectives of teacher education would therefore be to,
Provide opportunities to observe and engage with children,
communicate with and relate to children
Provide opportunities for self-learning, reflection, assimilation
and articulation of new ideas; developing capacities for self
directed learning and the ability to think, be self-critical and to
work in groups.
Provide opportunities for understanding self and others
(including ones beliefs, assumptions and emotions); developing
the ability for self analysis, self-evaluation, adaptability,
flexibility, creativity and innovation.
Provide opportunities to enhance understanding, knowledge and
examine disciplinary knowledge and social realities, relate
subject matter with the social milieu and develop critical
thinking.
Provide opportunities to develop professional skills in pedagogy,
observation, documentation, analysis, drama, craft, story-telling
and reflective inquiry.
11
1. Explain the need for Teacher Education.
2. Describe the scope of Teacher Education.
3. Enumerate the objectives of Teacher Education.
1.4 CHANGING CONTEXT OF TEACHER
EDUCATION IN THE INDIAN SCENARIO :
The well-established tradition of teaching and learning in
India has retained its inherent strength even under adverse
circumstances. The post-independence period was characterized by
major efforts being made to nurture and transform teacher education.
The system of teacher preparation has come under considerable
pressure as a result of the expansion and growth of school education,
through efforts to universalize elementary education. Having
inherited a foreign model of teacher preparation at the time of
independence from Britain in 1946, major efforts have been made to
adapt and up-date the teacher education curriculum to local needs, to
make it more context based, responsive and dynamic with regard to
best meeting the particular needs of India. The current system of
teacher education is supported by a network of national, provincial
12
and district level resource institutions working together to enhance
the quality and effectiveness of teacher preparation programs at the
pre-service level and also through in-service programs for serving
teachers throughout the country.
Impact of National Policies :
India has made considerable progress in school education
since independence with reference to overall literacy, infrastructure
and universal access and enrolment in schools. Two major
developments in the recent years form the background to the present
reform in teacher educationThe
political recognition of Universalization of Elementary
Education that led to the Right to Education Bill, 2008 and
The National Curriculum Framework for school education, 2005.
The Bill has been passed by the Parliament and the Right to
Education Act has come into being making it mandatory for the state
to provide free and compulsory education to almost 20 crore
children in the 6-14 age group till class 8. The Act mandates a
schedule for the functioning of schools which includes a teacherstudent
ratio of 1:30 till a student population of 200 students at the
primary stage. This would increase the demand for qualified
elementary school teachers many times. The country has to address
the need of supplying well qualified and professionally trained
teachers in large numbers in the coming years. The lunch of the
massive Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan in 2002 and the recent financial
commitment and education cess to augment the Universal
Elementary Education mission have underscored the need to
adequately prepare teachers to address the growing demand for
quality education.
Developments in School education :
School education has seen significant development over the
decades since independence. According to Government estimates
(Selected Educational Statistics- 2004-2005 Ministry of Human
Resource Development, New Delhi) while 82% of the 20 crore
children of the 5-14 age group were in school as per enrolment
figures, it is equally true that 50% of these children are dropping out
before completing class 8 (MHRD Annual Report 2007-08). The
situation on the ground is still ridden with difficulties. Regional,
social, economic and gender disparities are posing new challenges.
This reality increases the challenge that the prospective teacher will
face in implementing the Right to Education Act.
13
The continued fragmentation of the school system poses the
severest challenge to the national declaration of catering to the basic
needs of all children in the 6-14 age group through the elementary
education in an inclusive setting. However increasing privatization
and differentiation of the schooling system have vitiated drastically
the right to quality education for all children.
Changing Role of the Teacher :
The current system of schooling poses tremendous burden on
children. Educationists are of the view that the burden arises from
treating knowledge as a given, an external reality existing outside
the learner and embedded in textbooks. Knowledge is essentially a
human construct, a continuously evolving process of reflective
learning. The NCF 2005, requires a teacher to be a facilitator of
childrens learning in a manner that the child is helped to construct
his/her knowledge. Education is not a mechanical activity of
information transmission and teachers are not information
dispensers. Teachers have to increasingly play the role of crucial
mediating agents through whom curriculum is transacted.
Challenges in Teacher Education :
Unprecedented expansion of teacher education institutions
and programmes during the past few years characterizes the teacher
education scenario of today. With increasing school enrolments and
the launch of pan-Indian primary education development
programmes like Operation Blackboard, District Primary Education
Programme, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan and Universalization of
Elementary Education, there was a natural increase in the demand
for teachers. Added to this, the backlog of untrained teachers in the
system and the essential requirement of pre-service teacher
certification for appointment as a teacher led to mounting pressure
on existing institutional capacity. The demand far exceeding supply,
market forces have taken over unprecedented rise in the number of
teacher education institutions in most parts of the country.
From 3489 courses in 3199 institutions and an intake of
2,74,072 in 2004, the numbers in December, 2008 swelled to 14,523
courses in 12,200 institutions with an intake of 10,73,661 at different
levels. This expansion has taken a heavy toll on quality parameters
like infrastructure, faculty learning resources and student profile.
Teacher education as a whole needs urgent and
comprehensive reform. There is a need to bring greater convergence
14
between professional preparation and continuing professional
development of teachers at all stages of schooling in terms of level,
duration and structure. Considering the complexity and significance
of teaching as a professional practice, it is imperative that the entire
enterprise of teacher education should be raised to a university level
and that the duration and rigour of programmes should be
appropriately enhanced.
Research and Innovation :
There is a need to increase research that documents practices
reflectively and analytically- whether it is of programs or of
individual classrooms so that it can be included in the body of
knowledge available for study to student teachers. University
departments and research institutions need to undertake such
research. In addition there is a need to innovate with different
models of teacher education. Institutional capacity and capability to
innovate and create are a pre-requisite for the pursuit of excellence.
Hence in the present scenario a lot of impetus has been given to
research. Many teacher educators are encouraged to take up either
major or minor research projects.
Inclusive Education :
There are two kinds of exclusion prevalent in schools; one is
the exclusion of the child with disabilities and the second is the
social exclusion of children who come from socially and
economically deprived backgrounds. There is a dire need to equip
teachers to overcome their biases in these regards and positively
handle these challenges.
The Persons with Disabilities (PWD) Act of 2005 provides
for free and compulsory education up to the age of 18 years for all
children with disabilities. The education of socially and
economically disadvantaged groups, especially the SCs, STs and
minorities has remained a primary national concern of education for
several years. The enrolment and retention of girls and therefore
their participation has also remained behind those of boys. Teachers
will have to be specially equipped if the social deprivation has to be
overcome through education.
Perspectives for equitable and sustainable development :
In order to develop future citizens who promote equitable and
sustainable development for all sections of society and respect for
all, it is necessary that they be educated through perspectives of
15
gender equity, perspectives that develop values for peace, respect the
rights of all, and that respect and value work. In the present
ecological crisis promoted by extremely commercialized and
competitive lifestyles, children need to be educated to change their
consumption patterns and the way they look at natural resources.
There is also a increasing violence and polarization both
within children and between them, that is being caused by increasing
stress in society. Education has a crucial role to play in promoting
values of peace based on equal respect of self and others. The NCF
2005 and subsequent development of syllabi and materials is
attempting to do this as well.
Role of Community knowledge in education :
It is important for the development of concepts in children as
well as the application of school knowledge in real life that the
formal knowledge is linked with community knowledge. The NCF
2005 promotes the inclusion of locally relevant content in the
curriculum as well as pedagogy.
ICT in Schools and e-learning :
With the onset and proliferation of Information and
Communication Technology (ICT), there is a growing demand that it
be included in school education. Teacher education has been
structured to orient and sensitize the teacher to distinguish between
developmentally appropriate and detrimental uses of ICT. It needs to
also equip teachers with competence to use ICT for their own
professional development.
In view of the above discussion the newly visualized Teacher
education program as put forth by NCERT is as follows;
Newly visualized Teacher Education ProgramEmphasizes
learning as a self-learning participatory process
taking place in social context of learners as well as wider social
context of the community to nation as a whole.
Puts full faith in self learning capacity of school children and
student teacher and evolving proper educative programme for
education.
Views the learner as an active participative person in learning.
His/her capabilities or potentials are seen not as fixed but capable
of development through experiences.
16
Views the teacher as a facilitator, supporting, encouraging
learners learning.
Does not treat knowledge as fixed, static or confined in books but
as something being constructed through various types of
experiences. It is created through discussion, evaluate, explain,
compare and contrasts i.e., through interaction.
Emphasizes that appraisal in such an educative process will be
continuous, will be self-appraisal, will be peer appraisal, will be
done by teacher educators, and formal type too.
Hence there would be a major shift;
From To
Teacher centric, stable designs Learner centric, flexible process
Teacher direction and
decisions
Learner autonomy
Teacher guidance and
monitoring
Facilitates, support and encourages
learning
Passive reception in learning Active participation in learning
Learning within the four walls
of the classroom
Learning in the wider social
context the class room
Knowledge as "given" and
fixed
Knowledge as it evolves and
created
Disciplinary focus Multidisciplinary, educational
focus
Linear exposure Multiple and divergent exposure
Appraisal, short, few Multifarious, continuous
EDUCATION IN THE GLOBAL SCENARIO :
Teacher education is a global profession that needs to be
understood properly. It is essential to grasp a global perspective of
the profession as it is today, to make assumptions about it in the near
future and to utilize the best thinking and instructional models
available in the present times.
17
Professionally, powerful teaching is very important and
increasing in our contemporary society as a result of the steam of
dynamic initiatives of human development and evolution. Due to
these developments and evolution, standards of learning would be
higher in the 21st century than it has been in the 20th century. As a
result teachers would need to acquire additional knowledge and
skills, both general and specific, to be able to survive and be
successful in the 21st century school environment.
Education has increasingly become important to success of
both individuals and nations. Growing evidence demonstrates that,
among all educational resources, teachers abilities are especially
critical contributors to students learning and consequently the
success of a nation to advance in its economic, social and political
spheres (Darling-Hammond, 2006).
1. Dynamic teacher education and training in the 21st century
globalised world.
For dynamic teacher education and training in the 21st century
globalised world, teacher education and training institutions must
design programmes that would help prospective teachers to know
and understand deeply; a wide array of things about teaching and
learning and in their social and cultural contexts. Further more,
they must be able to enact these understandings in complex
classroom situation serving increasingly diverse students. If the
21st century teacher is to succeed at this task, teacher education
and training institutions must further design programmes that
transform the kinds of settings in which both the novices and the
experienced teachers teach and become competent teachers. This
signifies that the enterprise of teacher education and training
must venture out further and further and engage even more
closely with schools in a mutual transformation agenda with all
the struggles involved. Importantly, the teacher education and
training institutions must take up the charge of educating policy
makers and the general public about what it actually takes to
teach effectively both in terms of knowledge and skills that are
needed and in terms of the school contexts that must be created
to allow teachers to develop and use what they know on behalf of
their students (Fullan, 1993).
2. Structure of a globalised teacher education and training curricula.
Throughout the world, reform and innovation initiatives by
nations have triggered much discussion about the structures of
18
teacher education and training programmes (Hbert, 2001) and
certification categories into which programmes presumably fit.
Building stronger models of teacher preparation in the 21st
century would require adequate and progressive knowledge
content for teaching as well as knowledge content for the
subjects that the teacher would be required to teach. In this
respect, the what of teacher education and training should be
the focus of the curriculum.
The what of globalised teacher education and training
curricula
There are many ways to configure the knowledge content that
teachers may need to render their services professionally
(Darling-Hammond, 2006). In articulating the core concepts and
skills that should be represented in a common-core curriculum
for teacher education and training, there is need for a frame work
to guide decisions and practice. In the United States, the National
Academy of Education Committee on Teacher Education
adopted a framework that is organised on three intersecting areas
of knowledge found in many statements of standards for teaching
which would be applicable for consideration in the 21st century
teacher education and training curricula. The list below is
represented in figure 1 diagrammatically
Knowledge of learners and how they learn and develop within
social contexts, including knowledge of language
development.
Understanding of curriculum content and goals, including the
subject matter and skills to be taught in the light of
disciplinary demands, student needs and the social purposes
of education; and
Understanding of and skills for teaching, including content
knowledge of specific subject, content pedagogical
knowledge for teaching diverse learners, as these are
informed by an understanding of assessment and of how to
construct and manage a productive classroom.
19
Figure 1 : Preparing Teachers for the 21st century
The curricula should take cognisance of the ever-changing
needs of society, the globalisation scenario, the advancement and
proliferation of technology and the way traditional classroom
teaching is loosing grounds for distance-virtual learning (Allen and
Thomas, 2000; Kantrowitz et al, 1987).
The content of the curricula should take account of the 21st
century classroom. Teachers should be trained on the state-of-the-art
hard and soft ware that will become common in the 21st century
classroom. Training in technology should encompass
telecommunications, satellite access, networking, the internet, videoconferencing
and digital components as well as optical technology.
These technologies will permit the 21st century teacher in the 21st
century classroom feel comfortable and teach effectively and
efficiently.
Another scenario is the changing pattern of world
employment. There are so many professions in our modern world
and this will multiply in the 21st century. The new directions in
teacher education and training should take cognisance of this so that
teachers are prepared to play multiple roles and take their rightful
positions in the teaching-learning environment to face these
challenges confidently. We can only improve the quality of
education worldwide for our students if we provide our teachers with
the required skills, knowledge and experiences. One which deserves
TEACHING AS A
PROFESSION
A VISION OF
PROFESSIONAL
PRACTICE IN THE
21ST CENTURY
LEARNING IN A DEMOCRACY
Knowledge of Learners and their
Development in Social Context
* Learning and Language
* Human Development
Knowledge of subject matter and
Curriculum goals
* Educational goals and purposes
for skills
* Content, subject matter
Knowledge of Teaching of subject
* Content knowledge
* Content and practice pedagogy
* Teaching diverse learners (Inclusive Teaching)
* Assessment and evaluation
* Clasoom management
20
mention is the ability of the 21st century teacher to control disruptive
behaviour of students in the classroom which makes it impossible
for the teacher to work efficiently and effectively and even in some
instances puts the security of both students and teachers at risk.
Problems of such nature may multiply in magnitude in schools in the
21st century and for this reason, teacher education and training
institutions should equip teachers with knowledge and skills in
management to be able to address such problems effectively and
efficiently.
Teacher education curricula should be inclusive and
emphasize on life long learning, development in technology and its
applications and strategies for planning viable alternatives to benefit
students. Emphasis should be on democratic principles and practices.
The institutionalization of democracy will make teachers see the role
of schools and their contribution to the development of democratic
values, skills and behaviour from the global perspective.
The how of globalised teacher education and training
curricula :
The programme designs and pedagogies should attend
specifically to the how of teacher education and training. It is
important to have well-chosen courses that include core content
knowledge for teaching and advanced research background. It is
equally important to organize prospective teachers experiences so
that they are able to integrate and use their acquired knowledge in a
skilful manner in the classroom, especially incorporating research in
whatever is taught so that the 21st century teacher becomes teacherresearcher
at heart. Often times, this becomes the most difficult
aspect of constructing a teacher education and training programme.
The onus of the issue is that teacher education and training should
attend to both the what and how so that knowledge for teaching, in
reality, shapes the teachers practice and enables them to become
adaptive experts who are versatile and capable of operating
effectively and efficiently in a variety of teaching and learning
environments using the tools that have been provided to them during
their training.
Lortie (1975) is of the view that accomplishing what has been
indicated above requires addressing special challenges in learning to
teach. Three interrelated issues are mentioned that learning to teach
requires that the 21st century teachers
Come to understand teaching in ways quite different from their
own experiences as students. This, Lortie refers to as the
21
apprenticeship of observation which refers to the learning that
takes place by virtue of being a student in traditional classroom
setting.
Learn not only to think like a teacher but also to act as a
teacher. This is termed by Kennedy (1999) as the problem of
enactment. Professionally, teachers need to understand and be
able to do a wide variety of things simultaneously.
Be able to understand and respond to the dense and multifaceted
nature of the classroom environment, juggling multiple academic
and social goals requiring trade-offs from time to time and day to
day (Jackson, 1974). In short, the 21st century teacher should
learn to deal with the problem of complexity that is made more
intense by the changing nature of teaching and learning in the
teaching-learning environment.
A question that needs explicit answers in relation to the topic
under discussion is How can programmes of teacher education
and training prepare the 21st century teacher to confront the
identified problems of learning to teach and others
unanticipated?
Studies (Oberg, 2001; Hbert, 2001; Glickman, 2001,
Weiner, 2001; McCall, 2001) examining seven exemplary teacher
education and training programmes find that despite outward
differences, the programmes had seven things in common namely :
A common clear vision of good teaching that permeates all
course work and clinical experiences, creating a coherent set of
learning experiences.
Well-defined standards of professional practice and performance
that are used to guide and evaluate course and clinical works.
A strong core curriculum taught in the context of practice and
grounded in knowledge of the child and adolescent development
and learning, an understanding of social and cultural contexts,
curriculum design, reform, and innovation, evaluation and
assessment and subject matter content and pedagogy knowledge
and skills.
Extended clinical experience, at least 24 to 36 weeks of
supervised practicum and student teaching opportunities in each
programme are carefully chosen to support the ideas presented in
simultaneous, closely monitored and interwoven course work.
22
Extensive use of a variety of case methods, teacher research,
performance assessment and portfolio evaluation that apply
learning to real problems of practice.
Explicit strategies to help students to confront their own deepseated
beliefs and assumptions about learning and students and to
learn about the experiences of people different from themselves.
Strong relationship, common knowledge and shared belief
among school-based and university-based faculty jointly engaged
in transforming teaching, schooling and teacher education and
training. (Darling-Hammond in Press).
Models of teacher education and training for the 21st century :
The new directions will have to grapple with models of
teacher education. The current models need reform and innovation
and new models would have to be developed that would enable
teachers to adapt comfortably to the changing times (Avalos, 1991;
Monnathoko, 1995; Popkewitz, 1987, Ginsberg, 1988; Nagel, 1992;
Al-Salmi, 1994; Shaeffer, 1990). The new models should emphasize
learning to do and learning to think so that we do not produce
learned monsters but learned thinkers.
1. There is absolute need for participatory teacher education. In
this model, teachers in training should play active role in the
training process. They should become participants in decisions
regarding the needs to which their training must respond; what
problems must be resolved in the day-to-day work environment
and what specific knowledge and skills must be transmitted to
them. In the participatory model teachers must be self-directed
and self-taught. Every aspect of the training must be based on
reflection and introspection. The needs, problems, statuses and
roles must be clearly defined, examined and analysed by them.
The actual concrete experiences of working with students should
be emphasized. Teachers must be able to collectively examine
and analyse their consequences, assisted by the trainers in
solving problems (Akinpelu, 1998; Akyeampong, 2003).
In the new directions, there should be what I would like to
term as better teaching model. Teachers should be able to :
Author and publish experiences and researches conducted.
Be central and key participants of curriculum reform and
innovation.
23
Encourage learners to work together in a cooperative spirit,
help each other with their work as well as be able to evaluate
themselves.
Help learners publish their own work online portfolios.
Write a bank of learning activities for learners to access at
their own pace.
Give learners a wider choice of learning activities according
to their own interests and capabilities.
Build up a personal portfolio of their best teaching plans so as
to share among other teachers.
Create exciting learning environment of active knowledge
creation and sharing.
2. The new teacher education and training should not lose site of the
power of technology for both teachers and students learning.
The real power of technology will come when teachers have been
trained well in them and have captured the potential of
technology themselves. In this way, teachers would be able to
contribute to model the behaviour that the students are expected
to learn thereby making them to grow up not to be learned
monsters but more human, creative and productive (Burke, 2000;
Holmes Group, 1986).
3. Need for in-depth content and practical knowledge of
research for teachers
Research must be a major priority in teacher education and
preparation in the 21st
century. Professional teachers naturally
seek answers to questions and solutions to problems that enable
them to help their students to learn. They are decision makers,
make thousands of choices on hourly basis regarding the choice
of texts, literature, appropriate and relevant technology
integration, curriculum pedagogy, assessment and measurement.
They are highly reflective and sensitive to the needs of their
students. They encounter failures and successes. However, much
of what teachers have to offer remains a secret. Their key to
success is a mystery. Teachers seek multiple means of looking at
their world of teaching and learning and that of their students by
unlocking the secrets within the classrooms. Research is one of
such potent keys to help unlock these secrets.
24
The concept research and its significance to teacher education
and training :
There is need to look at the concept research and how it
applies to the teaching-learning environment, especially in the 21st
century school environment. This will make the professional teacher
to identify with the fact that research is a major part of the
professional practice. For this reason, research in this discussion will
be taken to mean :
systematic study of a phenomenon with the aim of finding
explanations or solutions or understanding and finding patterns
among what is studied so that action could be taken to arrest or
improve the situation (Boaduo, 2001:4).
Problems of different kinds and magnitudes abound in the
teaching-learning environment and these would quadruple in the 21st
century school environment. Whenever such problems surface and
pose threat to the survival of the students and their progress, a
critical study would have to be conducted to find solutions to resolve
the threat and improve the situation.
Need to provide 21st century teachers with solid foundation in
research methods :
If the 21st century teachers are to consider themselves as
researchers and use research to improve their practice, then the
following conditions would need to be fulfilled in their entirety by
teacher education and training institutions (Boaduo and Babitseng,
2006).
All categories of teachers pre-school, primary, secondary and
tertiary should have as part of their training a concise detailed
course in research methods that would conceptualise and
concentrate on the work that teachers do in their day to day
practice and not just as a course to fulfil a condition for a degree
or diploma certificate.
When equipped with the required content and practical
knowledge and skills in research, teachers must be the first
people to initiate research in the teaching-learning environment
that has significant bearing on their professional practice because
they have the knowledge, skills and experiences about the needs
of their students and situations that confront them as well as the
25
lives of the education institutions that they are located and
operate daily.
Decisions taken about research in their operative environment
which affect their condition and progress of their practice as
professionals in the educative sphere must be theirs to make and
implement.
Educational researches that are related to teaching be it in the
classroom or for the general improvement of the overall school
environment (physical infrastructure, institutional materials or
methods, strategies and approaches) can be effective with the
agreement of teachers (UNESCO, 1979). This can only be
successfully accomplished if they are given in-depth training by
the institutions.
3. Globalising the teaching profession through a globalised
teachers council.
Currently, every country has its own teaching council with
specific objective to register professionally qualified teachers before
they can practice. Every country has its own requirements that
professional teachers should meet in order to be registered and
certificated to teach. Even in the same country, like the USA,
Australia and United Kingdom getting registered as a teacher entails
delaying. In the USA every state has its own teaching council that
registers professionally qualified teachers and certificated with a
license to practice. A critical look at this scenario reveals that
teacher transfer from one state to another in the same country
becomes a burden if not delays while teacher-shortages abound in
these countries.
In order to make teaching to become a mobile profession
world wide, there is need for 21st century globalised teaching
council. The mandate of this council should be to collaborate with
institutions and organizations responsible for teacher education and
training to develop a common-core teacher education and training
curricula as well as the establishment of teacher professional
registration council which would be mandated to issue professional
teaching licenses for practitioners that would be recognised
worldwide to make teacher mobility from region to region and
country to country easy and fulfilling.
1) The need for teacher-tracer studies and further professional
development by teacher training institutions after training.
26
2) Need for greater involvement of parents and communities in the
governance of the globalised schools.
1. Explain the changing context of Teacher Education in the Indian
scenario.
2. Explain the changing context of Teacher Education in the Global
scenario.
1.6 LET US SUM UP :
No nation develops beyond the quality of its education
system, which is highly dependent on the quality of its teachers.
Teachers should be given the most appropriate tools during and after
their training, including content knowledge and skills as well as
teaching methodology to be able to do their work professionally. The
globalisation concept, if taken into account, would require that
teachers and teaching should be recognised like all other professions
and should require stringent training and acquisition of knowledge
and skills and professional registration under a global council of
unified teacher registration body to allow for easy mobility of
teachers across national boundaries.
Unit End Exercises :
1. What is teacher education? Explain its nature and scope.
2. Explain the changing scenario of teacher education in global
context and its impact on India.
27
3. Write Short Notes :
a) Triangular basis of teacher education
b) Vision of teacher education
References :
1. Martin, R.J. (1994) Multicultural Social reconstructionist
education : Design for diversity in teacher education. Teacher
Education Quarterly 21(3)77-89, EJ 492(4).
2. OLoughlin, M. (1995) Daring the imagination, unlocking voices
of dissent and possibility in teaching. Theory into Practice
24(2)170-116, EJ 512860.
28
2A
TEACHER EDUCATION IN PRE
INDEPENDENCE INDIA
Unit structure:
2.A.0 Objectives
2.A.1 Introduction
2.A.2 Teacher Education in Pre-independence India
2.A.2.1 The Upanishadic period
2.A.2.2 The Buddhist period
2.A.2.3 The Medieval period
2.A.2.4 The Modern Period
2.A.3 Let us sum up
2.A.0 OBJECTIVES :
After reading this unit the students will be able to :
Gain knowledge of the system of education and teacher
preparation during the pre independence period.
Explain the relevance of recommendations made by the various
committees.
2.A.1 INTRODUCTION :
Teaching has been one of the oldest and respected professions
in the world. The role, functions, competence and preparation of
teachers have undergone a dramatic change from time to time but the
need for teachers has been imperative for all times. The changing
times as well as the requirements of the society have necessitated
changes in the ways of teacher preparation. The development of
teacher education is discussed in the following pages.
2.A.2 TEACHER EDUCATION IN
PRE INDEPENDENCE INDIA :
2.A.2.1 THE UPANISHADIC PERIOD :
In the Vedic India, the teacher enjoyed a special status and
position. He was held in high esteem by the society and this was due
29
not only to learning and scholarship, but also to qualities of head,
heart and hand. The Guru or the teacher was an embodiment of good
qualities, a fountain of knowledge and an abode of spirituality. The
selection and preparation of a teacher was done with much rigour.
According to the Rigveda, a teacher was selected and then
educated or trained effectively. The teacher must have passed
through the recognized curriculum and have fulfilled all the duties of
a Brahmachari before he was allowed to become a teacher. Teachers
must sought knowledge for realization and were well-received and
well respected. The scholarly class of teachers, which later became a
caste (Brahmans) became stratified with the passage of time and lost
its original grandeur. Later on teachers came from this caste of
Brahmins and it became a hereditary profession.
Manu remarked that the son of the teacher sometimes helped
his father, by teaching in his father's place. The teacher was
sometimes assisted in his work by some of the older and abler pupils
who acted as monitors. This monitorial system, which was a method
of inducting pupils to the position of teachers, was the contribution
of the ancient education system.
Teaching in the Upanishadic period was known for the
personal attention paid to the student. As the word Upanishad (sit
close) connotes there was an intimate relationship between the
teacher and the disciple. The freedom to accept a disciple rested with
the teacher, but once he accepted a disciple it became his moral duty
to see that the disciple grew. Similarly, a disciple or student had the
freedom to choose his teacher. Knowledge was transmitted orally
(since writing developed later) and explanation was one of the
important method of teaching. The methods used by teachers were
emulated and adopted by the disciples and handed over from one
generation of teachers to another. The transmission of methods
through initiation and repetition continued. Good teachers devised
their own methods and made the matter interesting and meaningful
to students by day-to-day examples. Listening to the spoken words,
comprehension of meaning, reasoning leading to generalization,
confirmation by a friend or a teacher and application were the five
steps to realize the meaning of a religious truth practiced in ancient
India.
30
1. What are the chief features of teacher preparation during the
Upanishadic period?
2.A.2.2 THE BUDDHIST PERIOD :
The monastic system which was an important feature of
Buddhism required that every novice on his admission, should place
himself under the supervision and guidance of a preceptor
(Upajjhaya). The disciple would 'choose an upajjhaya with much
care and showed him the utmost respect. The upajjhaya, on his part,
had much responsibility to the novice, the Saddhiviharika.
He was to offer spiritual help and promote learning through
religion among the disciples by teaching, by putting question to him,
by exhortation, by instruction. The teacher was to look after the
disciple fully. The teachers employed other methods besides oral
recitation such as exposition, debate, discussion, question-answer,
use of stories and parables. In vihars and monastic schools, HetuVidya
or the inductive method was adopted and the intellect of the
disciple was trained through it. The introduction of logic as one of
the subjects helped in sharpening the intellect and oratory which
was emphasized.
1. Which were the methods adopted for development of the
intellect of the disciple during the Buddhist period?
31
2.A.2.3. THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD :
In the holy Koran, Education is urged as a duty and in
Muslim countries, education was held in high esteem. Though it was
not widespread amongst the people teachers and instructors were
given great respect. The Mohammedan rulers in India founded
schools (Maktabs), Colleges (Madrassahs) and libraries in their
dominions. In the maktab, often attached to a mosque, the students
received instruction in the Koran which they had to recite, and
reading, writing and simple arithmetic was also taught. The medium
of "instruction was Persian but the study of Arabic was compulsory.
In madrassahs the course included grammar, rhetoric, logic,
theology, metaphysics, literature, jurisprudence and sciences.
The teachers teaching in the maktabs were mostly moulvis,
but in the madrassahs scholarly persons were employed. The method
of teacher preparation was mostly initiation of what the old teachers
practiced. Good and experienced teachers with a discerning eye
identified able students and appointed them tutors to look after and
teach the junior students in their absence. Thus the monitorial
system was in vogue during the medieval times too and was the
method of preparing the future teachers. The teachers were held in
high esteem and were respected by the society and their students.
Cramming and memorising were prevalent during this period.
The method of teaching was oral. The teachers adopted the lecture
method. Students were encouraged to consult books. Practicals were
also conducted in practical subjects like medicine. Analytical and
inductive methods were also used to each subject like religion, logic,
philosophy and politics. Although a specialized teacher training
programme did not exist, the teachers had a clear idea of their role
and functions and the methods to be pursued in teaching.
1. What was the system of higher education prevailing during the
medieval period?
32
2.A.2.4. MODERN PERIOD :
Before the arrival of the Britishers in India the European
Missionaries first started scholars and later initiated teacher training
institutions. The Danish Missionaries established a normal school
for the training of teachers at Serampur near Calcutta. In Madras Dr.
Andrew Bell started the experiment of Monitorial System which
formed the basis of teacher training programme for the time being. It
was used in England and known as Bell-Lancaster system. Mr.
Campbell, Collector of Bellary, in his Minute dated 17th August
1823, commended this system by which the more advanced scholars
are asked to teach the less advanced and this was well received in
England.
Sir Munro, in his Minute dated 13 December 1823, gave
same ideas for the improvement of the education of teachers. He
suggested an increase in their allowance and different types of
syllabi for Hindu and Muslim teachers.
In June 1826, the first normal school was started under the
management and with the finances of the British government in
Madras. Initially, it' prepared teachers for the district schools. Later,
this normal school developed into the Presidency College. In 1847,
Bombay started a normal school in the Elphinstone Institution and in
1849, Calcutta too had a normal school.
Wood's Despatch, 1854
The Wood's Dispatch, an important educational document
was released on 19 July, 1854. It was rightly been called the most
important document on English education in India. It gave some
very valuable suggestions for the improvement of the education of
teachers. It suggested that allowances be given to persons who
possess and aptness for teaching and who are willing to devote
themselves to the profession of school master.
In suggesting a change in the education of teachers, the
Dispatch referred to the system prevalent in England. It urged the
establishment of training schools in each presidency in India. The
Dispatch suggested the introduction of pupil teacher system (as
prevailed in England) in India and an award/ stipend to the pupil
teachers and a small payment to the masters of the school to which
they were attached. On successful completion of the training
programme they were to be gjven certificates and employment. So
the Dispatch introduced sufficient incentive for the would-be
33
teachers. Although apprehensive, Lord Dalhousie, Governor-General
of India suggested implementation of Wood's Dispatch which
brought into existence a number of normal schools.
Lord Stanley's Dispatch, 1859
In 1959, Lord Stanley, Secretary of State for India, in his
Dispatch set forth an examination of the operation of the 1854
Dispatch. The Dispatch very emphatically stated that the
administration should desist from procuring teachers from England
and that teachers for vernacular schools should be made available
locally.
The Indian Education Commission 1882
The Indian Education Commission 1882 (The Hunter
Commission) recommended that an examination in the principles
and practice of teaching be instituted, success in which should
hereafter be a condition of permanent employment as a teacher in
any Secondary School, Government or Aided. For graduates it
suggested a shorter course of training than for others. Pedagogical
courses became more prominent. This also led to the opening of new
teacher training institutions and by 1882 there were 116 training
institutions for men and 15 for women.
Thus by the close of the 19th century some essential things in
teacher training had been established. Pedagogical courses had
replaced general education, examinations and certificates in teacher
training had been instituted and practical aspects in planning and
teaching were emphasized.
Government of India Resolution on Education Policy, 1904
This is one of the most important educational documents
which laid down the policies for the future educational system. It
made some very vital suggestions for the improvement of the
teacher-training Programme. These were:
(a) Training Colleges:
The Resolution enunciated that if Secondary Education was
to be improved then the teachers should be trained in the art of
teaching. There were five teacher training colleges in all at places
like Madras, Kurseong, Allahabad, Lahore and Jubbulpur.
Intermediates or Graduates could seek admission to these Colleges.
34
The general principles upon which the training institutions were to
be developed, were,
(i) To enlist more men of ability and experience in the work of
higher training,
(ii) To equip the training colleges well,
(iii) To make the duration of the training programmes two years
and for graduates, one year. The course would comprise
knowledge of the principles which underlie the art of teaching
and some degree of technical skill in the practice of the art,
(iv)The course would culminate in a university degree or diploma,
(v) There should be a close link between theory and practice and
practicing schools should be attached to each college. These
schools should be fully equipped with well trained teachers
whose examples the students should emulate. They should have
good Library and Museum. There should be a close link between
the training colleges and the school, so that the students do not
neglect the methods learnt in the college. The students should be
occasionally brought together again and the inspecting staff and
the training college authorities should try that the influence of the
college is felt in the schools.
(b) Training Schools:
The Resolution recommended opening of more training
schools, particularly in Bengal. The normal schools were mostly
boarding schools where students with vernacular education came for
training and were given stipends. They received general education
combined with the instruction in the methods of teaching and
practice in teaching. The Resolution recommended a minimum
course of two years. It mentioned courses of training specially suited
for teachers of rural schools.
Thus, it can be observed that the recommendations and
suggestions of the Resolution were of far reaching importance.
Some of the suggestions of the Resolution were not implemented
and several recommendations were implemented, some changes
took place in the field of teacher training. Universities instituted
B.T. degree for-graduate teachers. Rethinking on the syllabus
improvements in facilities etc. were the outcomes of the
Resolution.
The Government of India Resolution on Education Policy, 1913
The second resolution on educational policy pinpointed the
35
weakness of the system and suggested many useful measures with
regard to improvement of Primary education. The Resolution
suggested that teachers should be drawn from the class of the boys
whom they will teach and they should have passed the middle
vernacular examination and undergone a year's training. It suggested
periodical repetition and improvement courses for teachers. The
resolution emphasized that no teacher should be allowed to teach
without a certificate and that there should be a constant exchange of
ideas amongst the training college staff members and that they
should visit different colleges.
Calcutta University Commission, 1917
This Commission, known as the Sadler Commission, studied
all aspects of the University education and presented its voluminous
report in 1919. It also touched upon the teacher education
programme and made some valuable recommendations. It pointed
out the painful inadequacy of training institutions and the poor
quality of training provided in them. It suggested that the training
programme should not only make the trainee a competent classroom
teacher but also a good administrator. The commission
suggested opening of post graduate department of education in
Universities, equips each department with a Professor, a Reader and
a number of assistants and institute a post-graduate degree in
Education. It recommended the introduction of Education as an
optional subject at the Graduation and P.G. level.
The recommendations of the Sadler Commission had salutary
effect on the teacher training Programme in India. Mysore
University started a faculty of Education in 1925.
The Hartog Committee, 1929
The work initiated by the Sadler Commission was further
carried on by the Hartog Committee. The Committee was primarily
concerned with primary education but it made far-reaching
recommendations for teacher training as well. It rightly observed
that the success of education depended on the quality of the training,
the status and the pay of teachers. It suggested that teachers for rural
areas should be inducted from persons who were close to rural
society. It also added that the period of training was too short, the
curriculum too narrow and the teaching staff inadequately qualified.
It suggested that journals for teacher in the vernacular,
refresher courses, conferences and meetings of teacher associations
36
can do much to brighten the lives of the teachers and improve their
work. For the secondary school teachers too, the committee had the
same suggestions.
Working on the recommendations of the Sadler Commission
13 out of 18 universities set-up faculties of education. The Lady
Irwin College was setup in New Delhi. Andhra University started a
new degree the B.Ed. in 1932. Bombay launched a post-graduate
degree the M.Ed. in 1936.
Some other important changes in the field of education also
took place in the thirties. The Central Advisory Board of Education
was revived. Basic Education was started by Mahatma Gandhi in
1937, leading to the training of teachers for basic schools. In 1938, a
Basic Training College was set-up at Allahabad and the
Vidyamandir Training School was started at Wardha in 1938.
The Abbott-Wood Report
This report submitted in 1937 is again a landmark in the field
of education. It primarily analyzed the position of vocational
education but also made valuable suggestions about teacher
education. According to the report the duration of training should be
3 years to enable the pupil to continue with general education along
with professional training. It further suggested a refresher course for
the teacher so that he could get a wider experience.
Although there was improvement in the percentage of trained
teachers from 56.8% in 1937 to 61.3% in 1942. Yet there was much
still to be done for achieving qualitative improvement. In 1941, there
were 612 normal schools out of which 376 were for men and 236 for
women. These schools provided one or two years' training. There
were 25 training colleges for graduates which were inadequate to
meet the needs of the time. In -1941, the Vidya Bhawan teacher's
College was started in Rajasthan and the Tilak College of Education
in Poona. Bombay took the lead in starting a doctorate degree in
education the same year.
The Sergeant Report, 1944
In 1944, the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE)
presented a scheme of education "Post-war Educational
Development in India", popularly known as the "Sergeant Plan". The
scheme was a broad-based educational plan. It made some practical
suggestions for teacher's training programme.
37
It recommended that suitable boys and girls should be
inducted into the teaching profession after High School; Practical
training should be provided, refresher courses be planned and
research facilities be provided.
It suggested a two-year course for pre-primary and junior
Basic schools (after high school) and a three year course for the
senior basic schools. The non-graduate teachers in high schools were
to go for two year training and the graduates for one-year training.
The first year of the two years training should be devoted to the
study of the general and professional subjects. It should be supported
by school visits, discussions and other experiences to kindle the
trainee's interest in education. It proposed revised pay scales for all
categories of teachers, to attract better teachers.
1. Why the Woods Dispatch is considered an important
educational document?
2. What were the recommendations of the Woods Dispatch with
respect to teacher education?
3. Government of Indias Resolution on Education Policy of 1904
still holds good. Justify.
38
4. What was the impact of the Saddler and Hartog Committee
reports?
2.A.3 LET US SUM UP :
educated or trained effectively. Teaching in the Upanishadic period
was known for the personal attention paid to the student. The
freedom to accept a disciple rested with the teacher, and a disciple or
student had the freedom to choose his teacher. Oral explanation was
one of the important method of teaching. The methods used by
teachers were emulated and adopted by the disciples and handed
over from one generation of teachers to another.
The monastic system was an important feature of Buddhism
and required that every novice the Saddhiviharika on his admission,
should place himself under the supervision and guidance of a
preceptor (Upajjhaya). The monitorial system was in vogue during
the medieval times too and was the method of preparing the future
teachers. The teachers were held in high esteem and were respected
by the society and their students.
Modern period was characterized by the Britishers in India.
Various committees were instituted who looked in to the system of
teacher education and training. Of them Woods Dispatch,
Government of Indias Resolution on Education Policy of 1904 and
Saddler and Hartog Committees made substantive recommendations
which hold good for the present times too.
1. Trace the development of teacher education during the Vedic
period and examine its relevance today.
2. Trace the development of teacher education during the medieval
period.
3. How the development of teacher education has unfolded during
39
the modern period? Critically examine.
4. Explain the relevance of some of the recommendations made
during the pre independence period for teacher education.
Suggested Reading :
1. Singh, L.C. (1990) Teacher Education in India: A Resource
Book, Delhi, NCERT.
2. Mohanty, J. (2003) Teacher Education New Delhi, Deep and
Deep Publications Pvt. Ltd.
40
2B
TEACHER EDUCATION IN POST
INDEPENDENCE INDIA
Unit structure :
2.B.0 Objectives
2.B.1 Introduction
2.B.2 Teacher Education in Post Independence India
2.B.2.1 The University Education Commission
2.B.2.2 The Plan period in Fifties
2.B.2.3 The Secondary Education Commission
2.B.2.4 The Plan period in Sixties
2.B.2.5 The Kothari Commission
2.B.2.6 The Plan period in Seventies
2.B.2.7 The Plan period in Eighties
2.B.2.8 Challenges for the Education Policy
2.B.2.9 The Nineties
2.B.2.10 The Two Thousands
2.B.3 Let us Sum up
2.B.0. OBJECTIVES :
preparation during the post independence period.
Understand the relevance of recommendations made during the
Plan Periods.
2.B.1. INTRODUCTION :
After Independence the emerging socioeconomic and
political situations influenced the national scenario of Teacher
Education. The Government of India set-up different Committees
and Commissions for addressing to the specific issues of education
in general and Teacher Education (TE) in particular. A large number
of teachers were found untrained and attempt was made to clear the
backlog. The main concerns of teacher education were pertaining to
41
both quality and quantity. In 1948, the Central Institute of Education
was established in Delhi and the Government Training College at
Allahabad was developed into the Central Pedagogical Institute.
2.B.2 TEACHER EDUCATION IN POST
INDEPENDENCE INDIA :
2.B.2.1. THE UNIVERSITY EDUCATION COMMISSION (1948-49)
Just after Independence the University Education
Commission was appointed under the chairmanship of Dr. S.
Radhakrishnan. The Commission submitted its report in 1949. The
Commission observed that obviously there was no difference in the
theory papers offered in the various teacher-training colleges. But
there was much difference in practice followed by them. The
number of supervised lessons varied from ten to sixty and the type
of practice teaching and student teaching varies from one to another.
The Commission observed-that the training colleges had no
basic orientation in the essentials. For improvement of teacher
training, it suggested that the teacher educators must look at the
whole course from a different angle, that the theory and practice
should support each other; that the intelligent following of rule of
thumb methods should be made; trainees be recruited from people
having a first hand experience of school teaching; that courses in the
theory of education must be flexible and adaptable to local
circumstances; that original work by professors and lecturers in
education should not suffer from isolation and lack of interuniversity
planning.
2.B.2.2. THE PLAN PERIOD IN FIFTIES
In 1950 the first conference of Training Colleges in India was
held at Baroda and exchange of ideas took place. The conference
discussed programmes and functions of the training colleges.
In the following year, i.e. 1951, the second All India
Conference was held at Mysore. It discussed the teacher training
programme in a broader perspective and suggested substituting the
term "Education" for "Training" and widened its scope. In the same
year, a six-week summer course in education was organized for
college teachers at Mysore. The syllabi in teacher education were
revised, new areas of specialization added, and practical work
improved. There was a spurt of work-shops, seminars and
conference on teacher education.
2.B.2.3. THE SECONDARY EDUCATION COMMISSION,
42
(1952 -53)
One of the important events of the plan decade was the
Report of the Secondary Education Commission. It analyzed the
problems of teachers and the training programme in great depth. It
emphasized that the most important factor in educational
reconstruction is the teacher, his personal qualities, his educational
qualifications, his professional training and the place he occupies in
the school as well as in the community. So the Commission made
recommendations on all these aspects and found three types of
teacher training institutions viz., (a) Primary (Basic) Teacher
Training, (b) Secondary Teacher Training Institution and Training
Colleges.
It suggested two types of institutions: (i) for those who have
taken the school leaving certificate, for whom the period of training
be two years, (ii) for graduates, presently of one academic year but
extended as a long-term programme to two academic years. The
graduate training institutions should be recognized and officiated to
the universities which should grant the degree, while the secondary
grade training institutions should be under the control of a separate
Board. It recommended training in co-curricular activities, refresher
courses and research work for the M.Ed. degree. It recommended
three years' teaching experience for M.Ed. Admission, after
graduation in education.
The enthusiasm for seminars, work-shops, etc., led to the
establishment of Extension Centres. In 1995 the All India Council
for Secondary Education was established. The Council through its
Extension Centres imparted in service education. In 1957, the All
India Council for Elementary Education was formed.
The Second Five Year Plan was launched in 1955-56 and it was
contemplated that 68 per cent of teachers would be trained by 1960.
An amount of Rs. 17 crore was apportioned for increasing training
facilities.
All India Council of Secondary Education Established an
Examination Reform Unit in 1951. The Directorate of Extension
Programme for secondary education was set-up in 1959 to coordinate
and run the extension programmes. In the same year the
Central Institute of English was established at Hyderabad to train
teachers in English and to conduct research in the field.
43
1. What are the recommendations of the University Education
Commission (1948) and the Secondary Education Commissions
with regard to Teacher Education?
2.B.2.4. THE SIXTIES
The first National Seminar on the Education of Primary
Teachers was held in October 1969. The findings of the seminar
were presented in the Report of the Study Group on the training for
Elementary Education. The findings reflected a sad state of affairs.
The institutions were poorly staffed and equipped and that every
teacher should be trained and the State Government should plan a
phased programme to attain the targets. It recommended selection of
some training institutions as models for developing primary teacher
education on the right lines. Optimum size of training institutions
should be 200 trainees. It recommended that Primary school teachers
should also be included in the extension programmes. It advocated
the setting up of State Institutes of Education. During 1962-63
Extension Training Centres in Primary Teacher Education
Institutions started functioning. The State Institutes of Education
were established by 1964 and a Department of Teacher Education
was established at the National Institute of Education.
During this period National Council of Educational Research
and Training (NCERT) was establishment in 1961. It was intended
to improve school education to training, research, publication and
co-ordination. The NCERT established four Regional Colleges of
Education, one each at Ajmer, Bhubaneswar, Bhopal and Mysore.
The Committee on Plan Projects (COPP) set-up a study team
for selected educational schemes in 1961 which submitted its report
on Teacher Training in 1964. The findings of the Committed were
that teacher training institutions contributed only marginally to
educational thinking, the training colleges had inadequate laboratory
facilities and teaching equipment; there was practically no room for
experimentation and innovation in the teacher education programme.
These were shocking but correct observations.
44
A Centre for Advanced Studies in Education was set-up by
the UGC in the Faculty of Education and Psychology in the M.S.
University of Baroda. In 1964, at the Seventh Conference of All
India Association of Teachers' Colleges, it was proposed that
comprehensive colleges be set-up to bridge the gulf between
Primary and Secondary teacher training institutions. The Conference
recommended the setting-up-of a State Council of Teacher
Education.
2.B.2.5. THE KOTHARI COMMISSION, (1964-66)
In 1964 an Education Commission was set-up by the
Government of India under the Chairmanship of Dr. D.S. Kothari to
advise on the educational set-up. The Commission observed that a
sound programme of professional Education for teachers was
essential for the qualitative improvement of education. The
Commission pointed out the weakness of the existing system and
suggested ways to improve it. It recommended that isolation of
teachers' colleges with the universities, schools and the teachers'
colleges themselves should be removed. It spelt out the ways and
means to do so. For qualitative improvement, it recommended
subject orientation and introduction of integrated courses of general
and professional education. It suggested ways to improve the quality
of teacher educators. It advised the State Governments to prepare a
plan for the expansion of training facilities.
The Commission very correctly diagnosed the ills in teacher
education and suggested practical remedies. As a result of the
suggestions of the Education Commission, 1964-66, some changes
were introduced in teacher education. An M.A. degree in Education
was introduced in some universities, such as Aligarh, Kurukshetra,
Kanpur and some others. Some Universities introduced summer
schools and correspondence courses to meet the backlog of
untrained teachers and some States set-up. State Boards .of Teacher
Education. These changes were welcome steps in the field of teacher
education and were expected to meet the needs in this field.
The Planning Commission in the Fourth Five Year Plan
(1969-74) laid emphasis on Teacher Education for improving its
quality, training more women teachers and teachers from tribal
communities, training science and mathematics teachers for the
middle classes and organizing in-services training. It suggested
correspondence courses for the training of teachers already in
service. It recommended greater co-ordination between the NCERT
45
and the SIEs for qualitative improvement in school education. It also
suggested training Programmes for teacher educators.
1. Why were the National Council of Educational Research and
Training (NCERT) and Center for Advanced Studies in
Education (CASE) established?
2. What were the recommendations of the Education Commission
(1964-66) with respect to Teacher Education?
2.B.2.6. THE SEVENTIES
During the seventies there was much emphasis on
implementation of the new pattern of education, i.e. 10+2+3 pattern.
This called for rethinking and reforms in teacher education. In 1973,
a bold and imaginative step was taken by the Government 'of India.
It set-up the National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) which
was to work as a national advisory body for teacher education. The
NCTE drafted a curriculum for preparing' teachers for the new 10+2
pattern. The new curriculum was a task-oriented. The framework
envisaged that the teacher should play the role of the leader' inside
and outside the classroom, initiate action for the transformation of
society as an agent of social change and thereby help achieve the
goal of national development. The framework defined the objectives
of teacher education in very clear terms, developed the relationship
with the community, emphasized and worked out the Socially
Useful Productive Work (SUPW), and defined the role and functions
of the teacher in the emerging Indian Society.
46
A Joint session of the members of the NCTE and UGC panel
on teacher education met in 1976 and drafted an approach paper on
teacher education. The NCERT developed programmes for training
teachers already in service through a number of centres of
continuing Education.
In 1975 through the 42nd Amendment of the Constitution,
Education was brought to the Concurrent list. Due to change of
Government at the Centre, this brought a commitment to education
and some important changes were witnessed in the eighties.
1. Why was the National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE)
established?
2.B.2.7. THE EIGHTIES:
National Policy on education (NPE) and Programme of action
(POA)
The Government of India in 1983 set-up two National
Commissions on Teachers. One was to deal with the issues relating
to teachers at the school stage and the other to teachers at the higher
education level. Both Commissions had very wide terms and
reference right from the objectives for teaching profession to the
National Foundation for Teacher's Welfare. These Commissions met
the cross-section of the society and elicited their views with regard
to the improvement of teaching community.
2.B.2.8 CHALLENGES FOR THE EDUCATION POLICY
In August 1985, the Government of India brought out a
document "The Challenge of Education: A Policy Perspective." This
envisaged an educational system which would prepare the youth for
the 21st century. The document acknowledged teacher performance
as the most crucial input in the field of education, but lamented that
47
much of teacher education was irrelevant, that selection procedures
and recruitment systems were inappropriate and the teaching was
still the last choice in the job market. It laid emphasis on aptitude for
teaching in the entrants on reorganization of the teacher education
programme and on in-service education.
The document was debated and discussed widely in the
country and the recommendations of the educationists, thinkers and
workers were submitted to the Government of India for inclusion in
the Education Policy, 1986. According to National Policy on
Education (NPE) 1986, stress was given to the teacher education
programme. Training schools were upgraded to District Institutes of
Education and Training (DIETS) and training colleges were
upgraded into Colleges of Teacher Education (CTEs) and Institutes
of Advanced Studies in Education (IASEs). There was provisions
for research and innovation in IASEs.
The revised National Policy on Education, 1992 also
emphasized the functioning of teacher education institutions.
There has been development in terms of both infrastructure
and curriculum transaction as per the NPE and POA, 1986 and 1992.
A lot of money is being spent on infrastructural improvement and
organization of various in service programmes. By the year 1998-99
there were 45 DIETs, 76 CTEs and 34 lASEs. But the impact of all
these on teacher education for quality improvement is found very
marginal. The NCTE has also tried to impose the norms and
conditions for recognition of these training institutions. During the
year 1998-99 the NCTE received 2426 applications from the
existing training institutions for recognition and conducting teacher
training courses. Recognition was subsequently granted to 408
institutions in addition to 1294 institutions accorded provisional
recognition. Similarly, 1349 applications were received for starting
new institutions and courses. Recognition was accorded only to 277
new institutions/courses. Besides, provisional recognition was
accorded to 1035 institutions.
Check your progress :
1. What did the "The Challenge of Education: A Policy
Perspective (1985) document envisage for teacher education?
48
2. Why is National Policy on Education (NPE) 1986 considered an
important document with respect to teacher education?
2.B.2.9 THE NINETIES
During 1990s the NPE was revised by Acharya Ramamurthy
Committee and it gave a humane approach to education emphasizing
more on value oriented education. It also saw the emergence of
NCTE as a statutory body of the Govt. of India when NCTE Act of
1993 was passed by parliament. NCTE came into effect on 17th
August 1995 for planned and coordinated development of teacher
education system across the country. Policy of Liberalisation,
Privatization and Globalisation (LPG) stated during this period when
Indian market was opened to foreigners and free trade and
commerce was encouraged.
2.B.2.10 THE TWO THOUSANDS
The first decade of the twenty first century had the privilege
of the liberalization policy introduced in early nineties. The
education sector was opened up for private sector participation and
there was Public Private Partnership (PPP). Foreign Universities are
encouraged to set up their campaign in Indian soil and spread
education, Many Private Universities came into being during this
period so also the deemed universities becoming full fledged
universities by UGC under section 3 of UGC Act 1956. National
knowledge commission has been set up which recommends to
achieve Gross Enrolment Ratio of 15% by 2015 in higher education.
After universalisation of education and flagship programme
of Sarva Shiksha Abhiya, now efforts are made to universalize
secondary education through Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiya
(RMSA). The 11th plan in therefore called education plan as it gives
more emphasis to education especially higher education. During this
period a number of central Universities has came up and 11Ts and
11Ms have set up their new campaign to spread quality engineering
and management education across the country.
49
2.B.3 LET US SUM UP :
As reported by the MHRD, Government of India (Annual
Report, 1999- 2000, p. 8) "One of the major achievements of NCTE
during the short period of its existence has been the publication of
monographs, reports and self learning modules for teacher educators
and teachers during 1998-99. The publications brought out by NCTE
provide a comprehensive view on several important aspects of
teacher education". To be specific, NCTE has brought out 66
publications and 6 CD ROMs by 2000-2001. Besides, many
seminars, conferences and workshops are being organized by NCTE
in different parts of the country for improving the teachers
competency, up gradation of syllabi and development of materials
on teacher education.
.
Besides academic activities, the NCTE has achieved some
success in its regulatory functions by bringing a vast majority of
teacher training institutions under its purview. Particularly,
commercialization of Teacher Education has been controlled to a
great extent at the cost of a large number of cases pending in the
courts and a huge expenditure on account of this. A so called
landmark decision taken by NCTE was "to make Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) literacy a compulsory part of
B.Ed. course, mainly to create general awareness amongst the
teacher trainees about ICT and its use in teaching-learning." (NCTE
Annual Report, 2000-2001 p.3). Unless qualified and competent
teachers/teacher educators are in a position to utilize properly the
hardware facilities supplied by various agencies, the purpose for
doing the same may not be realized.
A landmark achievement was the establishment of the
National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) by the
UGC for quality assurance and enhancement of higher education.
The development of teacher education has been traced in the
post independent period. Important suggestions and
recommendations have been made from the time of independence.
From the University Education Commission (1948) to the decade of
the 2000 importance has been given to teacher education, its
development and enhancement. The establishment of UGC,
NCERT, NCTE and NAAC have had substantial impact on teacher
education.
50
1964-66 for Teacher Education?
2. State the role and functions of UGC and NCTE.
3. Explain the relevance of some of the recommendations made in
the NPE 1986 for teacher education.
4. What were the achievements of the NCTE in the decade of
2000s.
Suggested Reading :
1. Mohanty, J. (2003) Teacher Education. Deep and Deep
Publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
Book, Delhi, NCERT.
3. Sharma, Shashi Prabha (2004) Teacher Education in India. Vikas
Publications New Delhi.
51
2C
TEACHER EDUCATION IN THE U.K.
AND U.S.A.
Unit structure:
2.C.0 Objectives
2.C.1 Introduction
2.C.2 Objectives of Teacher-Education in U.K.
2.C.3 Historical Perspective
2.C.4 Types of Training Colleges
2.C.5 Curricula and Courses for Teacher Education
2.C.6 Classification of Teachers and their qualifications
2.C.7 Selection for Training
2.C.8 Service Conditions of Teachers
2.C.9 Teacher-Education in U.S.A.
2.C.10 Objectives of Teacher-Education in U.S.A.
2.C.11 Types of Teacher Training Institutions
2.C.12 Curriculum and Courses of Study
2.C.13 Training of Higher Education Teachers
2.C.14 Let us sum up
2.C.0 OBJECTIVES :
preparation in the United Kingdom.
Understand the features of the system.
Gain knowledge of the system of education & teacher
preparation in the U.S.A.
2C.1. INTRODUCTION :
52
The prevailing system of education in India was modelled on
the lines of the system of education functioning in England and
Wales. Therefore, our system of teacher education follows the
English lines. In England the standard of school education is
sufficiently high, but the teacher educators want to further raise their
standard. Robbins Committee Report and the James Report reflect
the same.
The teacher educators in U.K. as well as other countries are
concerned with the integration of content and methodology in their
programmes for teacher education. The study of the programme of
teacher education in various developed countries of the world will
help understand their systems and incorporate in India whatever is
possible.
The system of Teacher Education in England has not been the
outcome of any upheaval or revolution, but the product of long
evolutionary process out of customs or traditions. According to
Ward, There is no such thing as a general license to teach, there is
nothing in legislation, public or local, to prevent anyone from
opening a school. The standard of staffing, and the qualifications of
teachers are either determined by tradition, emphasized by public
opinion and official pressure, or are left undetermined.
2.C.2. OBJECTIVES OF TEACHER-EDUCATION IN
U.K. :
1) To provide the theoretical awareness of teaching- philosophical,
sociological, psychological and economic foundation of
education.
2) To develop skills and competencies for using teaching methods,
techniques and teaching aids in the classroom.
3) To develop the abilities to deal with the problems of classroom
teaching by using action research.
4) To develop the right type attitudes and feelings for National
Integration and International understanding.
5) To provide separate objectives of Teacher-Education for pre
primary, primary, school and college teachers.
53
1. State the objectives of Teacher Education in UK.
2.C.3. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE :
The Early Period
Monitorial System - In the beginning of nineteenth century there
was no formal system of teacher training in U.K. The first crude
attempt was made to produce teachers through the Monitorial
System. Under the system, a number of senior pupils, called
monitors, were first taught a number of elementary facts or words
to be spelt by heart. Each of these then assembled in the great hall
with a group of other children to whom he taught what he had just
learnt. As the system suffered from a number of defects, it was
abandoned and replaced by pupil-teacher system.
The Pupil-Teacher System - Criticizing the Monitorial System Mr.
Kay Shuttleward advocated a new arrangement, called pupil-teacher
system. According to this arrangement Pupil-teachers were chosen
at the age of thirteen from among the most promising pupils in an
elementary school. They were formally apprenticed to the
headmaster for a term of five years, and were examined on a
prescribed graded syllabus at the end of each year. If they acquitted
themselves creditably, the Government paid the headmaster a grant
of 5 pounds for one pupil-teacher, 9 pounds for two, and 3 pounds
for each additional one. At the end of the apprenticeship i.e., at the
age of eighteen, the pupil-teacher could appear for departmental
examination. The successful candidates were awarded the Queens
Scholarship, which entitled them for a three-year course at a training
college. At the end of it, they qualified as certificated teachers.
The Bursar and Student-Teacher System - According to this
system the pupil in a secondary school was allowed to remain there
54
up to the age of seventeen or eighteen as a bursar and then proceed
direct to a training college or alternatively he could become a
student-teacher spending half of his time in actual practice in an
elementary school and continue his studies in the secondary school
during the other. This system of preliminary training of teachers has
been continuing even these days with some modifications.
The Modern Period
Report of the McNair, Committee (1944)
In their report titled Teachers and Youth Leaders (1944)
recommended the following regarding the system of teacher
training;
(i) Central Training Council - A Central Training Council for
England and Wales be formed Charged with the duty of
advising the Board of Education about bringing into being that
form of area, training service, recommended in this Report
which the Board may decide to adopt.
(ii) Alternatives - One of the following two alternative schemes of
the new pattern of teacher training be adopted
(a) A type Scheme - According to it each University should
be a sort of organic federation of approved training
institutions. The school should look after the training
arrangements as well as the examinations of the students
seeking to be certificated qualified teachers.
(b) B type Scheme - It aimed at the continuation of the Joint
Board System with closer representation of the University
on it. The University Department of Education and the
constituent colleges should maintain identity to be linked
together through the joint board of Education and the
Central Training Council.
(iii) The Area Training Organization - It should be responsible
for the approval of syllabus of all levels of training.
(iv) The Board of Education - It should approve certificate on the
basis of recommendations and assessment by the Area
Training Authority.
(v) The Area Training Authority - It should also function as
inspectorial body for all training institutions within its
jurisdiction.
(vi) Declaration - The students should not be required to sign
declarations committing them to teach in publicly run or aided
55
schools for minimum specified period of time, to compensate
for the money spent on them.
(vii) Duration - The duration of training course should be. extended
to three years.
(viii) Basic Scale - A basic scale should be introduced for qualified
teachers in primary and secondary schools with additions for
special qualification or experience.
The Follow-up Action As a follow-up of the recommendations of
McNair Committee, the following set-up of teacher was established:
(1) Area Training Organizations - These were formed in
collaboration with different Universities. Most of these training
Centres were Institutes of Education while the remaining were
known as, School of Education. While the institutes of Education
were under the direct control of their respective Universities the
Schools of Education functioned under Ministry of Education. As
there was rapid increase in the number of training institutions, the
Area Training Organizations had to undertake greater
responsibilities, and the functions performed by them, were as
follows:
(i) Supervision of the courses of training in their constituent
colleges, including the University Department of Education.
(ii) Maintenance of Standards
(iii) Conducting of examinations and assessment of students work.
(iv) Recommendation of successful students for the award of
qualified Teachers Certificate.
(v) Planning for the development of training facilities at various
levels in their areas.
(vi) Provision of opportunities for further study and encouragement
of research in professional studies.
(vii)Arrangement of educational centers for in-service education of
teachers already working in schools.
(2) National Advisory Council on the Training and Supply of
Teachers - It consisted of representatives of the Area Training
Organizations, Local Education Authorities and National
Association of Teachers.
Robbins Committee Report (1963)
It made the following recommendations regarding teacher training :
56
(i) Scheme A System of McNair Committee It should be
implemented but proposed that the logical next step should be
taken, first, by uniting the Departments of Education of the
colleges and the Institutes into Schools of Education, and
secondly by instituting a block grant for all the Colleges in each
school, to be administered by the University, which would thus
undertake not only academic supervision of the Colleges but
also financial responsibility for their maintenance.
(ii) The Council for National Academic Awards It should be
established though this was not the best route for the Colleges.
(iii) Academic and financial authority for the Colleges of
Education They should go together and that the Colleges.
should become an integral part of a University School of
Education, being financed through the University Grants
Committee. Some of the bigger Colleges might become
individually constituent parts of a University or to become part
of one.
(iv) The Teacher-training Colleges They should be known in
future as Colleges of Education.
Most of these recommendations were implemented. The
Colleges were renamed as Colleges of Education. The degree of
bachelor of Education was instituted.
Central Advisory. Council Report (1967)
Titled Children and their Primary Schools the report of the
Central Advisory Council was published in 1967. It, recommended
the following:
(i) The newly established B. Ed. degree ought to be, a major,
source of supply of graduates for Primary Schools;
(ii) There should be full enquiry into the system of teacher training,
an enquiry which is long overdue;
(iii) All primary schools teachers needed to be numerate as well as
literate and efforts should be made to improve their
qualifications.
(iv) There should be an extension of network of day Colleges and
outposts in which mature students, with adopted hours and
modified tables, had proved their value; an increase in the
number of graduates in Primary Schools and more facilities for
their training; professional training for any graduate who
57
proposed to teach in Primary Schools; and the encouragement of
closer contact and partnership between the Colleges and the
Schools;
(v) The Schools should play a bigger part in supervision of student
teaching;
(vi) There should be more joint appointments, to College and School
staffs to aid the general co-operation between Schools and
Colleges.
The James Report (1972)
It made following recommendation for the training of teachers for an
emerging scheme of universal secondary education.
(i) Teacher Education should become part of higher education and
entrance requirements should be the same as for Universities.
(ii) The general education of all teachers should be broadened and
extended.
(iii) The present three year certificate programme should become a
four-year - programme of education and training leading to a
degree. The present four-year course should become a five year
course. In each pattern an internship of one year should. be an
integral part.
(iv) The teachers professional education should continue
throughout his life.
(v) Teacher Education should be divided into following three
cycles:
(a) The First Cycle It would be provided by a University
or Council for National Academic Awards Committee.
(b) The Second Cycle It would be a common course of
professional training extending Over two years. The first
year would be within the Colleges or Department of
Education and the emphasis would be on preparation for
work appropriate to a teacher at the beginning of his
career rather than, on formal courses in educational
theory. The second year would put the student as a
licensed teacher and he will begin to receive a salary.
(c) The third Cycle It will start with registration for
training and cover a wide spectrum of training, education
and activities. There will be long courses leading to
advanced qualifications and requiring the release of
teachers for full-time attendance in schools.
58
(vi) The report also suggested the abolition of the Area Training
Organization system and substituting it by the Regional Council
for Colleges and Departments of Education at local level and
the National Council for Teacher Educational and Training at
the national level.
1. Differentiate between the monitorial system, the pupil teacher
system and the Bursar and Student-Teacher system.
2. What is the importance of the Report of the McNair, Committee
of 1944?
3. Why is the Robbins Committee Report (1963) considered as
having made considerable contribution to Teacher Education?
4. Current system of Teacher Education is modeled according to
The James Report (1972). Justify.
59
2.C.4. TYPES OF TRAINING COLLEGES :
In England the training Colleges are of two categories
(1) Old training Colleges These were originally opened and
financed by private bodies to a denominational character, but are
now almost wholly maintained by public money.
(2) Those started by Local Education Authorities These were
from the early years of the 20th century and wholly financed by
local authorities.
The Ministry of Education financially assists both the above
categories of training colleges. The Ministry bears about fifty
percent of expenditure of Private Colleges particularly for purpose of
improvement, extension and or replacement of their buildings; the
rest is borne by the voluntary agencies themselves.
2.C.5. CURRICULA AND COURSES FOR TEACHER
EDUCATION :
The majority of training colleges provide a two-year course.
though there is a general trend to extend the course to a total period
of three years as a sequel to the McNair Committee
recommendations. The curricula of these training colleges. is
approved by the Board of Studies of their Institutes of Education.
Curricula are fairly wide and comprehensive, covering all the
aspects of teachers work. Of course, the Boards of Studies prescribe
only the general outline of the curriculum; the details are worked out
by the training colleges themselves. Today, the curricula of training
colleges in England, generally., include the following kinds of
studies and practical work :
(1) Academic Studies This part of the curriculum aim to impart a
sound general education to the students. It is, therefore, devoted
to an advanced study of selected school subjects.
(2) Professional Studies As these are intended to give the
students a thorough grounding in the principles and practice of
teaching were include the study of (i) Principles and practice of
Teaching, (ii) Health Education, (iii) History of Education and
(iv) Educational psychology. Opportunities for specialization are
also provided in one of the following two branches: (a) teaching
60
of young children in infant schools and (b) teaching of pupils in
the age-group 7-11 in Junior High Schools.
(3) Practice-teaching It constitutes the practical part of the
course. Though no uniform programme has been evolved for it,
student are normally required to teach for a total period of twelve
weeks under the supervision of all the faculty member.
Theory of education, educational psychology, childpsychology,
teaching methods and techniques problems and
remedies of education, school organization and administration
courses have been included of teacher education. Under the
curriculum Theoretical aspect has been given more weight age than
practical aspect of teaching-learning. The curriculum has been
developed according to following stages:
(1) Teachers of Primary Schools.
(2) Teachers of Secondary Schools.
(3) Special teachers and teachers of Arts and Vocational institutions,
and
(4) Teachers imparting further education.
The training course in physical education and home science is
of 3 years duration while in art and music it is of 4 years duration.
The pupil teachers whether male or female are free to take admission
in any of them. General qualifications for admission is general
certificate of Education.
2.C.6. CLASSIFICATION OF TEACHERS AND THEIR
QUALIFICATIONS :
(1) Teachers of Primary Schools General certificate of
education and 18 years of age. is necessary. Two years teachertraining
in training school is available.
(2) Teachers of Secondary Schools One year training course in
University Teacher Training Department.
(3) Teachers of Special Subjects Separate training for art, music,
physical education etc. it Acquire Certificates of Royal Arts
College.
(4) Further Education For them experience is their training.
61
2.C.7. SELECTION FOR TRAINING :
Selection is made through Teachers Associations and
through direct selection from schools. Lady-teachers are one third in
number of those selected. They are selected from those girls who
have completed their education and have an experience of 1 or 2
years in some industrial or commercial institution. The demand of
lady teachers is increasing day by day. For training in technical
subjects. the students are selected, from industrial training, they have
to work on one year probation, after which the appointment becomes
permanent.
The associations of the teachers colleges and Teacher Taining
Departments extend cooperation to students willing to get training.
They give valuable advice to Education Ministry and students
regarding teacher training. They also help the young boys and girls
in getting admission. The willing candidate applies to the Teachers
Association for admission after considering his application the
association tries to get him admitted in some training institution.
2.C.8. SERVICE CONDITIONS OF TEACHERS :
Ordinarily, the teachers are appointed on the basis of service
agreement between the teacher and management. In the aided
schools, the manager alone appoints the teachers while at the school
run by voluntary organizations, the entire managing committee
appoints the teachers. The teachers associations help in determining
the service conditions. According to the suggestion of the Burnham
Committee incorporated in the Education Act of 1944. The
Teachers Association and L.E.A. jointly determine the service
conditions of teachers.
1. Briefly describe the curricula and courses for teacher education.
62
2.C.9 TEACHER EDUCATION IN U.S.A.
Historical background :
Teacher Education in U.S.A., started in the beginning of
nineteenth century, developed through private Academies. Normal
Schools, Colleges of Education etc. This development can be
discussed under three specific stages:
(1) The Normal School Movement (1823-1860) In the early
years of 19th century, private Academies had started training
teachers. Samuel R. Hall set up first Normal School for teachers in
1823 at Concord, Vermont. His efforts got support from Horace
Mann, Edmund Dwight, Cyprus Pierce, Charles Brookes and others,
who got inspiration from European system of teacher education. In
1834 James Carter, founded a private teachers Seminar at
Lancaster, Massachusetts. The Normal School movement gained a
lot of momentum support owing to public. The State Government
also entered the field of teacher education. The first state-owned
Public Normal School in USA was set up at Lexington,
Massachusetts in July, 1839. This was followed by many other
States and County School Authorities. By 1860, 170 Public Normal
Schools had been established.
The duration of training in Normal Schools was about one
year. However, some intelligent students were allowed to pass
through this course earlier. Candidates, who completed the one year
course, were awarded a certificate to teach in the district elementary
schools of Massachusetts. Any one who had passed through
elementary school course was allowed admission. The curriculum of
the training included following six areas:
(1) A thorough review of the common subjects spelling,
reading, writing, geography and arithmetic.
(2) Some secondary school academic subjects geometry,
algebra, philosophy etc, but no ancient languages.
(3) The physical, mental and moral, development of children.
(4) The principles and methods of teaching the common subjects.
(5) The art of school government.
(6) Practice teaching.
(2) The Teacher Training (1860-1910) During the years
following the Civil War there was a vast expansion of every phase of
American education. There were over 18 million children enrolled in
63
Kindergarten and elementary, schools, a number quite close to the
total population between the ages of 5 and 13. During the 1870s and
1880s the enrolment in secondary schools began to rise
significantly. After 1890 the number practically doubled every
decade. By 1910, the figure had crossed 1,000,000. Now people
began to feel, Quality of the teacher is the quality of school. The
educationists felt dissatisfied with the products of these Normal
Schools. The need for improvement was strongly felt in two
directions: (1) To enhance the period of training. (2) To revitalise the
curriculum of teacher training and to broad base its programme.
The establishment of the Illinois Normal University in 1857
was the first concrete step to improve teacher training in the desired
direction. It was designed to prepare teachers for all branches of the
common schools, including high schools. Its graduates were
supposed to become educational leaders as well, as elementary
school teachers.
After civil war the movement of teacher training gained new
momentum. A number of Universities opened Departments of
Education. A Chair of Education was set up in the University of
Iowa in 1873. University of Michigan created a Chair of Art and
Science of Teaching in 1879. By the end of 19th century the number
of Colleges and Universities offering teacher training went up to 24
due to the support of top educationists including John Dewey,
Stanley Hall, Thorndike and Charles Judd.
(3) The Teacher Education (1910 onwards) The beginning of
twentieth century marked a turning point in the history of teacher
education in U.S.A. Since 1910, there has been the rise of preeminence
of graduate faculties of education making vigorous efforts
for raising the professional standard of teachers. The leading
educationists and psychologists, G.Stanley Hall, J. Mckeen CatteIl,
Edward Tichener, Hugo Munsterberg, Edward L. Thorndike and
Charles H. Judd showed the way.
In the early years of the Century there were following three closely
related movements in U.S.A.
(i) The Educational Psychology Movement.
(ii) The Child Study Movement
(iii) The Educational Measurement Movement
The combination of these three movements gave rise to
Scientific approach to the educational process. The natural
64
outcome of this new thinking was the gradual replacement of
Normal School by 4-year Teachers Colleges. By the end of 1920
there were 45 such colleges in different parts of the country. During
the year 1948-49 as many as 218 teachers colleges were existing,
with only a sprinkling of Normal Schools. Teacher training was
replaced by Teacher Education, while the former meant only the
imparting of certain teaching skills the later implied the
understanding of basic principles. Teachers colleges undertook the
preparation of elementary as well as secondary school teachers.
They provided general education along with professional training.
Following results were significantly visible.
(i) Teacher training Institutions had gained in status. They were
then placed on equal footing with the Liberal Arts Colleges.
(ii) The period of training had been increased from one year to four
years, thereby preparing better oriented and more skilled
teachers.
(iii) Teacher training had been replaced by Teacher Education, thus
providing more broad-based education, comprising general as
well as professional education.
1. Explain the teacher training system from 1833 to 1910.
2. Why is the beginning of twentieth century considered as a
turning point in the history of teacher education in U.S.A.
65
2.C.10 OBJECTIVES OF TEACHER-EDUCATION IN
USA :
(1) To develop the teacher-education programme in accordance with
the democratic way of life.
(2) To provide an open-environment to the pupil-teachers, so that an
appropriate development of their personalities can be made.
(3) To provide the theoretical and practical awareness about the
teaching-learning process.
(4) To develop the skills and competencies of teaching, methods,
techniques. and teaching aids.
(5) To prepare separate teacher-education programme for distanceeducation
teachers.
(6) To develop the feelings among pupil-teachers but it should be in
accordance with democratic form government.
(7) To base the teacher-education programme on the local needs.
Every university of U.S.A has its own model of teachereducation
programme.
SPECIAL FEATURES
(1) No National System There is no national system of teacher
education in America as there is lot of variety and flexibility.
Numerous kinds of institutions, from High Schools and County
Normal Schools to Education Departments of Universities, are
having their own programmes of teacher training with hardly any
uniformity in their curricula or system: According to an
American educationist, There is no One way to educate teachers
and no one type of institution is best suited to the job.
(2) Equality of Opportunity In the. American system of teacher
education, there is equality of opportunity and men and women
front all sections of society, high and low, rich and poor, have an
easy access to institutions preparing teachers.
(3) Cooperative Enterprise The system of teacher education is a
cooperative enterprise and not the monopoly of one single
authority or agency. It is a partnership between state agencies,
local organizations, teachers training colleges, Universities and
Liberal Arts Colleges.
66
(4) Education as Total Development The Americans consider
Education as the total development of the physical, mental,
moral, social and intellectual aspects of personality. Therefore
the programme of teacher training is broad-based aimed at
producing a right type of person as well as a right type of teacher.
Due to this emphasis on new and broad concept of education the
term teacher training has been replaced by teacher education.
(5) Integrated courses of general and professional education
The aim of these integrated courses is to provide complete or
total education of teachers, both as good human being and as an
efficient teacher. The duration of such courses is four or five
years, which amalgamate B.A. or B.S.C. with degree or diploma
in education.
(6) Pre-service and in-service teacher education are
complementary Like two sides of a coin, both are equally
important. Therefore the training of the teachers is not limited to
the period spent in teacher training institutions but a continuous
process which goes on throughout the professional career of
teachers.
1. State the objectives of Teacher Education in the USA.
2. What are special features the Teacher Education system in the
USA?
2.C.11 TYPES OF TEACHER TRAINING
INSTITUTIONS :
Teacher Training schools or colleges in America may be
divided into two categories (i) Public and (ii) Private. The Public
67
institutions are financed and controlled by the Government while the
Private institutions are run and managed by private organizations.
Most of the institutions are Public since because of heavy cost of
such institutions a large number of private bodies have withdrawn
from this activity.
From the point of view of management and organization,
there are following four distinct types of teacher education
institutions.
(1) Normal Schools Normal School movement gained a lot of
momentums during the 19th century. These were mainly concerned
for the training of elementary school teachers. the duration of the
training was about one year. Their curriculum was narrow and
limited to the following
(i) The review of common school subjects like languages, Geometry,
Algebra, Arithmetic, Geography etc.
(ii) Mental and moral development of children, and
(iii) Principles and methods of Teaching.
Recently the Normal Schools have undergone much change.
They have become more progressive, Now the duration of training to
prepare teachers for elementary schools is three years. The course
contents are more comprehensive and. integrated. The curriculum
includes subject-matter orientation as well as professional training.
Presently most of the Normal Schools have been replaced by
Teacher colleges.
(2) Teachers Colleges During the second quarter of 20
th
century, some Normal Schools were replaced by Teachers Colleges
with more progressive and modern teacher training institutions. As it
had the support of the teachers, teacher educators and numerous
public organizations, including that of National Educational
Association the movement gained momentum. These Colleges are
Exclusively devoted to the training of teachers, offering 4 or 5 years
integrated courses, both for elementary and secondary school. They
function as degree granting institutions. A number of these colleges
offer courses for Masters Degree in Education, while a few of them
even offer Ph.D.s in teacher education. Some of them also
undertake training of specialist teachers and offer courses for
Colleges and University teachers. The integration of general and
professional courses to provide sufficient grounding in the subjectmatter
as well as the art of teaching is the main feature of these
Colleges.
68
(3) Departments of Education Departments of Education were
created as a part of bigger liberal Arts Colleges and Universities.
The Iowa University was the first to create a separate department,
named, Department of Pedagogy, for training teachers in the art of
teaching. Its success inspired many other universities and liberal
Arts Colleges to follow suit. The movement gained nation-wide
momentum and practically all institutions created Departments of
Education. The main function of these departments had been to
impart all round comprehensive education for the prospective
teachers and provide facilities for further education and research in
pedagogy and methodology of teaching.
(4) Schools or Colleges of Education The establishment of
university Departments of Education and liberal arts colleges started
a new movement of creating autonomous Schools of Education in
different universities and Colleges of Education. The University of
Michigan gave a lead by setting up Chairs of Education.
Following the example of Michigan University many more
universities established their own Schools of Education for the
purpose of conducting research in the theory and practice of
pedagogy and for the intensive study of the problems of Teacher
Education.
The Schools and Colleges of Education became popular
because of their internal autonomy, independent administration and
financial management. They controlled their budget and granted
their own degrees to the successful candidates. They developed more
intensive programme of teacher education and gave a new dimension
to the professional training of the would be teachers. They produced
the most relevant literature in the science of education that had been
lacking in the nineteenth century.
1. What are different types of Teacher Education systems prevailing
in the USA?
69
2.C.12 CURRICULUM AND COURSES OF STUDY :
The aim of the curriculum of teachers Colleges as well as
Colleges of Education is to impart all round comprehensive
education for the prospective teachers. Their function is to integrate
general and professional courses with a view to provide sufficient
grounding in the subject-matter as well as the art of teaching. In
most of the institutions the duration of teacher training courses is
three to five years. Every teacher training programme in America
includes following three basic constituents;
(i) General Education.
(ii) Professional Education, and
(iii) Specialization in a particular field.
(I) General Education Most of the institutions teach General
Education to the prospective teachers for at least two years to
help them to take a suitable place in contemporary society. In the
words of the Committee on Teacher Education of the American
Council of Education. In the case of prospective teachers, such
education should seek to further the development of knowledge,
skills, attitudes and interests that are fundamentally related to the
needs and responsibilities shared with contemporaries destined
for other vocations. The objective of this type of education is to
impart cultural, social and academic background to the persons
of other vocations in a complex society. Its content consists of
orientation courses - in humanities, social studies and sciences.
Sometimes they provide introductory courses in separate
subjects, and emphasis upon developing communication skills.
(II) Professional Education It aims at imparting professional
skills and techniques to the teachers under training. It is divided
into two parts: Theory and practice teaching.
(a) Theory The theoretical aspect of pedagogy is introduced
in the first or second year of the 4 - year course and is
continued till the last year. The subjects included in this
portion of the curriculum and time allotment (in terms of
semester hours) are as follows
70
Courses Hours
Observation and Reading 2
Educational Psychology 3
American Public Education 3
Methods of Teaching 3
School and Community Relations 2
Introduction to Philosophy of Education 3
Student teaching and Special Methods 10
Electives in Education and Psychology 2 to 4
Total 28 to 30
(b) Practice teaching Also known as student teaching,
practice teaching is generally introduced in the later part of
the professional courses, undertaken by the student teachers,
either in the Laboratory School of the University Campus or
in the regular Public Schools. It includes observation of
lessons, participation in criticism or discussion lessons and
finally the actual class room teaching under the skilful
guidance of the supervisors, who are members of the College
of University faculty.
On the pattern of internship of Medical Colleges, practice
teaching is also known as internship in teaching. It envisages
the student teachers working continuously for eight or nine
weeks under the supervision, of one or. more senior teachers of
the cooperating school. The entire work of internship is planned
and executed by the college lecturer (known as supervisor) in
consultation with the senior school teacher (known as a critic
teacher) and the pupils teachers.
(III) Subject Specialization Americans strongly feel that the
mastery of the subject which the pupils teacher has to teach, is
of paramount importance. One can not impart correct and
complete knowledge to his students without this mastery.
Therefore the pupil teachers have to acquire proficiency in the
subject or subjects of their choice. In many institutions the latest
trend is towards specialization in integrated fields or subjects
like social sciences, languages, general science. etc., in
consonance with the curriculum of the schools.
71
2.C.13 TRAINING OF HIGHER EDUCATION
TEACHERS :
State law varies regarding the requirements for faculty in
public postsecondary education, but public faculty are not
considered civil servants and the responsibility for determining the
academic and professional standards and requirements for faculty
positions and for recruitment and promotion rest with the individual
institution and its faculty, department, or school. State law, even for
public institutions, is confined to ensuring that institutions do not
discriminate in hiring or violate other employment or labour laws.
Requirements that institutions set may vary depending on the level at
which the faculty are expected to teach, the subject or field to be
taught, whether research is to be conducted, whether a professional
license or qualification is required, and whether the position is fullor
part-time and tenure-track. Accredited institutions also follow any
faculty standards set by the regional accrediting association to which
they belong and any standards set by the association that accredits
programmes in a particular field. Higher education faculty are
expected to possess the necessary expertise and qualifications to
teach and, where applicable, to conduct research and consult in the
discipline or professional field of their specialization. The general
requirement is either a terminal research degree (PhD or equivalent)
in the subject of specialization or, for some professional and clinical
faculty, the appropriate professional qualification plus a record of
successful practice and applied research.
1. Explain the important features of the Teacher Education curricula
in the USA?
2. What are the training requirements for Higher Education teachers
in the USA?
72
2.C.14 LET US SUM UP :
Training of Pre-Primary and Primary/Basic School Teachers:
Requirements for education and certification (licensure) of early
childhood (nursery, kindergarten, preschool) and elementary
(primary) teachers are set by state governments which require
multiple exams (subject matter, etc.) prior to entering teacher
education and again following completion of teacher education but
prior to certification. While state regulations vary, there is a growing
uniformity inspired in part by the federal No Child Left Behind law's
requirements for having a highly qualified teaching staff. The basic
requirement is completion of a prescribed programme of studies at
the undergraduate (bachelor's) level in order to qualify for entrylevel
certification, plus satisfactory completion of a supervised
practicum and the passing of qualifying examinations. Preprofessional
undergraduate studies must be completed at an
accredited institution in nearly all states. While the initial
certification may be achieved with a bachelor's degree, most states
offer higher levels of certification based on experience and
additional education, and many teachers at this level already possess,
or soon earn, a master's degree. Continuing professional education is
required in order to maintain certification.
Training of Secondary School Teachers : The basic precertification
requirements for secondary teachers are the same as for
elementary school teachers. A major difference is that secondary
school teachers are certified as competent in one or more academic
or vocational subjects and spend their careers concentrating on these
subjects, whereas elementary school teachers - especially for the
lower grades - may be comprehensively certified to teach the full
primary course or may specialize, particularly if teaching in the more
differentiated upper elementary/middle school grades. All States
certify teachers according to subject specializations as well as grade
levels/ranges. Special education teachers are trained in most States
in specialized programmes at both the undergraduate and graduate
levels and are also separately certified. Special education teachers
are also certified according to specialty, e.g. education of the deaf,
education of the visually impaired, etc. as well as the degree of
severity of the handicap with which they are trained to work. While
the minimum academic requirement is a Bachelor's degree in special
education or a related field (such as developmental psychology),
most teachers possess a Master's degree and many earn a higher
qualification called an Education Specialist degree. Specialized noninstructional
personnel must also be certified in most U.S. States;
they include school administrators, school counselors, school health
73
personnel (psychologists, nurses), school librarians, supervisory
teachers and curriculum specialists.
Training of Higher Education Teachers : State law varies
regarding the requirements for faculty in public postsecondary
education, but public faculty are not considered civil servants and
the responsibility for determining the academic and professional
standards and requirements for faculty positions and for recruitment
and promotion rest with the individual institution and its faculty,
department, or school. State law, even for public institutions, is
confined to ensuring that institutions do not discriminate in hiring or
violate other employment or labour laws. Requirements that
institutions set may vary depending on the level at which the faculty
are expected to teach, the subject or field to be taught, whether
research is to be conducted, whether a professional license or
qualification is required, and whether the position is full- or parttime
and tenure-track. Accredited institutions also follow any faculty
standards set by the regional accrediting association to which they
belong and any standards set by the association that accredits
1. What are the objectives of Teacher Education in UK?
2. What was the method of teacher preparation in the earlier times?
3. Trace the historical development of Teacher Education in the
modern period.
4. Briefly describe the method of selection of students for a
teaching programme.
5. Explain the curricula and courses for teacher education.
6. What was the method of teacher preparation in the period
between 1823 to 1910 in USA?
7. Explain the system of teacher preparation 1910 onwards?
8. What are the objectives of Teacher Education in USA?
9. Explain the basic constituents of teacher training programme in
America.
74
References :
1. Clyde Chitty (2002). The Right to a Comprehensive Education.
Second Caroline Benn Memorial Lecture.
http://www.socialisteducation.org.uk/CB2.htm.
2. Newsam, Peter. "Diversity and Admissions to English Secondary
Schools", Secondary Heads Association, 28 June 2002, revised
and reprinted in Forum 45:1 (2003) pp17-18.
3. Brighouse, Tim. "Comprehensive Schools Then, Now and in the
Future: is it time to draw a line in the sand and create a new
ideal?", Forum 45:1 (2003) pp3-11.
4. Wikipedia.
75
2D
TEACHER EDUCATION IN CHINA AND
SOUTH AFRICA
Unit Structure :
2.D.0 Objectives
2.D.1 Introduction
2.D.2 Teacher Education in China
2.D.2.1 Pre-service Teacher Education
2.D.2.2 Pre-service training of Primary and Secondary
School Teachers
2.D.2.3 In-service Education
2.D.3 Teacher in Higher Education
2.D.4 Teacher Education in South Africa
2.D.4.1 Initial Professional Education of Teachers
2.D.4.2 Continuing Professional Training and Development
2.D.5 Agencies for management of Teacher Education System
2.D.6 Let us sum up
2.D.0 OBJECTIVES :
Know the system of teacher education in China.
Know the system of teacher education in South Africa
Compare the system of teacher education of China with South
Africa.
2.D.1 INTRODUCTION :
Teacher education is an important part of Chinese socialist
education system. In the last 50 years' of development since the
founding of the People's Republic of China, the governments at
different levels have given priorities and great care to teacher
education. China has established a teacher education system that
meets the needs of basic education of different types and at different
levels. This system fits the specific Chinese situation and consists of
independent teacher training institutions.
76
In 1985, the government designated September 10 as
Teachers' Day, the first festival day for any profession and indicative
of government efforts to raise the social status and living standards
of teachers.
The government has started the Nationwide Program of
Network for Education of Teachers to improve the quality of
teaching. It aims to modernize teachers' education through
educational information, providing support and services for lifelong
learning through the teachers' education network, TV satellite
network, and the Internet and to greatly improve the teaching quality
of elementary and high school faculty through large-scale, highquality
and high-efficiency training and continuous education.
2.D.2 TEACHER EDUCATION IN CHINA :
Teacher education in China is composed of two parts: preservice
education and in-service training.
2.D.2.1 Pre-Service Teacher Education:
4 year Teacher Training Institutions including normal
universities and colleges (Teachers for Senior and Junior
Secondary Schools).
3 years Teacher Training Colleges (Teachers for Primary
Schools).
Secondary Teacher Training Schools (Teachers for
Kindergartens and Special Education Institutions).
In-Service Education (Teachers of Primary and Secondary
Schools).
Correspondence Education Programs, Evening Schools, Satellite
TV Education and examinations for self-directed learners.
Basic Statistics of Specialized Teacher Training Schools in 1998
Schools Enrollments Freshmen Graduates Teachers
Normal
universities and
colleges
229 693600 251100 196800 76600
Secondary
teacher training
schools
875 921100 319300 3058000 6340
Educational
institutes
190 212000 82200 66200 18700
77
In-service
teacher training
schools
2087 371000 121600 168200 46300
The State Council promulgated Regulations on Teachers
Qualification on December 12 1995, in which the standards for
recruiting teachers were strictly regulated and certification of
teachers became a must have before taking up jobs. Competent
persons in the society and graduates of other specialties could be
recruited to teach.
2.D.2.2 Pre-service training of Primary and Secondary School
Teachers:
General Higher Teacher Education
General higher teacher education in China aims mainly at the
training of secondary school teachers. In 1998, there were 229
general higher education institutions in China with an enrollment of
690,000.
Training of Secondary School Teachers
Normal Universities, Teacher Training Institutes and Teacher
Training Colleges enroll graduates from Senior Secondary
Schools.
4year Programs: Senior Secondary School Teachers.
2/3 year Programs: Junior Secondary Schools.
Specialties: Pedagogy, Pre-School Education, Special
Education, Psychology, ET, Chinese Language, Literature,
Ideology and Political Education, History, English, Russian,
Japanese, Mathematics and Applied Mathematics, Computer
Science, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Geography, Music,
Fine Arts and Physical Education.
Post Graduate Programs and In-Service Training for
secondary school teachers.
Regular Secondary Teacher Education
Training Teachers for Primary Schools, Kindergartens and
Special Education.
Enrollment of graduates from Junior Secondary Schools.
Duration of programs: 3 or 4 years.
Curriculum made up of 4 parts:
78
Compulsory courses.
Optional courses.
Teaching Practice and
Extra Curricular Activities.
Compulsory courses: Ideology and Political Education,
Chinese (including Methodology of Chinese Teaching in Primary
Schools), Mathematics (including Methodology), Physics,
Chemistry, Biology, History, Geography, Psychology, Pedagogy for
Primary School, Basic Audio- Visual Education, Physical Education,
Music, Fine Arts, Laboring Skills, Basics of Computer Education.
Optional Courses:
Vocational and Technical Subjects.
Teaching Practice:
Visits to primary schools.
Educational survey.
Teaching probation.
Experimental Teaching.
Extra Curricular Activities:
Lectures, Organizing Special Interest Groups and
conducting Social Surveys to educate students in disciplines, science
and technology, arts and sports.
Secondary Special Teacher Training Schools
To educate special education teachers for primary schools.
3 specialist teachers: for the deaf, for the blind and for the
mentally retarded.
Compulsory courses.
Optional courses.
Compulsory courses:
79
Classified into public and specialized compulsory courses.
Public Compulsory Courses: Ideology and Political
Education, Chinese, Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Biology,
History, Geography, Basic Psychology, Physical Education, Music,
Fine Arts , Basic Pedagogy, Introduction to Special Education and
Laboring Skills.
Specialized Compulsory Courses:
Psychology,
Pedagogy.
Methodology and
Other courses for prevention and examination of deformity.
Optional Courses:
Designed to broaden the students knowledge and develop
their interests and special skills.
Teaching Practice:
Visiting.
Probating.
Assisting special education teachers to organize activities.
Educational Surveys.
Students teaching themselves.
conducting Social Surveys to educate students in science
1) Where does the pre service training of secondary school teachers
take place, and what are the specialties offered?
2.D.2.3 In-service Education :
80
As required by state law, local governments are implementing
teacher qualification systems and promoting in-service training for
large numbers of school principals, so as to further improve school
management standards.
To cope with the shortage of qualified teachers, the State
Education Commission decreed in 1985 that senior-middle-school
teachers should be graduates with two years' training in professional
institutes and that primary-school teachers should be graduates of
secondary schools. To improve teacher quality, the commission
established full-time and part-time (the latter preferred because it
was less costly) in-service training programs. Primary-school and
preschool in-service teacher training programs devoted 84 percent of
the time to subject teaching, 6 percent to pedagogy and psychology,
and 10 percent to teaching methods. In-service training for primaryschool
teachers was designed to raise them to a level of
approximately two years' postsecondary study, with the goal of
qualifying most primary-school teachers by 1990. Secondary-school
in-service teacher training was based on a unified model, tailored to
meet local conditions, and offered on a spare-time basis. Ninety-five
percent of its curricula was devoted to subject teaching, 2 to 3
percent to pedagogy and psychology, and 2 to 3 percent to teaching
methods. There was no similar large-scale in-service effort for
technical and vocational teachers, most of whom worked for
enterprises and local authorities.
In service Teacher Education is Classified into Degree and Non
Degree Education
Degree education includes not only the make up education
for in-service teachers without qualified certificates but also
upgaradation for in service teachers with qualified
certificates.
Non Degree education: Continuing education of primary and
It is divided into 2 parts:
Probation Period Training of New Teachers and
Post Training of existing teachers.
Probation Training: Formation of ardent love for education
and students, familiarization with education regulations and
teaching outlines, common rules on textbooks, professional
ethics.
81
Post Training: According to present job responsibility,
qualifications and parts of post requirements at higher level.
In service education helps teachers to accomplish their tasks
and create conditions for promotion.
1) What are the types of in service teacher education programmes
and what is their importance?
2.D.3 TEACHERS IN HIGHER EDUCATION :
Currently, in schools of higher learning, professors and
assistant professors account for 9.5 percent and 30 percent
respectively. Young and middle-aged teachers predominate; teachers
under age 45 account for 79 percent of total faculty, and under age
35 for 46 percent. Teachers in higher education constitute a vital
contingent in scientific research, knowledge innovation and sci-tech.
Of all academicians in the Chinese Academy of Sciences, 40.7
percent (280) are in the higher education sector; for the Chinese
Academy of Engineering the corresponding figure is 35.3 percent
(234).
What is the status of teacher education for teachers in higher
education?
82
2.D.4 TEACHER EDUCATION IN SOUTH AFRICA :
Introduction :
The Ministerial Committee on Teacher Education, which was
appointed in 2003, and reported to the Minister during 2005,
conducted a wide-ranging study. The Committee consulted
extensively with key stakeholders, including the South African
Council for Educators, the South African Qualifications Authority
(SAQA); the Education, Training and Development Practices Sector
Education and Training Authority (ETDP-SETA); national Teacher
Unions; the Higher Education South Africa (HESA) Education
Deans Forum; and NGOs working in teacher education. It was then
that policy for teacher education in South Africa is arrived at.
The policy for teacher education in South Africa is designed
to develop a teaching profession ready and able to meet the needs of
a democratic South Africa in the 21st century. The aim of the policy
is to properly equip teachers to undertake their essential and
demanding tasks, to enable them to continually enhance their
professional competence and performance, and to raise the esteem in
which they are held by the people of South Africa.
According to this policy teacher education consists of two
complementary sub-systems:
Initial Professional Education of Teachers (IPET), and
Continuing Professional Teacher Development (CPTD).
2.D.4.1 Initial Professional Education of Teachers (IPET)
Qualification Routes :
Higher Education Qualifications Framework
Since all initial teacher education is the responsibility of
Higher Education, the qualifications structure for teacher education
is subject to the Ministers policy on qualifications in terms of the
Higher Education Act, 1997. This policy is expressed in the Higher
Education Qualifications Framework (HEQF), which provides the
basis for integrating all higher education qualifications into the
National Qualifications Framework (NQF).
Recognized Teaching Qualifications
The Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) degree A four-year
B.Ed. degree, which includes one year full-time of supervised
83
practical teaching experience in schools, is the standard qualification
for students wishing to teach in any learning area, subject and phase.
The justification for a single main entry qualification is that the
academic and pedagogical demands are essentially equivalent for all
teachers regardless of learning area, subject or phase. B.Ed. is the
standard Initial Professional Education of Teachers (IPET)
qualification and there will be several routes to achieve it.
The Advanced Diploma in Education (ADE) An Advanced
Diploma is offered to graduates with an appropriate first degree who
wish to teach.
The Diploma option A new three-year teaching Diploma has
been introduced. Within a context of institutional differentiation,
universities may be allowed to offer this qualification, although
students would be required to complete a fourth year before
qualifying as a teacher. This could be offered in both contact and
distance modes. This will attract student teachers who might not
meet degree entrance requirements, as well as assist those who need
to start earning earlier.
The Ministry recognizes the need to provide other routes to a
teaching qualification, and the Diploma option may be considered if,
the recruitment campaign based on entrance to the B.Ed. degree fails
to close the teacher supply gap.
The Norms and Standards for Educators include the
following standards that encourage imaginative and flexible
programme design:
Providers develop programmes and an institutional ethos which
develops educators as extended professionals and lifelong
learners;
Programmes are increasingly offered in modes of delivery that
allow practicing educators to attend;
Learning materials are developed and used to create spatial
flexibility in courses; and
Assignments are designed to encourage problem solving within
authentic contexts.
Distance education enables the students to learn while
working and is also cost effective to large numbers of students.
Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs), wisely used,
offer immense promise of widening access to teacher education
84
programmes, improving learners motivation, speeding
communication and enriching the resources available for learning.
While all Universities will be invited to offer distance programmes,
only those that are professionally and administratively equipped to
design and manage them are permitted to do so.
The B. Ed degree is therefore offered through full or part-time
study at contact Universities or part-time study through distance
learning.
The Ministry of Education has thus determined the following
qualification routes for teacher education in South African
universities:
The four-year B.Ed. degree is the preferred standard IPET
qualification to be offered by Universities;
A one year Post-Graduate Diploma following an approved first
degree;
The possible introduction of a new three-year Diploma by an
institution accredited to do so;
Conversion programmes, with funding support, to enable eligible
serving teachers to move into scarce learning areas, subjects or
phases;
The future of the National Professional Diploma in Education
(NPDE) and the Advanced Certificate in Education (ACE) will
be reviewed, based on an assessment of need and value.
1) What are the teaching qualifications prevalent in South Africa?
How can they be achieved?
2.D.4.11 Continuing Professional Training and Development :
Conceptual and Pedagogical Needs
85
Both conceptual and content knowledge and pedagogical
knowledge are necessary for effective teaching, together with the
teachers willingness and ability to reflect on practice and learn from
the learners own experience of being taught.
All teachers need to enhance their skills, not necessarily
qualifications, for the delivery of the new curriculum. A large
majority need to strengthen their subject knowledge base,
pedagogical content knowledge and teaching skills. A sizeable
proportion need to develop specialist skills in areas such as health
and physical education, HIV and AIDS support, diversity
management, classroom management and discipline, and so on.
Many need to renew their enthusiasm and commitment to their
calling.
So far in-service education, in many instances, though there
were considerable rewards in terms of salary increases, such
qualifications had little or no impact on classroom practice.
In service education remains fragmented and un-coordinated and
therefore makes a rather limited impact.
Continuing Professional Teacher Development (CPTD) System
The Continuing Professional Teacher Development (CPTD) system
will:
Ensure that current initiatives devoted to the professional
development of teachers contribute more effectively and directly
to the improvement of the quality of teaching;
Emphasize and reinforce the professional status of teaching;
Provide teachers with clear guidance about which Professional
Development (PD) activities will contribute to their professional
growth;
Protect teachers from fraudulent providers; and
Expand the range of activities that contribute to the professional
development of teachers.
In this system it is intended that the South African Council for
Educators, as the statutory body for professional educators, will have
overall responsibility for the implementation and management of the
Continuing Professional Teacher Development (CPTD). The
Professional Development (PD) points method is an internationally
recognized technique used by professional bodies in many fields to
86
acknowledge their members continuing professional development.
Each teacher will be expected to earn Professional Development
(PD) points by choosing professional development activities that suit
their own requirements and that have been endorsed by South
African Council for Educators (SACE).
The guiding purpose will be to enable teachers to become less
dependent on outside agencies and more able to become responsible
for their own professional development.
Professional Development (PD) activities are classified into four
types:
School driven programmes;
Employer driven programmes;
Qualification driven programmes; and
Other programmes, offered by NGOs, teacher unions,
community-based and faith-based organizations, or private
companies.
Some Continuing Professional Teacher Development (CPTD)
activities are compulsory and others self-selected. The relevant
education department pays for compulsory activities, which may be
at national, provincial, district, or school level. Teachers themselves
pay for self-selected activities though provincial bursaries will be
available in priority fields of study.
Teachers who study successfully in order to upgrade their
qualifications will earn Professional Development (PD) points.
Two risks must be avoided:
(a) teachers should not neglect their main responsibilities in order to
earn Professional Development (PD) points; and
(b) the administrative burden on already overloaded teachers must
not be increased.
Rewards and Sanctions
South African educators are required to earn PD points and be
registered with SACE as a condition for them to practice.
Registration is their license to teach. With the introduction of the
Continuing Professional Teacher Development (CPTD) system in
87
the teaching profession it will be necessary to apply rewards and
sanctions. Teachers who do not achieve the minimum number of PD
points over two successive cycles of three years will be required to
apply to South African Council for Educators (SACE) for reregistration.
Managing the CPTD system
As the national body for the education profession it is
intended that South African Council for Educators (SACE) is
responsible for managing the system, but it is essentially a
collaborative undertaking linking a number of sub-systems.
Provincial Departments of Educations, district offices, school
management teams and teachers unions will play an indispensable
role in encouraging teachers participation in Continuing
Professional Teacher Development (CPTD) activities. Providers in
all categories are responsible for designing and delivering focused,
appropriate and high quality activities in line with South African
Council for Educators (SACE) criteria and guidelines. The quality
assurers appointed by South African Council for Educators (SACE)
protect teachers interests by ensuring that providers and their
programmes meet the requisite standards. The Department of
Education will engage with SACE to address the resources and
structures needed to take forward the Continuing Professional
Teacher Development (CPTD) system.
1) What is the responsibility of the continuing professional teacher
development (CPTD) system?
2.D.5 AGENCIES FOR MANAGEMENT OF TEACHER
EDUCATION SYSTEM :
Many bodies and institutions are involved in teacher
education. The Ministry recognizes that each has its own
responsibilities in the system, and it also recognizes the need for
88
improving co-ordination among them, since many of these may
intersect or be dependent on each other.
South African Council for Educators (SACE)
The South African Council for Educators (SACE) is a
professional council that aims to enhance the status of the teaching
profession and promote the development of educators and their
professional conduct. The SACE was established in terms of the
SACE Act, 2000 (Act 31 of 2000) [PDF].
The councils functions are to:
register educators
promote the professional development of educators
set, maintain and protect ethical and professional standards.
Educators are required to register with SACE before they are
employed by any authority. The council has strengthened entry
requirements by checking the professional standing of applicants.
The council has a number of programmes that promote the
development of educators and enhance the status and image of the
teaching profession. These include, among other things, the
Professional Development Portfolio Project that aims to encourage
educators to reflect on their practice and to take responsibility for
their own professional development; teacher education and
development research activities; setting up the Continuing
Professional Teacher Development (CPTD) system; and celebrating
World Teachers Day to acknowledge the work of educators.
The ethics function ensures that educators adhere to the
SACE Code of Professional Ethics.
The Department of Education and South African Council
for Educators (SACE) share exceptional responsibilities in the
system of teacher education. Their roles deserve special mention.
Between them they carry the statutory responsibility for the teacher
education system. Their working relationship is therefore of the
utmost importance and requires a high degree of mutual
understanding and collegial engagement. This is especially the case
in the coming period as South African Council for Educators
(SACE) builds its capacity to manage its enlarged responsibilities in
terms of its founding Act and this policy.
The Department of Education has the policy responsibility for
all matters relating to Education, including teacher education. In the
89
context of a developmental state, the Department of Education is
required to promote transformation through education. The
Department of Education has the lead responsibility for teacher
education policy, planning, monitoring and funding. The objective of
pursuing quality education for all requires the Department of
Education to provide opportunities to advance the continuing
professional development of teachers. In this regard, the Department
continues to work collaboratively with statutory and non-statutory
bodies as well as stakeholders with in the education system.
The Department of Education, as the principal employer of
teachers, is responsible for ensuring that teachers conditions of
service, working conditions and career prospects meet appropriate
standards, and that the teaching profession becomes a desirable
occupation for an increasing number of South Africans.
National Education Evaluation and Development Unit
Finally, the Department of Education is responsible for
monitoring the performance of schools and teachers. For this
purpose, a National Education Evaluation and Development (NEED)
Unit will be established, at arms length from the Department, in
order to provide the necessary moderation processes in regard to
both the Whole School Evaluation Policy and the agreement on an
Integrated Quality Management System for the appraisal of teachers.
The Minister, after consultation with the respective sectors,
may determine different professional education and qualifications
requirements for teachers in Early Childhood Development, Adult
Basic Education and Training, Special Needs Education, and for
Further Education and Training College lecturers.
1) Which are the agencies involved in the continuing professional
teacher development (CPTD)?
2.D.6 LET US SUM UP :
90
The policy for teacher education in South Africa consists of
two complementary sub-systems are the Initial Professional
Education of Teachers (IPET), and the Continuing Professional
Teacher Development (CPTD). Recognized teaching qualifications
are the Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) degree, the Advanced
Diploma in Education (ADE) and the Diploma option. The Norms
and Standards for Educators include the following standards that
encourage imaginative and flexible programme design.
knowledge are necessary for effective teaching, All teachers need to
enhance their skills, not necessarily qualifications, for the delivery of
the new curriculum. Hence there is the need for Continuing
Professional Teacher Development (CPTD) System. Each teacher
will be expected to earn Professional Development (PD) points by
choosing professional development activities that suit their own
requirements and that have been endorsed by South African Council
for Educators (SACE).
education. The Ministry recognizes South African Council for
Educators (SACE) and the Department of Education. Between them
they carry the statutory responsibility for the teacher education
system.
1. Why does the Government of China gives importance to teacher
education?
2. Describe the types of teacher education in China.
3. Explain the relevance of pre-service and in-service education.
4. What are the teaching qualifications prevalent in South Africa?
5. Explain the importance of Continuing Professional Teacher
Development (CPTD) system?
6. What is the role and functions of South African Council for
Educators (SACE) and the Department of Education?
Suggested Reading :
91
1. Embassy of The People's Republic of China in the Federal
Democratic Republic of Nepal All Rights Reserved
http://www.chinaembassy.org.np
2. Nan-zhao, Zhou (Editor-in-chief): An International Perspective
on Teacher Education: Teacher Education Reform, Teacher
Professional Standard and School-based Teacher Development,
Shanghai: East China Normal University Press (in Publishing,
2006).
3. Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the Library of
Congress Country Studies
4. "China : Country Studies - Federal Research Division, Library of
Congress".Lcweb2.loc.gov.2009-05-07.
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cntoc.html. Retrieved 2009-06-15.
5. This article incorporates public domain material from websites or
documents of the Library of Congress Country Studies. Retrieved
from
wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_the_People%27s_Republic_of_
China"
6. Categories: Education in China | Science and technology in
China | Education in the People's Republic of China
7. Department of Education (2006): The National Policy
Framework for Teacher Education in South Africa More
teachers; Better teachers Pretoria, pp 14-26.
8. D. Burger (Editor) (2009) South Africa Yearbook 2008/09,
Government Communication and Information System.
92
3
AGENCIES OF TEACHER EDUCATION
Unit Structure :
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Agencies of Teacher Education at State Level
3.2.1 State Institute of Education (SIE)
3.2.2 State Council of Educational Research and Training
(SCERT)
3.2.3 State Board of Teacher Education (SBTE)
3.2.4 University Departments of Education (UDTE)
3.3 Agencies of Teacher Education at National Level
3.3.1 University Grant Commission (UGC)
3.3.2 National University of Educational Planning and
Administration (NUEPA)
3.3.3 National Council of Teacher Education (NCTE)
3.3.4 National Council of Educational Research and
Training (NCERT)
3.4 Agencies of Teacher Education at International Level
3.4.1 United Nations Educational Scientific, Cultural
Organisation (UNESCO)
3.5 Let us Sum up
3.0 OBJECTIVES :
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
State various agencies of Teacher Education Programme at State,
National and International Level
Explain the role of functions of various agencies of Teacher
Education Programme at State, National and International Level.
3.1 INTRODUCTION :
Due to explosion of knowledge, there is a spread of education
not only in India, but all over the world. Due to this change, social
93
needs are changed accordingly. A teacher is expected to face the
new changes by undergoing through training for new trends in
education. Such training needs are satisfied by different agencies at
different levels.
In this unit we will discuss the role of different agencies and
their functions towards teacher education at state, national and
international level.
3.2 AGENCIES OF TEACHER EDUCATION AT
STATE LEVEL :
To enhance quality of education and quality of educational
institutions, to update educational methodology and to offer
publicity to educational innovations by conducting various types of
educational research every state establishes some institutes, council
and associations. In this unit, we will discuss the role and functions
of the following state agencies :
State Institute of Education (SIE)
State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT)
State Board of Teacher Education (SBTE)
3.2.1 State Institute of Education (SIE) :
Training, preparation of teaching aids and evaluation needs
continuity to achieve quality education. Considering this aspect,
Maharashtra state has established State Institute of Education
(SIE). Initially, SIE looked after primary education only. Later on,
its scope is widened to pre-primary, secondary and higher secondary
education. In 1984, it secured constitutional status like NCERT and
is renamed as Maharashtra State Council of Education Research
and Training (MSCERT).
(SCERT):
State council is the apex institute of the state. In Maharashtra,
it was established in 1964 65 as a state institute of Education
(SIE). It was upgrade and renamed as Maharashtra State Council of
Education Research and Training in 1984. For quality improvement
of school education it (MSCERT) carries the responsibility of
teacher education, research and evaluation.
94
Objectives :
Its objectives are :
To enhance quality of education by conducting various types of
educational research.
To improve teacher education
To enhance quality of educational institutions
To upgrade educational methodology
To offer publicity to educational innovations.
Structure :
Main office of MSCERT is at Pune. It is an academic wing
of education. It is headed by Director of education. Its various
departments are looked after by second class gazzeted officer. It has
an advisory Board presided by Education Minister of the State.
Role and Functions :
The Role and functions are primarily concerned with ensuring
quality in respect of :
Planning
Management
Research
Evaluation and
Training
Its functions are as under:
To improve school - education, continuing education, non-formal
education and special education.
To impart in service - training to the inspectors of preprimary to
higher secondary education.
To impart in service - training to the teachers from pre-primary to
higher secondary schools.
To make available extension - services to teacher - education -
institutions and co-ordinate the same.
To prepare teaching aids for educational institutions.
95
To motivate teachers to undertake /investigative research
regarding content cum methodology.
MSCERT functions through following departments -
Teacher - education department.
Extension services department.
Research department
Evaluation department
curriculum development department
Population Education department.
Publicity Department.
3.2.3 State Board of Teacher Education (SBTE) :
Kothari Commission for the first time in 1966 recommended for
establishing SBTE, whose main function was to develop teacher
education in the state to be administered by the state board. State
boards were established in M.P in 1967, and Maharashtra,
Jammu and Kashmir and Tamil Nadu in 1973. Ministry of
education forced states to have SBTE suggestions NCERT such
boards almost all states established.
Functions :
Determine the standards of TE Institutions.
Modifying and improving the curriculum, text books and the
system of TE of the state.
Developing the criterion for the recognition of the TE
institutions.
Organizing the guidance facility of TE institutions.
Developing the criteria for admission in TE and evaluating the
teacher efficiency of pupil teachers.
Preparing the plan for the qualitative and quantitative
development of teacher education.
Providing guidance to the Universities and State institutes for
improving and modifying curriculum, textbooks and examination
system of teacher-education.
Determining the educational and physical conditions of the
teacher education institutions for affiliations.
96
Developing the sense of cooperation among university
departments and other training institutions
Providing financial assistance different facilities for TE at
different levels.
Provide suggestions for the development of state teachereducators.
3.2.4 University Departments of Education (UDE) :
Education is now considered an independent field of study;
UGC provides the grants to the University Department of education.
Higher level training is essential for teachers for their development.
Department of Education (DOE) provide training for educational
administrators and curriculum specialists to improve evaluation
procedures as well examination system. University DOE organize
the M.Ed, B.Ed, and M.Phil classes as well as research work for
Ph.D and D.Litt degree in education. In 1917, first education
department was started at Calcutta University. At present there are
departments of education in all the Indian Universities for M.Ed and
Ph.D Degrees.
Functions :
Develop the post graduate studies and research work.
Organize training for school teachers.
Provide solid programmes for teacher education and developing
research work.
Starting and organize some programmes for post graduate
teachers which are not organized at other centers.
Developing language laboratory, preparing instructional material
and use new innovations and practices in TE.
Encouraging the interdisciplinary courses and interdisciplinary
research studies so that the requirements of other departments
can be fulfilled.
Organize extension lectures and programmes to encourage the
teachers and research workers to contribute in the discipline of
education.
Providing awareness of new methodology and technology to
upgrade the standard of TE.
Developing the effective procedure of evaluation of theory and
practicals in education.
97
A very strong academic and administrative machinery at the
state level should further aim at economy and integration of
divergent elements, avoid duplication of efforts, consider and
examine the needs of different types of institutions, give a proper
turn to arising ideologies and tendencies and eliminate corruption
and exploitation.
There should be a University of teacher education in every
state on its own. It should be unitary as well as affiliating for all the
teachers, colleges at graduate and post graduate levels within the
state.
1) Explain the functions of State agencies of teacher education.
3.3 NATIONAL LEVEL AGENCIES OF TEACHER
EDUCATION PROGRAMME :
3.3.1 University Grants Commission (UGC) :
Established on 28th December, 1953, at New Delhi. UGC was given
autonomy by govt. of India in 1956.
Functions :
It provides financial assistance to universities and colleges to
meet their requirement.
It extends the financial aid for the development of Universities
and maintenance.
It provides a guide-line to Center and State Govt. for giving grant
to a University.
It provides the grants for five years to establish as new University
in the state.
98
It provides the grants for five years to start new department or
any academic programme in the University but now state
concurrence is essential.
It encourages higher level research work and teaching activities
by providing financial assistance.
It provides the grants for higher education and new programmes
in the Universities and colleges.
It provides the fellowship for teachers and project work for
University and college teachers.
Teacher Education Committees :
To upgrade the standard of education Teacher-education
committees were formed consisting of seven members for two
years duration.
It provides awareness of new innovations and research in
teacher-education.
The national fellowship and teacher fellowship are granted for
encouraging research and teaching work.
UGC provides travel grants to the university lecturers for
attending international conferences and seminars.
Visiting professors are appointed from among the University
professors for inter change programmes and delivering lectures.
Residential facilities for university and college teachers are also
provided.
Research associates are appointed for post doctor work.
Research :
UGC is giving substantial grants to University teachers for
conducting their own researches. In 1953-54, Ministry of
Education initiated a scheme providing grants to teachers,
colleges and departments of education in the Universities in order
to enable them to carry out research on educational problems
selected by them and approved by the central ministry.
The main purpose of the scheme is to provide facilities for
research which, in many instances, has been held up owing to
dearth of funds. It is to be carried on by the staff of the training
colleges assisted by some research fellows assigned to them and
some financial facilities. Equipment is provided to facilitate the
completion of the projects.
99
Centre for Advanced Studies (CASE) :
For the improvement of standards of teaching and research in
India.UGC has set up CASE in different branches of knowledge.
It selected the faculty of Education and Psychology, Baroda as
the CASE in Education which functions on an all India basis and
aims at raising standards of teaching and research in education. It
has built up its programme in collaboration with research
workers from outside
3.3.2 National Institute of Educational Planning and
Administration: (NUEPA/ NIEPA) :
Functions :
As the highest organization of educational planning and
Administration- has the following functions to perform:
Providing training of educational planning and administration to
develop the abilities and competencies in the educational
administration as the in-service program.
Providing training facilities in educational planning and
administration at state level and regional level to develop
efficiency at their level.
Integrating educational studies and researches under the area of
educational planning and administration and make co ordinations
in these activities.
Encouraging the teachers to solve the problems of educational
planning and administration by organizing seminars and
workshops.
Arranging extension programs for new developments and
innovations in the area of planning and administration.
Establishing contact with other countries to understand the
developments and innovations of the developed countries.
Providing guidance at National and State levels in the area of
planning and administration.
Multi dimensional activities- under extension programs journal
on educational planning and administration and other books are
published.
Review of educational planning and administration of other
countries- used to develop our educational system and solve
educational problems.
100
Orientation programs for educational administrators- provide
awareness of new developments in this area.
Educational research reports are published. The publication unit
established the coordination between theory and practice.
Seminars and workshops are organized and their discussions and
results are published.
Training Institutions for special fields for school and collegesthese
provide elementary in special fields like- computers,
educational technology and fine arts.
Language Institutions :
Kendriya Hindi Sanasthan.
Central Institute of English, Hyderabad,
Central Institute of Indian Languages, Mysore.
Language training is given.
3.3.3 National Council of Teacher Education (NCTE) :
Kothari commission Report (1964-66) criticized Teacher
Education Programme being conventional, rigid and away from
reality. Therefore it expressed the need of establishing National
council of Teacher Education in order to improve the standard of
Teacher Education. In September 1972, Central Advisory Board in
Education accepted the said proposal which was supported by fifth
National plan. Thereafter by law, Indian Education Ministry
established NCTE on 21st May 1973. NCTE has got independent
constitutional status since 1993.
Objectives :
To work especially towards planned and coordinated
development of teacher-education.
To improve the standard and functioning of teacher-educators.
Functions :
According to the Act 1993, NCTE performs the following
functions :
Undertake survey and studies relating to various aspects of
teacher-education and publish the results.
101
Making recommendations to the center and State government
Universities, the U.G.C and other institutions in the preparation
of plans and programmmes in the field of teacher education.
Coordinating and monitoring teacher education and its
development in the country.
Preparing a guideline with regard to minimum qualifications for
the candidates to be employed as teachereducators at different
levels.
Developing norms for any specified category of courses or
training in teacher-education, including minimum eligibility
criterion for admission.
Preparing a guideline and specified requirements for starting new
courses and programmes under teacher education.
Developing a guideline for general teacher-education
programme.
To advise central government on matters like teacher - education
(in building pre-service / in-service training), evaluation of the
curricula for teacher -- education and periodical review with
respect to revision of curricula.
To advise state governments on any matter of their concern.
To review the progress of plan of teacher- education, submitted
by central / state governments.
To advise the government on ensuring adequate standards in
teacher - education.
To give approval to teacher - education institutions.
To lay down norms for maintaining standards of teachers -
education.
Promoting innovations and research studies and organize them
periodically or annually.
Supervising the teacher education programmes and providing
financial assistance.
Enforcing accountability of teacher development programmes in
the country.
Preparing a programme for in-service teacher education for
orienting teachers for latest development.
102
NCTE functions through the following standing committees :
Pre Primary, primary teachers education committee.
Secondary college - teacher education committee.
Special education - teacher education committee.
In-service - teacher - education committee.
Activities of NCTE are with respect to :
Research - Extension services.
Development programmes.
Training.
Evaluations.
3.3.4 NCERT - National Council of Educational Research and
Training :
Introduction :
Due to knowledge explosion, there is a spread of education not
only in India, but all over the world. Due to this change, social
needs have changed accordingly.A teacher is expected to face the
education. Such training - needs are satisfied by following
National level agencies of Teacher Education programme
NCERTandNCTE.
National Council of Educational Research and Training
(NCERT) :
Establishment :
Ministry of Education of Indian Government established
NCERT in 1961. NCERT is an autonomous - organization, working
as an academic wing of the Ministry of Education. It assists the said
ministry in the formulation and implementation of its policies and
programmes in the field of Education. It is expected to encourage
student teachers and teacher educators to conduct educational
research. In order to fulfill these main objectives, it has established
National Institute of Education (NIE) at Delhi and 4 regional
colleges of education at Ajmer, Bhopal, Bhubaneswar and Mysore.
It also works in collaboration with the departments in the states, the
universities and institutes, following objectives of school education.
It also maintains close-contact with similar national and international
103
institutions throughout the world. It communicates results of its
researches to a common man by publishing books and journals.
Objectives :
To launch, organize and strengthen research works in various
aspects of education.
To arrange for pre-service and in-service training at the higher
level.
To publish necessary textbooks, journals and other literature for
achieving the objectives.
To organize extension centers in training institutes with the
cooperation of state governments and extend facilities pertaining
to new methods and technologies among them.
To establish a National Institute of Education and manage for the
development of research and higher training for educational
administrators and teachers.
To provide guidance and counselling services on a large scale.
a) Major function of NCERT are as under/ Role of NCERT :
To monitor the administration of NIE /Regional colleges of
Education.
To undertake aid, promote and co-ordinate research in all
branches of education for improving school-education.
To organize pre-service and in-service education programmes
for teachers
To prepare and publish study material for students and related
teachers handbooks.
To search talented students for the award of scholarship in
science, Technology and social sciences.
To undertake functions assigned by the Ministry of education
(Now HRD) for improving school education
It is quite interesting to know how following constituent
institutes works.
National Institute of Education (NIE)
In order to fulfill the objectives of NCERT, NIE Functions
through 9 departments, 7 units and 2 cells as Under :
104
Departments of NIE :
Academic Depts.
Production Department.
Dept of Maths Education
Dept. of textbooks
Dept of Teacher education
Dept of Teaching Aids
Dept of Educational Psychology Publication Department.
Dept of Educational Psychology Workshop Department
Dept of Text - books.
Units of NIE Cells of NIE
National Talent Search unit Primary Curriculum
Survey and Data processing Unit Journals cell
Policy, planning and Evaluation Unit
Library and Documentation Unit
Vocationalisation of Education Unit
Examination Reform unit
Examination Research unit
b) Central institute of Educational Technology (CIET) :
Functions of CIET are as under
To encourage the use of Educational technology in the spread of
education.
To organize training programmes in connection with schoolbroadcasting
and Educational Television.
To develop learning aids based on Educational technology.
C) Regional Institutes of Education (RIE) :
NCERT established Institutes of Education as model institutes in
different regions of the country.
Besides Teacher Education programme (4 years integrated B.Ed
Course), these college conduct programme with respect to inservice
- training, extension services and Research.
105
They run 4 years B.Ed. course with a view that Education is a
professional subject like engineering, medicine and B.Ed. student
should be trained in the content and methodology
simultaneously.
This course offers B.Sc. B.Ed. (Science) and BA, B.Ed
(languages) degree.
These colleges conduct one-year B.Ed. course especially in
science, agriculture, commerce and languages.
They also run M.Ed course.
These. Colleges are situated at Ajmer, Bhopal, Bhubaneswar and
Mysore as centers of excellence for the four regions of India.
The role of NCERT in Indian Education :
NCERT organizes / conducts various programmes with respect to
Research, Development, Training, Extension-services, publishing
study - material, and evaluation.
It aims at qualitative improvement of school - education.
It aims at qualitative improvement of school - education rather
than quantitative expansion.
It wants to make our education relevant to national objectives
and social needs.
Besides researches conducted at NIE, NCERT offers financial
aid to research projects of the teachers.
It also organizes summer Institutes to school teachers and teacher
- educators for attaining their professional growth. Through these
measures NCERT wants to achieve qualitative improvement in
Education.
1) Discuss the functions of National agencies of teacher education.
106
3.4 AGENCIES AT THE INTERNATIONAL LEVEL :
3.4.1 UNESCO :
At no time in human history was the welfare of nations so
closely linked to the quality and outreach of their higher education
systems and institutions. (World Conference on Higher Education
Partners, June 2003).
As the only United Nations agency with a mandate in higher
education, UNESCO facilitates the development of evidence-based
policies in response to new trends and developments in this field
emphasizing its role in achieving the Millennium Development
Goals and particularly poverty eradication.
The Organization fosters innovation to meet education and
workforce needs and examines ways of increasing higher education
opportunities for young people from vulnerable and disadvantaged
groups.
It deals with cross-border higher education and quality
assurance, with a special focus on mobility and recognition of
qualifications, and provides tools to protect students and other
stakeholders from low-quality provision of higher education.
UNESCO promotes policy dialogue and contributes to enhancing
quality education, strengthening research capacities in higher
education institutions, and knowledge sharing across borders.
Teacher education :
Global leadership on teachers,
Their status,
Their professional training,
Their management and administration and key policy issues.
The UNESCO/ILO Recommendations concerning the Status of
Teachers and provide the framework for the same.
The Teacher Training Initiative for Sub-Saharan Africa
(TTISSA) is a core initiative addressing key issues in the African
context.
What UNESCO is doing for Teacher Training- (ROLE AND
FUNCTIONS) :
UNESCO promotes the development of a professionally-trained
corps of teachers who provided the human contact, understanding
107
and judgment necessary to prepare our children for the world of
tomorrow.
UNESCO and Teachers :
Good teachers are the cornerstone of quality education. On a
daily basis, teachers contribute to sustainable development by
building its human foundation nurturing each childs capacity and
desire to learn. Without teachers, Education for All (EFA) by 2015
would be an unobtainable dream.
Teachers : Creating hope for tomorrow :
Teachers are at the very heart of UNESCOs work. Each day,
over 60 million teachers care for 1 billion children, cultivating
their souls and minds. Any process that attempts to improve the
quality of education promote peace and harmony and eliminate
discrimination requires teachers. Teachers work with children
who will be the leaders of tomorrow.
But for teachers to be effective, they must be well-trained,
motivated, have a decent work environment, good pay and an
attractive career path. UNESCO enables the worlds teachers by
building on the standards for the professional, social, ethical and
material concerns of teachers set in the 1966 and 1997
recommendation concerning the status of teachers and education
personnel.
There is currently a severe shortage of teachers worldwide.
UNESCO helps adjust national policies to reverse teacher flight,
teacher drop-out and assists countries with the
professionalization of volunteer teachers recruited by hardpressed
governments to fill crisis-level gaps.
UNESCO and Teacher Education :
Emphasizing the essential role teacher training and education
policy play in national development goals.
Producing and disseminating policy guidelines on open and
distance learning, e-learning, and use of ICTs in teacher
education.
Advocacy to improve the training and status of teachers
worldwide.
Integrating international standards regarding HIV/AIDS and life
skills into national teacher education policies.
108
Promoting exchange of good national practices and lessons learnt
within groups of countries with common teacher-related agendas
through networking and exchange.
tomorrow.
UNESCOs Teacher Training Initiative in Sub-Saharan Africa :
UNESCOs Teacher Training Initiative is a new 10-year project
to dramatically improve teacher training capacities in 46 subSaharan
countries.
The programme is designed to assist countries to synchronize
their policies, teacher education, and labour practices with
national development priorities for Education for All and the
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) through a series of
four-year cycles.
Teacher training for the achievement of Education for All :
The acute shortage of qualified teachers has been identified as
one of the biggest challenges to EFA. If EFA is to be achieved by
2015, then between 15 and 30 million more teachers are needed
worldwide. In sub-Saharan Africa, 4 million additional teachers
will be needed by 2015 to meet the goal of Universal Primary
Education alone. Additional teachers will be needed for nonformal
education and literacy training, as well as in-service
training of teachers.
UNESCO recognizes that teacher education is integrally related
to quality education and closely linked to curriculum renewal,
improved learning outcomes, and a positive school environment.
At the end of four years, each country participating in the
Teacher Training Initiative is expected to integrate a
comprehensive teacher education plan into the national education
plan, improve the quality of training in teacher education, address
the issues of severe teacher shortage and the status of teachers,
and implement an internationally prescribed standard and
national policy regarding HIV prevention education.
UNESCOs teacher training activities :
109
Dynamic national information mapping completed in Angola,
Zambia, and Niger and in progress in Burundi
Providing of a full-time country-designated expert in seventeen
countries for the first phase of the Initiative
Establishing and maintaining comprehensive and integrated
national databases concerning the state of teacher education
Assisting countries in analysing their teacher shortages and in
implementing policies and strategies to increase the number of
qualified teachers and professionalize currently under qualified
teachers
Encouraging consultations between governments and teachers in
planning and implementing fully EFA reforms
Sharing and distributing good teacher policies and practices
Coordinating relevant research to guide EFA policies and
disseminating good teacher policies and practices
UNESCOs Teacher Training initiative is aimed at redirecting
policies, improving institutional capacity, improving teacher
quality, and stemming the teacher shortage in order to achieve
Education for All by 2015.
The UNESCO Chair for Teacher Education is an addition to the
UNITWIN / UNESCO Chairs Programme that is already well
established in the region. The Chair has been established in East
China Normal University, Shanghai, PR China. The purpose of
the Chair is to promote an integrated system of research, training,
information and documentation in the field of teacher education
and training, and educational research. It will serve as a means
of facilitating collaboration between high-level, internationally
recognized researchers and teaching staff of the East China
University and other institutions in China, and South East Asia
region.
1) Discuss the role and functions of UNESCO as an International
agency of teacher education programme.
110
3.5 LET US SUM UP :
In this unit, we have discussed various agencies like SIE,
SCERT, NCERT, NCTE, UGC and UNESCO and their functions
towards teacher education at state, national and international level.
But it is the role of yours to work out these plannings into reality.
1. Explain the functions of MSCERT with relation to development
of teacher education.
2. Name various agencies at national level. explain the role of
NCTE towards teacher education.
3. Write Short Notes on :
a) UGC
b) UNESCO
Suggested Readings :
1. Khan M.S. (1983) Teacher Education in India and abroad, New
Delhi, Ashish Publishing House.
2. Shankar V. (1984) Education of Indian Teachers, New Delhi
Sterling Publishers.
3. Patil V. (1996) Teachers Handbook Pune, MSCERT.
4. Kadam Chavan (2006) Primary Education : Problems and
measures Latur, Sanskar Prakashan.
111
4
TEACHER EDUCATION AT
PREPRIMARY AND PRIMARY LEVEL
Unit Structure :
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives of Teacher Education at Preprimary level
4.3 Objectives of Teacher Education at Primary level
4.4 Structure of Teacher Education Programme at Pre-Primary &
Primary level as recommended be NCTE.
4.5 National Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education at
The Pre-Primary Stage
4.5.1 National Curriculum Framework for Teacher
Education at the Elementary / Primary Stage
4.6 Role and competencies required for the teacher at the
Preprimary level
4.7 Role and competencies required for the teacher at the primary
level
4.8 Let us sum up
4.0 OBJECTIVES :
Become aware of the importance of objectives of teacher
education at different levels of education.
Become aware of objectives of teacher education at Childhood
Care and Education level.
Become aware of objectives of teacher education at Elementary
School level.
Become aware of objectives of teacher education at Secondary
School level.
Become aware of objectives of teacher education at Higher
Secondary School level.
112
4.1 INTRODUCTION :
India has now accepted a ten years general school system,
divided into three stages: pre-school education, elementary
education and secondary education, There is further a provision for
two year diversified senior secondary education with the subject
oriented and disciplinary approach. The maturity level and
psychosocial make-up of the students and curriculum requirements
demand separate teacher education programmes for all the stages of
the school education.
4.2 OBJECTIVES OF TEACHER EDUCATION AT
PRE-PRIMARY LEVEL :
Teacher Education for preprimary level
Pre-primary stage is not the stage for formal education.
Literacy should not be the concern at this level though it prepares
children for elementary schools. Learning at this stage may be
characterized by group activities, play way techniques, language
and, number games and activities directed to promote socialization
and environmental awareness among children and help them in the
process of attaining physical, mental and emotional maturity.
Approaches in developing life skills and the formation of good
habits and living togetherness need to be addressed with great care.
To ensure happy and healthy childhood by means of varied activities
have to be the main focus.
The specific objectives for teacher education at this stage may be
the following:-
To prepare teachers for helping physical, mental, social,
emotional, aesthetic and linguistic development of children by
means of individual and group activities.
To impart them relevant knowledge of child psychology, basics
of cultural anthropology, sociology, Indian heritage and childs
environment.
To develop among them the capacity and desire for obtaining
parental cooperation and establish coordination with the agencies
working in similar areas.
To empower them to organize educational games and
supplementary activities for children.
113
To arrange field trips for nature study and train their power of
observation and appreciation.
To enable them to prepare, select and use different kinds of
materials at low cost with a focus on sensory and motor
development of children.
To empower them to develop self-concept, self-esteem and the
art of self-expression and sense of discrimination and
appreciation among the children.
To enable them to develop environmental awareness among
children.
To empower them to inculcate the art of living good life.
PRIMARY LEVEL :
Teacher Education for primary level :
Elementary education, which makes a significant contribution
to national development, occupies a crucial position in the system of
education. It admits mainly the children coming after completing
pre-school education, children from educated families, the first
generation learners and from the neglected and oppressed sections of
the society. It is the nursery of citizenship, value inculcation,
development of appropriate behaviour and life skills. The
impressions acquired during this stage often continue through out the
life.
Objectives of Teacher Education at the Primary level : -
To make the teachers aware of the nature, purpose, problems and
issues of elementary education.
To enable them to understand the nature and maturity of children
for imparting education and to ensure their many sided
development.
To enable them to manage and mobilize community resources for
the school and teaching.
To empower pupil teachers to impart and organize instruction of
unified and integrated subjects, their nature and purpose in the
new educational and social context.
114
To develop holistic approach for understanding and solving the
problems of life.
To create environmental awareness with the intent of promoting
its protection / preservation.
To empower them to evolve need based community specific and
child centred pedagogy including indigenous learning systems.
To promote among them the desire, taste and capacity for lifelong
learning and make them aware of latest developments in
their areas and the needed transactional skills.
To make them understand/appreciate the advantages of ICT and
empower them to use the same in the class.
To give an elementary knowledge of inclusive, physical, yogic,
health and citizenship education in the common school system.
To prepare them to use the latest constructivist pedagogy and
evaluation techniques and
To enable them to impart value education, life skills education,
work education and feel their responsibility towards the
education of neglected sections of society including those
affected by diseases and deprivation of various forms.
What are the important areas of development for children at the
elementary education level? How do they differ from those for
children requiring early childhood care and education?
Note : Write your answer in the space given below.
115
4.4 STRUCTURE OF TEACHER EDUCATION AT
PRE-PRIMARY AND PRIMARY LEVEL AS
RECOMMENDED BY NCTE :
Norms and Standards for Pre-School Teacher Education
Programme:
1. Preamble
This programme is meant for the preparation of Pre-school
teachers for teaching children in the age group of 4-6 years. This
will enable creation of cadre of teachers for pre-school education
of children. As pre-school education has not yet been integrated
with the primary school education and it is being run generally as
private initiative, it needs to be recognized as different from
nursery teacher training which is for children for age group 4-8
years.
2. Duration and Intake
(a) The programme shall be of a duration of one academic year.
(b) There shall be a unit of 50 students to ensure optimum
utilization of physical and instructional infrastructure and
expertise of the teaching staff.
3. Eligibility
(a) Secondary Examination (Class X) or its equivalent.
(b) Admission shall be made either on the basis of marks
obtained by the qualifying examination or in the entrance
examination conducted by the state government as per the
policy of the state government.
(c) There shall be reservation of seats for SC / ST / OBC /
Handicapped / Women etc., as per the policy of the concerned
state government.
4. Curriculum Transaction and Requirement of Teaching Staff
(a) There shall be at least 150 teaching days exclusive of period
of admission, examination etc. Every student teacher shall be
required to undergo internship in school experiences at least
for 30 days in nearby pre-schools. To ensure optimal
interaction of teacher-trainees with the kids, the programme
may also be conducted by an institution having nursery
school teaching.
116
(b) Curricular transaction should emphasise approaches and
methods, like, role playing, games, quiz, material preparation,
project work, bal mela etc., by which prospective teachers can
be trained to create joyful environment so that children of the
age group of 4-6 years may have attraction towards school
education.
(c) For a unit of 50 students, the faculty shall comprise of the
Principal / Head, two full time teachers and two part time
teachers. For intake of students in excess of the prescribed
unit, the number of teachers shall be increased
proportionately.
(d) For co-curricular activities like physical education, art, work
experience, music, etc. part time instructors may be
appointed.
5. Qualifications of Teaching Staff
(a) Principal / Head
1. Academic and Professional qualifications will be as
prescribed for the post of teacher.
2. At least five years experience of teaching in Elementary
Teacher Education / Pre-school Teacher Education
Institution.
(b) Teachers
Candidate should have a good academic record with the
following academic qualification.
Good academic record with graduation with B. Ed. / B. El.
Ed. / B. Ed. (nursery)
OR
Graduation with diploma in Pre-school and Lower Primary
Education / Diploma in Elementary Education
(c) Qualification of teachers of physical education art, work
experience, etc. shall be as prescribed by the concerned state
government.
6. Administrative Staff
Administrative and other support staff may be provided as per
the norms prescribed by the concerned state government for
secondary schools.
117
7. Infrastructural Facilities
a) Adequate number of classrooms and activity room for
approved intake of students, rooms for the Principal and
faculty members and office for the administrative staff and a
store should be available in the institution. The size of
instructional space shall not be less than 10 sq. ft. per student.
b) There shall be appropriate space for outdoor and indoor
games.
c) To provide these facilities, the Management / Institutions
shall, at the time of making application, have in its possession
adequate land / land and building on ownership basis free
from all encumbrances. Govt. land acquired on long-term
lease as per the law of the concerned State / UT will also be
considered valied for the purpose. Pending construction of
permanent building in the above land, the institution may
provide these facilities in suitable temporary premises up to a
maximum period of 3 years, before expiry of which the
institution should shift to its permanent building.
8. Instructional Facilities
There should be a Learning Resource Centre housed in a bigger
room and having books, magazines, journals, audio-visual aids,
teaching aids, play material, computer etc.
9. Terms and Conditions of Service of Staff
a) The appointments shall be made on the basis of the
recommendations of the selection committee constituted as
per the policy of the concerned state government.
b) All appointments are to be made on full-time and regular
basis.
c) Institutions may make appointments on deputation or contract
basis as an interim measure, in the absence of availability of
suitable candidates.
d) Appointment of part-time instructors and other staff can be
made as per the norms of the concerned government.
e) The academic and other staff of the institution (including
part-time staff) shall be paid such salary as may be prescribed
by the concerned government from time to time.
f) The management of the institution shall discharge the
statutory obligations relating to pension, gratuity, provident
fund, etc.
118
g) The age of superannuation of staff shall be determined by the
policy of the concerned government subject to maximum age
not exceeding 65 years.
10.Management
a) In case of private institutions, the institution shall be run by a
society / trust which should be registered with competent
authority as per the provisions of the relevant Act.
b) The tuition fees and other fees shall be charged at rates
prescribed by the concerned state government.
c) In case of unaided institutions there shall be an endowment
fund of Rs.5.00 lacs to be operated jointly by the authorized
representative of the management and an officer of the
concerned regional committee and a reserve fund equivalent
to three months salary of the staff.
11.Affiliation
The examination would be conducted by the examining body
designated by the State Government.
Norms and Standards for Elementary Teacher Education
programme :
1. Preamble
The elementary teacher education programme is meant for
preparing teachers for elementary schools (primary and upper
primary / middle).
a) The elementary teacher education programme shall be of
duration of two academic years.
b) For effective curriculum transaction and for ensuring
optimum utilization of physical and instructional
infrastructure and expertise of the teaching staff, there shall
be a unit of 50 students for intake each year.
3. Eligibility
a) Candidates with at least 50% marks in the senior secondary
examination (+ 2). Or its equivalent, are eligible for
admission.
b) Admission should be made either on the basis of marks
obtained in the qualifying examination or in the entrance
examination conducted by the State Government, as per the
policy of the State Government.
119
c) There shall be reservation of seats for SC / ST / OBC,
Handicapped, Women, etc. as per the rules of the concerned
State Government.
a) There shall be at least 150 teaching days in a year exclusive
of period of admission, examination, etc. Besides, every
teacher trainee shall be required to undergo internship in
teaching (including practice teaching / skill development) at
least for 30 days in nearby elementary schools.
b) Apart from teaching of foundation subjects, there shall be
provision for teaching of methods subjects relating to primary
and upper primary curriculum, namely, Regional Language /
Mother Tongue, English, Mathematics, Science and Social
Studies.
c) For a unit of 50 students or less (with combined strength of
100 or less for the two-year course), the full-time teaching
faculty shall comprise the Principal / Head and at least five
Lectures. For intake of students in excess of the prescribed
unit, the number of full time teachers shall be increased
proportionately.
d) Appointment of teachers should be so distributed as to ensure
the required nature and level of expertise for teaching
methodology courses and foundation courses.
e) For teaching subjects such as physical education, art, work
experience, music, information technology literacy etc., parttime
instructors may be appointed.
a) Principal / Head
i) Academic and professional qualification will be as
prescribed for the post of Lecturer.
ii) At least five years experience of teaching in elementary
teacher education institutions.
b) Lecturer
i) Good academic record with M. Ed. / M. A. (Education)
with B. Ed 55% marks, preferably with specialization in
elementary education.
OR
ii) Good Academic record with Masters Degree with 55%
marks in the relevant school subject and Bachelor of
120
Elementary Education (B. El. Ed.), or B. Ed. Preferably
with specialization in elementary education, and with five
years teaching experience in recognized elementary
schools.
iii) A relaxation of 5% may be provided, from 55% to 50% of
the marks, at the Masters level for SC / ST category.
iv) Qualifications for other academic staff for teaching
physical education, art, work experience, information
technology literacy etc. shall be as prescribed by the
concerned State Government.
The administrative and other support staff may be provided as
per the norms prescribed by the concerned State Government.
a) There shall be provision for adequate number of classrooms,
hall, laboratory space for conducting instructional activities
for approved intake of students, rooms for the principal and
faculty members, and office for the administrative staff and a
store. The size of instructional space shall not be less than 10
sq. ft. per student.
b) There shall be a library equipped with text and reference
books relating to prescribed courses of study, educational
encylopaedia, year books, electronic publications (CDROMs)
and journals on teacher education and other software
relevant to the elementary stage.
c) There shall be games facilities with playground.
Alternatively, the playground available with the attached
school or local body may be utilized and where there is
scarcity of space as in metropolitan towns / hilly regions,
facilities for yoga, indoor games may be provided.
d) To provide these facilities, the Management / Institutions
from all encumbrances. Government land acquired on long
term lease as per the law of the concerned State / UT will also
be considered valid for the purpose. Pending construction of
121
a) There shall be a multi-purpose educational laboratory with
psychology and science sections and a workshop attached to
it.
i) The science shall have the apparatus and chemicals
required to demonstrate all the experiments as per the
syllabus of elementary schools.
ii) The psychology section shall have facilities for
conducting the following tests : Sensory motor,
intelligence (Performance, Verbal and Non-Verbal),
Aptitude, Personality and Interest inventories including
Projective Tests : provision for conducting simple
Piagetian and Brunnerian experiments.
b) There shall be hardware and software facilities for language
learning.
c) There shall be an Educational Technology laboratory with
hardware and software required for imparting Information
Technology (IT) literacy.
a) The appointments shall be made on the basis of
recommendations of the Selection Committee constituted as
per the policy of the Central / concerned State Government.
b) All appointments are to be made on full time and regular
basis.
c) Government institutions / Government-aided institutions may
make appointments on deputation or contract basis as an
interim measure, in the absence of availability of suitable
candidates recommended by appropriate bodies set up by the
concerned government.
made as per the norms of the concerned Government.
by the concerned State Government from time to time.
fund etc.
122
policy of the concerned Government subject to maximum age
10.Financial Management
a) The tuition fees and other fees shall be charged at rates as
prescribed by the concerned State Government.
b) In case of unaided institutions, there shall be endowment fund
of Rs.5.00 lakh to be operated jointly by the authorized
concerned Regional Committee, and a reserve fund
equivalent to three months salary of the staff.
11.Relaxation in eligibility / duration of the course
As in some States, the duration of the elementary teacher
education course is one year only and the eligibility for
admission to such course is a pass in class ten, such States are
given time up to the end of academic session 2004 05 to switch
over their programmes for bringing them in conformity with the
NCTE Norms and Standards. Meanwhile, recognition for
reduced duration of the course which shall not be less than one
year and / or lower eligibility criteria, which shall not be less than
a pass in class ten with at least 50% marks in aggregate, may be
given subject to the condition that the certificate given by the
State authorities in respect of such a course will be valid for
employment within that State only and such courses including
their duration and admission criteria are those that have been in
existence in that State on the date when the NCTE Act, 1993
came into force.
In 1978, NCTE appointed four region wise teams to study
problems of teachers and suggest measures to raise its standard.
Each team included following members.
Principal of Regional College of Education (Chairman)
A member from Dept of Teacher Education (NCERT)
5 Members from the states of a region.
Considering situational changes, NCTE prepared, Teacher
Education curriculum framework. The said framework suggested
stage wise models for Preparation of teachers. Let us go through the
model suggesting teacher preparation at Primary Stage.
123
Preparation of Primary Teachers :
NCTE prepared its first model for teacher Education in 1978
and second model in 1988.
NCTE Model I (1978) :
At primary stage, A teacher education model showed three
areas (A), (B), (C) and % weight age in terms of time, area wise and
concerned course wise weight age of the said model at primary stage
is as under-
(A) Pedagogical theory (20%)
(i) Teacher and Education in the emerging Indian society.
(ii) Child Psychology
(iii) Principles / Problems of Primary Education.
(B) Working with Community (20%)
(iv) Work situations related to (i), (viii), (ix), (x) and (xi).
(C) Content cum Methodology, Practice teaching / Practical work
(60%):
(v) Core teaching Programme (10%)
Special training programme packages (vi to xi):
(vi) Languages (10%)
(vii) Mathematics (5%)
(viii)Environmental studies I (5%)
(ix) Environmental studies II (5%)
(x) Work Experience / Art (10%)
(xi) Health, Physical Education and Recreational activities (5%)
(xii) Related Practical work (10%)
Duration of this course included 4-6 semesters after std. X
Seminars sponsored by NCERT, SCERT and Board of Studies of
various universities analysed and discussed the NCTE- model I
Very few universities introduced this framework, so expected
improvement in Teacher-education did not occur. Later on, National
Policy on education and Programme of action (1986) suggested to
restructure teacher education; because only quality teacher
education can cause quality school-education. National curriculum
for school education (1988) emphasized learner centred approach
to education. Considering guidelines of NPE (1986) and National
124
Commission on teachers (1983-85) NCERT initiated to set up
following two working groups on:
Revitalization and Modernization of Pre-service teacher
education.
Issues of teacher education curriculum.
Considering observations and suggestions at these groups
made by NCTE to improve its model (1978), NCTE Prepared NCTE
Model-II (1988)
NCTE Model II (1988) :
This model offered Pre-service Teacher-education curriculum
at primary stage for those having entry qualification std. XII (or 10 +
2). Its duration : 2 years. Its curriculum components with respective
% weightage (in terms of time) are as under
A) Foundation Course (20%) :
(i) Education in emerging India (Philosophical & Socio-cultural
perspective (10%)
(ii) Primary students : Learning process, adjustment (10%)
(Educational Psychology)
B) Stage Relevant Specialization (30%) :
(iii) Primary education and teacher functions (5%)
(iv) Language teaching (1 relevant language choice): (5%)
(v) Maths teaching (5%)
(vi) Environmental studies teaching (related to std. 1 to 5) (5%)
(vii) Health and Physical education (5%)
(viii)Art Education, work-experience (5%)
C) Additional specialization (10%) :
(ix) Science teaching and social science teaching / Pre-school
Education (5%)
(x) Any one elective (Adult education / Nonformal education / 5%)
social Education / Tribal education / Multiple class teaching /
Population education / Special education / Educational
technology)
125
D) Practical / Field Work (40%) :
(xi) Practical work (20%)
(xii) Internship in Teaching (in primary, upper-primary & (20%)
Pre-school system)
Thus NCTE Model II (1988) indicated four Areas (A, B, C,
D) and its nine curriculum components. Its theoretical components
had 60% weightage while the practical components 40% weight age.
As compared to NCTE Model-I (1978), the Model-II offered more
weight age to practical area at primary stage.
4.5 NATIONAL CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK FOR
TEACHER EDUCATION AT THE PRE-PRIMARY
STAGE :
Early Childhood Education plays a significant role as it helps
children in successful completion of primary education. Its
curricular linkages with enrolment, retention and learning outcomes
of children at primary stage have been established through research
and field experiences. First major recommendation, in this regard,
was made by the Education Commission (1964 66) for
establishment of pre-primary education development centres in each
district with State Institutes of Education and state level centres
responsible for promoting quantitative expansion and ensuring
quality of pre-primary schools. Subsequently, the National Policy
on Education, 1986 and the Programme of Action, 1992 reiterated
such revolutionary ideas. It states that Early Childhood Care and
Education (ECCE) provides a crucial input in the strategy of human
resource development, as a feeder and support programme for
primary education and as a support service for working women
especially belonging to the disadvantaged sections of the society.
The NCFSE 2000 has stressed the need and importance of Early
Childhood Education of two-year duration between 3-6 years of age.
Emphasis has been laid on pleasure, perception and participation, at
this stage. Further, learning at this stage needs to be characterized
by group activities, play-way techniques, language games, number
games, colour games and activities helpful in promoting
socialization and environmental awareness among children. Formal
teaching of subjects and formal evaluation of childrens progress
have been clearly prohibited. It has been stressed that Early
Childhood Education needs to be made uniformly available to all
children of the country to ensure equity.
126
The Tenth Five Year Plan also acknowledges ECCE as the
first step in the education ladder. The major provider of ECCE is the
Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) scheme which
covers 158 lakh children (which is 17.8% of the child population of
3-6 years) through about 5.20 lakh Anganwadis in 35 states and
UTs. Early Childhood Education or Pre-School Education, as it is
termed, is only one of the six components of Integrated Child
Development Services ICDS scheme. This remains one of the
weakest components in ICDS.
ECCE is indeed more inclusive than the concept of Preprimary
Education. ECCE programmes include ICDS, Anganwadis,
Balwadis, Creches, Day Care Centres and Pre-primary Schools. The
number of pre-primary schools are too few as compared to the
number of primary schools in each state and most of them are nongovernmental
enterprises. There is need for expansion of ECCE
facilities throughout the country following holistic approach aimed
at fostering health, psyche, social, nutritional and educational
development of the children. The Constitutional (86th Amendment)
Act 2002 by inserting Article 21(a) has provided the children of the
age group of six to fourteen years a Fundamental Right to Education.
Besides this, the Act has substituted Article 45 by stating that the
State shall endeavour to provide Early Childhood Care and
Education for all children until they complete the age of six years.
The provisions of this Act will have far reaching implications for
large scale expansion and strengthening pre-primary education in the
country. In the years to come, the demand for ECCE will increase
manifold and it will be necessary to focus on pre-primary teacher
education and its quality.
Pre-school Education : Major Thrusts :
The NCFSE 2000 at this stage discourages formal teaching
of subjects and advocates play way techniques. This will ensure
joyful participation and reduce harmful load on young children
whose neuro-muscular capacities are yet not developed for the same.
The curriculum emphhasises learning the language orally through
interactive mode. Abundant opportunities need to be provided for
developing skills of identification, matching, drawing, etc. without
formal teaching. This is also the stage where the skills of
socialization are to be nurtured among children through interaction.
Children at this stage need to be encouraged to develop positive
attitudes through child and nature and child and child interactions.
The thrust is built around pleasure, perception and participation for
developing readiness to learn.
127
Objectives :
The general objectives of pre-primary teacher education may include
the following :
Enabling student teachers to understand philosophical, sociopsychological
aspects of pre-primary education, its aims, content
and methodology;
Enabling student teachers to understand holistic development of
pre-primary age children in terms of physical, social, emotional,
intellectual, aesthetic, linguistic, cultural and related aspects;
Inculcating among student teachers love, affection, sensitivity
and respect for uniqueness for young children;
Developing among student teachers competencies, attitudes and
skills needed to organise play and other activities for promoting
the all-round development of children;
Enabling student teachers to understand and use a variety of
activity oriented and child centred approaches to promote
childrens self-concept, creativity and inventiveness;
Preparing student teaches with methods and materials needed for
teaching learners with special needs;
Developing in student teachers skills in resource mobilization,
organisation, planning and management of pre-primary schools.
Developing in student teachers skills and aptitude for close
contact and co-operation with parents and local community for
strengthening the programmes of pre-primary education;
Developing values among student teachers which could be
naturally passed on to young learners;
Enabling student teachers to inculcate among children a desire to
know their immediate natural environment, to love and respect it;
Creating among student teachers thorough awareness of health
and hygiene related issues so that young learners may be taught
to live a healthy life; and
Preparing student teachers to use local resources and local
contexts.
128
Implications for Pre-service Teacher Education :
Some of the significant implications emanating from the
above objectives are :
Curriculum Content and Transaction :
The programme of pre-primary education is to be designed
carefully to provide for an all-round, wholesome growth and
development of the children including their neuro-muscular
coordination, self-expression, observation skills, health and hygiene,
habit formation and the like. The programme must centre around
suitable play activities such as free play, educational and
manipulative toys and puzzles and motor activities in small groups
involving simple exercises. Use of coordinated muscular and limb
movements; self-help skills; eye-hand coordination, other activities
such as drawing, painting, clay modeling, music, singing and
dancing, oral language skills of listening and speaking, pre-number
concepts, study of nature, plants, insects and animals, areas of visual
(craft, painting, clay modeling) as well as performing arts (music
dance, etc.) all need to be emphasized.
The curriculum for pre-primary teacher education programme
has to be flexible to include activities to promote physical, cognitive,
social, emotional, linguistic and aesthetic development of children
upto 6 years of age. It may also include resource mobilization and
management, use of community resources both human and material,
enlisting community participation. Building relationships with
parents and establishing collaborative and cooperative links with
ECCE and ICDS functionaries, DIETs and other agencies. Teacher
education programme must develop among student teachers an
awareness of local environment and natural surroundings and
inculcate in them appreciation for values and skills that promote
joyful learning.
Pre-primary is not a stage for introducing and providing any
formal education. Therefore, student teachers at this stage will have
to be sensitized and educated for understanding the developmental
needs of these young children and their requirements. Teacher
education curriculum at this stage need to develop awareness about
literacy programmes, community dynamics, national and local
customs, fairs and festivals and community mode of social living. It
may also develop awareness of forces affecting environment
including pollution, appreciation of places of historical and cultural
significance and special educational features and developmental
tasks contained in policies and programmes. Besides various
129
curricular and pedagogical concerns, concerted efforts have to be
made to sensitise teachers with new developments such as child as
the constructor of knowledge, child as a unique being and child with
multiple talents.
The curriculum transaction has to be in terms of childcentred,
activity-based, play-way and joyful approaches besides oral
instruction and demonstrations. Role-play, puppetry, story telling,
simulation exercises, dramatization and creative thinking strategies
have to be suitably used. Due importance has to be given to
participatory and interactive situations. The activities shall be such
that they have the potential to help children learn and develop
appropriate language and communication skills, self-expression,
social skills and besides promoting manipulative motor skills and
eye-hand coordination.
To help pre-primary centres do their work effectively,
establishment of Learning Resoeruce Centre in a teacher education
institution has to be made mandatory. Such a centre may be
equipped with toys and play materials, suitable for children of the
age group 3-6 years. In addition, provision may also be made of
picture books, games, audio-visual materials like TV, VCR,
computer, tape recorder, slide projector, audio and video tapes,
models, blow up charts and pictures, slides showing pictures of
animals, insects, birds, trees, flowers, fruits and vegetables.
Practice teaching may be organized in pre-primary schools,
anganwadis / balwadis. Instead of prescribing the number of lessons
or number of periods to be given each day, practice teaching must
enable student teachers to plan and manage the activities for all day
span. Time management, integrated play-way approaches and small
group activities that involves participation of every child, are some
of the important things that student teachers are expected to learn.
The duration of practice teaching may be realistically determined,
based on experience, with emphasis on the progress of the student
teacher towards becoming a professional.
Practical work for student teachers, in this context, may
include the following :
Practicum for Pre-primary Teacher Education :
Collection / preparation of materials for enabling children to
arrange objects in terms of size, weight, length, shape, colour,
etc;
130
Preparation of simple items of childrens imagination and
linking;
Assembling of puzzles and preparation of story charts;
Collection of materials to make children understand the concept
of soft-hard, rough-smooth, thin-think, etc;
Collection / writing of 15 to 20 stories and their narration to
children with special emphasis on the values embedded in them;
Designing and using locally popular games;
Exposing and helping children to identify and discriminate
different objects, birds, animals etc. available in the immediate
environment of the learner;
Rhythmic group-singing activities;
Undertaking case studies, observing and maintaining childrens
developmental records in the form of cumulative records;
Arranging local field trips;
Organising/celebrating school functions, festivals and important
days.
This list is not exhaustive and activities may be included
according to local requirements.
Evaluation :
Evaluation of pre-primary teacher education stage needs to
focus on assessment of understanding and skills concerning
planning, conducting and evaluating joyful activities for young
children.
Assessment of attitudinal change and value orientation has to
be an integral part of the total evaluation mechanism. Separate
evaluation be conducted for theory, practice teaching and field
experiences. The responsibility of assessment of practice teaching
needs to be shared both by the cooperative teacher and the teacher
educator. Grading system may serve this purpose in a better way.
Parameters such as planning, organisation, management, execution
of activities, capacity for innovations and play-way approaches,
students participation, communication skills and their ability to
guide individually and in groups childrens initiative and potential
need to find a rightful place in the evaluation scheme. Skills for
identification of children with special educational needs, children
with learning disabilities, planning and organising remedial action
131
and skills for crisis management need to be adequately assessed.
Profile of student teachers would need to be maintained on
qualitative as well as quantitative dimensions for which procedures
involving ranking, rating scales and peer assessment may prove to be
useful. The whole exercise has to be participatory, performancebased
and transparent.
4.5.1 National Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education
at the Elementary Stage / Primary Stage :
Elementary education is the foundation on which the super
structure of the entire educational system is built. Its contribution to
nation building and process of development and growth has been
universally recognized. The NCFSC 2000 therefore, attempts to
enrich the curriculum at elementary stage of school education by
adopting modern approaches, reducing the burden of irrelevant and
incomprehensible materials. It recommends new approaches for
transactional and evaluation strategies to raise the quality of
elementary education. Teachers working at this stage may be guided
by new areas of NCFSE 2000 as well as by the pedagogical
principles that form the base of teaching at elementary education.
Though teachers at all stages of school education try to make
learning a joyful activity, however, greater responsibility lies on
teachers of elementary education to ensure that learning becomes
activity based, participative and joyful. The recommendations of
the NCFSE 2000 have far reaching consequences for the
preparation of teachers at this level.
Elementary School Education : Major Thrusts :
The salient features of the NCFSE 2000 at elementary stage
include, among others, freedom from stress and anxiety, emphasizes
on mother tongue as medium of instruction, centrality of learners
immediate environment, development of practical skills and positive
attitudes and values. It also includes human rights and fundamental
duties of citizens and recommends related activities, project work,
etc. as an integral part of the curriculum. It emphasizes on mastery
level learning.
In Classes I and II the subjects of study recommended are :
one language mother tongue / regional language, Mathematics and
Art of Healthy and Produuctive Living (AHPL). In Classes III to V,
Environmental Studies is included in addition to the three areas of
study suggested for Classes I and II. For Classes VI to VIII (upper
primary stage) the scheme of studies includes (a) three languages
132
mother tongue, another modern Indian anguage and English; (b)
Mathematics; (c) Science and Technology; (d) Social Sciences; (e)
Work Education; (f) Art Education (fine arts visual and
performing); and (g) Health and Physical Education (including
games and sports, yoga, NCC and Scouts and Guides).
The NCFSE 2000 recommends reduction of the learning
load and a common scheme of studies for elementary stage with
flexibility of content and modes of learning, suited to theneeds and
requirements of learners. Formal teaching of environmental
education is introduced only from Class III onwards where both
natural as well as social environments have been introduced in an
integrated fashion.
A new course on Art of Healthy and Productive Living has
been introduced in Classes I to V by integrating earlier subject areas
such as art education, work education and health and physical
education. This does not remain confined to the development of
mechanical skills alone. It also goes much beyond to provide
opportunities for all round development of learners cognitive,
emotional and spiritual personality. It seeks to nurture values by
developing a positive social attitude towards the dignity of labour,
aesthetic sensibility and skills for healthy living.
Objectives :
The objectives of teacher education at this stage may include the
following :
Developing among student teachers an understanding of
philosophical, psychological and sociological principles relevant
to elementary education, i.e. understanding the learner, the
teachers role and the teaching-learning process;
Developing among student teachers skills for teaching integrated
environmental studies, integrated social sciences and integrated
science and technology;
Developing among student teachers language skills including the
skills of listening and speaking so as to be able to teach
languages effectively and creatively;
Enabling student teachers for planning and organising activities
such as puppetry, games, sports, physical and other similar
activities;
Enabling student teachers to integrate values with the total
curriculum transaction within classroom and outside;
133
Enabling student teachers to be life-long learners and developing
among learners the skill of learning how to learn;
Enabling student teachers to understand the potentialities of ICT
and make use of the same;
Developing among student teachers the capacity to solve social,
interpersonal and emotional problems of learners;
Enabling student teachers to establish mutually supportive
linkages with parents and the community to strengthen school
programmes;
Enabling student teachers to undertake action research projects;
Familiarizing student teachers with methods and materials for
Developing among student teachers a special concern for the
education of weaker and deprived groups of learners;
Developing among student teachers skills to contribute
effectively in UEE;
Developing among student teachers thorough awareness of health
and hygiene.
Developing among student teachers skills of continuous,
comprehensive and diagnostic evaluation and organising
remedial teaching.
Teacher education for preparation of UEE would require
special consideration in dealing with students of rural background,
girls, SC / ST, working children, urban deprived, disabled, children
in difficult circumstances, migrating, children in poor families,
socially disadvantaged groups and minorities. It would also need
special effort for bringing all the children to the mainstream of
education.
134
It is necessary that student teachers be sensitized to the need
for reducing curriculum load, organize appropriate learning
experiences which are joyful in nature and related to immediate
environment of the learner and help them develop and imbibe
desirable values.
Teacher education programmes at this stage shall have to
provide subject based orientation. Teaching and learning of
mathematics would be woven around the environment of the learners
so that environmental concerns are properly integrated. The
activities would focus on local culture and environment using the
local specific contexts and resources. Student teachers shall have to
be provided with experiences to help children develop socioemotional
and cultural aspects. A realistic awareness and perspective
of the phenomena occurring in the environment will have to be
linked with social or scientific events. This may be accomplished by
emphasizing observation, classification, comparison and drawing of
inferences, conducted within and outside the classroom. The desired
objectives could be successfully achieved by employing integrated
approach. Yet another important area of learning at elementary stage
comprises the Art of Healthy and Productive Living, since will
contribute towards the all round development of the personality of
children. Teacher education programmes shall have to stress on
activities and practices that strengthen the element of curiosity,
imagination and a sense of wonder besides inculcating positive
feelings and attitudes for cooperative living and social service.
A major shift at the upper primary stage is in the teaching of
sciences and social sciences, each is to be taught as an integrated
subject. Teaching these as integrated subject requires special
attention and orientation in teacher education programmes. The
thrust in new school curriculum on Indias cultural heritage and its
rich traditions, which have contributed to social, political, economic
and other related areas, requires an appropriate sensitization of
student teachers. The new course of science and technology requires
suitable orientation of student teachers to make the subject learnerfriendly.
Similarly new developments in educational psychology,
language education and others necessitate orientation of student
teachers. Further, emphasis on concept formation and development
of skills along with knowledge about applications of science and
technological advances in various fields need appropriate skill
development on the part of student teachers. It would help them,
develop the desired skills in the learners to deal with real life
situations.
135
The new school curriculum framework also gives importance
to the education of special needs groups and socio-economically
deprived sections of society such as women, rural poor, tribals,
minorities, the disabled, etc. it is imperative that teacher education
programme is accordingly oriented to enable student teachers to
overcome their biases and provide equal opportunity for all children
irrespective of their socio-economic and religious backgrounds.
Another major thrust is that the content of education be
rooted in Indian thought and experience and remain open to ideas
from outside. The vast cultural plurality of our nation comes handy
for increasingly drawing from the Indian experience, both past and
present. Special emphasis is needed on pedagogical analysis, a clear
understanding and appreciation of Indian contribution to knowledge
and achievements in various fields / sectors, etc. This would enable
the student teachers to develop a sense of national identity among
the learners, right from the elementary stage.
The NCFSE 2000 highlights education in human values as
an integral part of curriculum for all subjects at all stage of school
education. It stresses the need for suitably weaving of values,
human rights and fundamental duties of citizens in day-to-day
teaching and other school activities. This has a clear implication for
teacher education. Teachers have to play a crucial role in
inculcating values among children. Since every teacher is envisaged
to be also a teacher of values, student teachers have to be oriented
for value education and developing different strategies for
inculcation and promotion of values among school students.
Achieving Minimum Levels of Learning (MLL) is yet
another concern reflected in the school curriculum framework for
elementary school stage. MLL are learning outcomes to be achieved
by all children and also serve as one of the bases for determining
performance goals of both students and teachers. Teacher education
programmes have to orient student teachers to MLLs in terms of
performance capabilities of learners, translating them to specific
learning outcomes in the form of competencies. Exercises to this
effect, during teacher education programmes, would make student
teachers capable of ensuring MLLs at this stage of school education.
ICT is gradually emerging as an integral part of the schooling
process. It influences not only the teaching style but also the
learning style. ICT results in transformation from teacher-oriented
learning to that of exploratory self-learning.
136
Transaction of teacher education is based on several factors :
the academic background of student teachers and teacher educators,
nature of the subjects to be taught, philosophy of the subjects to be
taught, practical work to be conducted, community resources
available for education and characteristics of learners. Attempt may
be made to integrate theory and practice as well as community
resources. Student teachers need to acquire competencies to draw
community resources to facilitate more effective functioning of
schools. Emphasis on lectures be minimized while activity-based
and participatory methods be encouraged. Practical activities,
projects and field work will have to be the main focus of teacher
education. Student teachers are to be empowered to inculcate values
among students and they are also to be acquainted with the totality
of school and community experiences. They have to be encouraged
to undertake action research, group discussion and self-learning
activities as a part of their educational programme. Emphasis needs
to be laid on outcome-oriented activities. Student teachers have to
learn the skill of adjusting to the level of learners and make their
expectations reasonable. Temperamental adjustments may also be
necessary so as to identify themselves with the young learners.
Regular diagnosis and timely remediation must be encouraged to
help achieve mastery of basic skills pertaining to various subjects of
study and art of healthy and productive living.
4.6 ROLE AND COMPETENCIES REQUIRED OF THE

TEACHER AT THE PREPRIMARY LEVEL:
The aim of preprimary education is that child develops
learning to learn skills and positive self image, acquires basic skills,
knowledge and capabilities from different areas of learning in
accordance with their age and abilities. Preprimary education lays
emphasis on the preparation for school.
The difference roles teacher performs at the preprimary level
are:
Manager
As a manager observes classs overall feeling and tone.
Consult with other teachers for curriculum ideas, sharing materials
and scheduling common activities.
Facilitator
- Assist children who need individual help to work.
- Remain in contact with the whole group and sense changing
mood or activity.
137
- Treat children with unconditional positive regard and
provide individualized care for needs.
Evaluator
- Provides proper atmosphere for the development.
- Organises activities properly so that preschool children pick
them up quickly.
Guide & Counsellor
- Give guidance about how to interact with others.
- Develops healthy & safe play environment.
- Meets with other educational professionals and parents to
discuss above the improvement of classroom techniques and
progress of children.
In general, the pre-school teachers role is very important.
They have a number of general responsibilities in their daily
teaching job. They must provide a wonderful learning environment
for the children, teach them social skills and help them with their
daily needs. They will instruct them in basic educational
programmes, teach them to creative and provide them with a safe
and caring environment to learn and grow.
Competencies Required
Personal
- Academically qualified
- Physically fit and healthy
- Active and energetic
- Socially warm and friendly
- Love for children and teaching
Professional
- Up to date knowledge of subject
- Appropriate teaching skills
- Ability to tryout innovative and creative methods of
teaching.
Social
- Develop interpersonal and interactive skills
- Be open to criticism
- Achieve the goals of the institution
- Developing rapport and creating friendly environment
138
TEACHER AT THE PRIMARY LEVEL:
The Indian government lays emphasis to primary education
upto the age of fourteen years. Inspite of several efforts made by the
government to enhance quality, levels of quality remain low.
Therefore the role of the teacher is most important. They should
perform various roles like:
Manager
- To plan and deliver activities that meet students needs.
- To develop skills of time management, class-room
management and material management.
Facilitator
- Facilitates learning by being creative and organized in
planning daily classes.
- Plan appropriate programme for exceptional students
those need extra help.
Evaluator
- Continue to set and correct homework.
- Evaluate students progress and discuss results with
students, parents and other teachers.
- Participates in staff meeting, workshops for continuing
Guide and Counsellor
- Give guidance for the development.
- Act as a role model.
- Prepares for secondary school.
Competencies Required:
Personal
- Physically sound
- Academically fit
- Aware of self
- Intellectually love for teaching
139
Professional
- Specialist in subject
- Depth and update knowledge
- Uses innovative methods of teaching
Social
- Works in collaboration and co-ordination
- have leadership quality
- develops rapport and creates congenial and friendly
environment.
However, NCTE has developed a competency based and
commitment oriented teacher education curriculum focusing on
quality and efficiency of teacher education. Ten competency areas
have been identified. They are:
1. Contextual Competencies
2. Conceptual Competencies
3. Curricular and Content Competencies
4. Transactional Competencies
5. Competencies in other educational activities
6. Competencies related to teaching learning material
7. Evaluation Competencies
8. Managing Competencies
9. Competencies related to parental contact and co-operation
10.Competencies related to community contact and co-operation
These competencies are first to be developed during
pre-service teacher education and then further updated and
strengthened during re-current in-service teacher orientation as well
as continuing and self directed professional enhancement by
individual teachers on their own.
4.8 LET US SUM UP:
In this unit, we have discussed the objectives and structure of
teacher education programme at pre-primary and primary level. We
have also discussed on the National Curriculum framework of
teacher education programme at pre-primary and primary education.
It also deals with the role and competencies required of teachers at
pre-primary and primary level with special reference to the ten
competencies recommended by NCTE.
140
Unit End Exercises:
1) Explain the teacher education progremme at preprimary level
with special reference to its objectives and structures.
2) Explain the Role and Competencies required for teachers at
primary stage with special reference to ten competency areas
suggested by NCTE.
References :
1. Khan M.S. (1983), Teacher Education in India & abroad, New
Delhi, Himalaya Publishing House.
2. Kohli V.K. (1992), Teacher Education in India, Ambala (India),
Vivek Publishers.
3. National curriculum framework by NCERT.
4. Competency based and commitment oriented teacher education
for quality school education by NCERT.
141
5
TEACHER EDUCATION AT SECONDARY
AND HIGHER SECONDARY LEVELS
Unit Structure :
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Objectives of Teacher Education Programme at Secondary
Level as recommended by the NCTE
5.3 Objectives of Teacher Education Programme at Higher
Secondary Level as recommended by the NCTE
5.4 Structure of Teacher Education Programme at Secondary
5.5 Structure of Teacher Education Programme at Higher
Secondary Level as recommended by NCTE
5.6 National Curriculum framework for Teacher Education
Programme at Secondary Level as recommended by the
NCTE
Programme at Higher Secondary Level as recommended by
the NCTE
5.8 Role and Competencies required of the Teacher at the
Secondary Level
5.9 Role and Competencies required of the Teacher at the Higher
Secondary Level
5.10 Let us Sum up
5.0 OBJECTIVES :
After reading this unit, the student will be able to:
List the objectives of Teacher Education Programme at
Secondary and Higher Secondary Levels as recommended by
NCTE.
Discuss the structure of Teacher Education Programme at
Secondary and Higher Secondary Levels as recommended by the
NCTE.
142
Explain the National Curriculum framework for Teacher
Education Programme at Secondary and Higher Secondary
Levels as recommended by the NCTE.
Discuss the role and competencies required of the teacher at
Secondary and Higher Secondary Levels.
5.1 INTRODUCTION :
In the recent years India has taken a fresh and more critical
look at the role of education within the context of overall national
development. The goals of education follow the national goals of
development. This means development of the human resources.
The development of human resources is possible through a properly
organised programme of education.
It is imperative, that the teacher has to assume greater
responsibility so as to initiate action for the transformation of society
as an agent of social change and thereby help achieve the goal of
national development. Thus success in carrying out educational
reforms and acceptance of the new role by the teacher depends on
the quality the teacher which, in turn depends on the quality of
teacher education.
5.2 OBJECTIVES OF TEACHER EDUCATION
PROGRAMME AT SECONDARY LEVEL AS
RECOMMENDED BY THE NCTE :
To maintain the continuity of elementary education and to
prepare students for the study of diversified courses and
appropriate selection of subjects at the senior secondary stage,
To empower the prospective teachers to adopt disciplinary
approach in teaching, and to develop among students interest in
such studies.
To enable them to understand the implications of liberalization,
privatization, globalization (LPG) free market, W.T.O. and
Outsourcing etc. on education and adopt precautionary measures
against their unsound effects.
To train them in the use of ICT, its advantages, disadvantages
and safeguards,
143
To curtail the educational and cultural gap between the rich and
the poor the schools meant for them by adopting suitable
educational approaches.
To develop among the prospective teachers love for Indian
culture, and its contribution to the world and to inculcate a sense
of national pride and identity.
To enable them to develop the teaching competencies and
performance skills for the subjects they have to teach, using
appropriate aids including ICT, organize supplementary
educational activities and elicit community cooperation,
To empower student teachers not only to understand the nature of
subjects but also the unity and integrity of knowledge,
To prepare them for the development of personality, inculcation
of values, fostering the spirit of citizenship and patriotic feeling.
To create among them the awareness of environmental protection
and need to maintain an ecological balance.
To enable students to acquire, construct, process and utilize
knowledge as per the requirement of circumstances,
To help them to grasp the main thrust of the curriculum and
develop appropriate transactional and evaluation strategies for
the same.
To enable them to integrate yogic, health, physical, aesthetic and
inclusive education with other educational activities.
To enable the prospective teachers to orient and sensitize the
students with care and caution about Life Skill education. HIV /
AIDS preventive education, reproductive health, etc.
To develop among them the capacity for undertaking action
research for improving the quality of education, for the solution
of its problems and to evolve the culture specific and community
oriented pedagogy.
To help them evolve happy and healthy school and community
relationship and promote interest in life long learning,
To acquaint them with Indian nations distinctive character of
unity of diversity and adopt curriculum development practices
to strengthen them.
Similarly, a few more objectives may be formulated in
consonance with the emerging trends in the context of local to global
scenario.
144
THE HIGHER SECONDARY STAGE AS
RECOMMENDED BY NCTE (ACADEMIC
STREAM) :
To develop among teachers an acceptable desired perspective
about academic stream and understanding of its nature, purpose
and philosophy,
To make them aware of the philosophy, purpose and teaching
learning strategies of the subjects they have to teach,
To empower them to make indepth pedagogical analysis of the
subjects they have to teach and understand their relevance to
tertiary education.
To empower prospective teachers to comprehend the
characteristics of students for making suitable educational
provisions for them.
To enable them to guide learners and prepare them for self
study, independent learning, to develop reference skills,
undertake group learning, critical thinking, conceptualization,
self evaluation of their own performance and derive knowledge
/ information from ICT, mass media and MCLS,
To develop among them the competencies to communicate
abstract and complex ideas and concepts in simple terms,
To make them understand the objectives, transactional strategies,
evaluation techniques and curriculum designing in different areas
of study at this stage,
To empower the prospective student teachers to understand the
regional specifies and educational demands and establish
correlation with the main stream of national life and to suggest
suitable solutions there off.
To develop among them the skills for promoting patriotic feeling
national consciousness, social cohesion, communal harmony and
universal brotherhood.
To enable the perspective teachers to evolve need based and
culture specific pedagogy,
To make them aware of national problems, environmental crisis
and Indian cultural ethos and
To enable them to orient and sensitize the students about HIV /
AIDS, preventive education and to bring attitudinal change in
145
understanding numeriuos problems relating to healthy life, life
skill development, stigma and discrimination etc.
Objectives of Teacher Education at the Senior Secondary Stage
(Vocational Stream)
The programme of teacher education for the vocational
subjects has to achieve the following targets in the domain of
competencies of student teachers.
To impart enriched vocational education which is essential for
success in competitive and open market economy,
To transform the nature of traditional vocations and modernize
them to achieve success,
To enable them to impart the skills of marketing, market survey,
salesmanship and advertisement,
To empower them to develop higher and finer vocational skills
and competencies among the prospective teachers and the ability
to foster them among their students,
To enable them to design courses and competencies needed for
self employment,
To take precautions against becoming narrow specialists and
educationally inferior workmen and
To enable the prospective teachers to inculcate dignity and
morality of work and produce work culture among their students.
5.4 & 5.5 STRUCTURE OF TEACHER EDUCATION
PROGRAMME AT SECONDARY AND HIGHER
SECONDARY STAGES AS RECOMMENDED BY
NCTE :
NCTE while finalising the structure & curriculum framework
followed two criteria i.e. Flexibility & Integration flexibility for
mobility of teachers from stage to another, mobility from one
discipline to another and from pre-service to in-service.
Integration meant integrating theory component with one total
programme. Each stage comprised of 3 main areas
1) Pedagogical Theory
2) Working with Community
3) Content cum methodology including practice teaching
146
In pedagogy core papers were taught core training
programme focused on development of skills for teachers regardless
of their subject, area or level. Each stage will also aim at developing
specific skill for teaching.
Working with community was introduced with specific
purpose of applying theory to actual situation. Weightage to be
given to these 3 areas at the secondary stage is
Pedagogy - 20%
Working with community - 20%
Content cum methodology - 60%
Weightage at higher secondary stage is
Pedagogy - 30%
Entry qualification at secondary stage is graduation with 3
pagers in school subjects with minimum second class. Duration is 1
year. Entry qualification for higher secondary stage is post graduate
in 1 of 2 subjects with minimum 55% at post graduate level. Two
types of courses i.e. academic and vocational have been designed.
The characteristics of courses of academic stream are :
Differentiated, demarcated and specific contents
Subject and discipline orientation preparatory to specification
Enriched and comprehensive curriculum with goal specificity
Regrouping of subjects into compulsory and optionals
Emphasis on abstract and creative thinking and higher mental
faculties to deal with complex ideas and complicated concepts
Directed and focused towards higher studies
Vocational Stream :
Job oriented
Skill based
Useful
Practical
147
Manipulative
Rich in economic values
Employment or self employment oriented
Terminal in nature
Suitable for middle level workers in economy
TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMME AT
SECONDARY LEVEL :
Duration : 1 Year
AREA COURSE
Curriculum Framework for the School
Teacher Education
A Theoretical Compulsory
- Principles, Status, Problems and Issues in
Secondary Education in India and the region
concerned,
- Emerging Indian Society : (Emphasis on
unity, diversity and regional specificity) and
Secondary Education,
- Philosophy of Secondary Education : Indian
and Western : (Only trends and educational
implications),
- Sociology of Education and Cultural
Anthropology (unity diversity and the
study of regional culture be given due
Weightage),
- Psychology of learning and motivation of
secondary school level students (Regional
and Group Specificities be given due
(Weightage),
- Curriculum and instructional designs for
secondary school level,
- Environmental Education,
- Action research and innovative practices,
148
- Peace education and Social Harmony,
- Health, Hygiene and Physical Education,
- Evaluation and Measurement,
- Safety and Disaster Management,
- Management, Planning and Finance,
- Guidance and Counseling,
- ICT and its use in Secondary Education,
- Inclusive Education,
- Any other as per regional needs.
B Practical
Activities
- Internship for one week at secondary school,
- Teaching of two subjects & pedagogical
analysis as is common in schools or
prescribed by the university (minimum 30
lessons),
- Communication skills,
- Environment Protection,
- Ecosystem Structure & Functions,
- Plantation and Water Harvesting,
- Energy Harvesting,
- Work Experience,
- Beautification of Schools,
- Organization of Games and Sports,
- Organization of Literary activities,
- Organization of tours and Excursions
- Organization of Field Work,
- Physical Education,
- Community work / Interaction,
- Cleanliness of Students,
- Implementation of Action Research, Case
Studies and Field work,
- Preparation of tests to measure abilities,
- Evaluation of answer scripts,
- Sessional work and its Evaluation,
149
- Preparation of maps, charts, diagrams,
- Improvisation of law cost and no cost
teaching aids,
- Educational Games,
- Diagnostic testing and remedial teaching,
- Any other need based activities.
HIGHER SECONDARY LEVEL :
Duration : 1 year
AREA COURSE
Curriculum Framework for the Teachers
of Senior Secondary Schools
(Academic Streams)
A Theoretical - Emerging Indian Society (Indian
heritage, its unity, diversity, regional
specificities modernization, post
modernity, (Indian culture, globalization,
knowledge economy and knowledge
society etc. be given emphasis),
- Psychology of teaching and learning,
- Philosophy of education (Relevant parts
of Indian and Western Metaphysics,
Epistemology and axiology),
- Sociology and Cultural Anthropology,
- Principles, Status, Problems, Issues and
challenges of senior secondary
education,
- Pedagogical Analysis and techniques of
teaching (two subjects one being
advanced level (A level) and the other
being ordinary level (O level),
- ICT and its integration,
- Health, Hygiene & Physical Education,
150
- Adolescence education,
- Safety Education and Disaster
Management,
- Management, Planning and Finance of
Education,
- Any other need based course of study.
B Electives - Teaching of (Pedagogical analysis of two
subjects : one advanced and the other
ordinary),
- Pedagogical analysis of Home Science,
- Pedagogical analysis of Foreign Language,
- Pedagogical analysis of Mother Tongue &
Regional Language,
- Any other need based subject of study
C Specialization
One
- History of Indian Education,
- History of Western Education,
- Comparative Education,
- Educational Technology,
- Education of the oppressed,
- Women Education,
- Rural & Urban Education,
- Education of Challenged Children,
- Population Education,
- Problems of Education,
- Distance Education and Open Learning
System,
- Evaluation of Textbooks and Reading
Materials and their selection,
- Any other which has not been taken as
compulsory or elective.
151
D Practical
Activities
- Internship of one week in a higher secondary
school,
- Teaching 40 lessons in a subject opted at A
level and 20 at O level,
- Pedagogical analysis of advanced and
ordinary level subjects,
- Community survey and preparation of
report,
- Action Research, Field Work, Case Study
one each,
- Environmental Protection,
- Plantation, Water Harvesting and Grass land
development,
- Participation in community games and
festivals etc.,
- Organization of games and sports,
- Organization of supplementary educational
activities,
- Sessional work in major and ordinary
subjects and their evaluation,
- Soil Management and Manures,
- Beautification of school & Gardening,
- Wall writing
- Addressing assemblies & debates,
- Promoting cleanliness hygiene in school and
students,
- Preparation of tests to evaluate performance
and all kinds of abilities,
- Evaluation of students answer scripts,
- Preparation of Maps, Charts, Diagrams etc.
- Socially useful and productive work
(SUPW),
- Non conventional methods and teaching,
- Maintenance of educational records,
- Any other need based activity.
152
Structure of the Professional Course for Senior Secondary
School Teacher Education (Higher Secondary) (Vocational
Stream)
Duration : 1 year
AREA COURSE
Curriculum Framework for Senior
Secondary Schools
(Vocational Streams)
A Theoretical Courses of Study
- Emerging Indian Society (Emphasis on
science, technology, electronics, trade,
commerce, industrialization and economy
etc.),
- Philosophy, Sociology, Cultural
Anthropology and their bearing on
Vocational Education,
- Occupational and Industrial Psychology,
- Economic and Commercial Geography,
- Entrepreneurship and Management,
- Managing Financial Resources & Raw
Materials and Machineries,
- Marketing, Salesmanship, Advertisement
and market Survey,
- Price fixation, Profit, Insurance etc.,
- Elementary labour laws, Labour Welfare and
Labour Problems,
- Status, Problems, Issues and Challenges of
Vocational education,
- Theoretical knowledge of a trade or
vocation,
- Environmental education,
- Evaluation
- ICT
- Any other region specific subject
153
B Specialization Theory and Practice One or Two
- Fashion Design,
- Catering and cooking,
- Sewing and knitting,
- Hotel management,
- Spinning and Weaving,
- Carpet Weaving,
- Carpentry,
- Block smith ship,
- Agro based products,
- Food and Fruit preservation,
- Auto Mechanic,
- Repair of machines and engines,
- Electrician,
- Drilling,
- Radio & Television,
- Tractor mechanic,
- Clay work / Painting,
- Wall hanger / Painting,
- Interior Decoration,
- Toy making,
- Painting,
- Advertisement,
- Computer Hardware,
- Any other vocational activities.
C Practical - Apprenticeship of one semesters,
- Workshop Techniques,
- Practical Accountancy,
- Internship in a vocational school, ITI, TTI
etc. for teaching and learning,
- Internship as a salesman,
- Market survey and reporting,
- Survey of social demand & supply of a
product,
154
- Assessment of community needs,
- Transportation of goods and its management,
- Purchase of raw materials,
- Maintenance of various tax registers and the
payment procedures,
- Environmental protection,
- Water and Energy harvesting,
- Disaster management & Safety Education,
5.8 ROLE AND COMPETENCIES REQUIRED OF
THE TEACHER AT THE SECONDARY LEVEL :
At secondary level consolidation takes place and also students
are prepared for the future life.
The aim of secondary education is developing leadership,
democratic citizenship, self reliant skills, political ability and
social values.
The different roles teacher performs at the secondary level are :
1) Manager
As a manager teacher develops human resources i.e. students by
creating interest for the academic, correlates the subject with
other subjects. Also as manager to develop skills of time
management, class room management and material
management.
2) Facilitator
Keeps in mind the intellectual development of the students.
Develops ability for abstract reasoning & conceptualization.
Emphasis on understanding / comprehending rather than
memorizing.
Orgnaised form of learning.
Values and attitudes crucial for desirable way of functioning
in the society.
Developing critical thinking and scientific attitude.
155
3) Evaluator
To monitor learning development.
Developing an awareness that role of evaluation is directly
proportional to teaching.
4) Guide and Counsellor
Give guidance for the development stage i.e. adolescent about
rapid physical growth, emotional changes.
Guidance for type of career to be chosen, i.e. professional /
technical etc.
Developing healthy attitude towards work.
Act as a role model.
Competencies Required :
1) Personal
Physically fit and healthy.
Active and Energetic.
Emotionally stable.
Aware of self.
Socially warm & friendly.
Intellectually love for teaching.
Have principles & values.
2) Professional
Subject Specialist with grasp and depth & upto date
knowledge about subject.
Appropriate teaching skills.
Ability to try out innovative methods of teaching.
3) Social
Develop inter personal & interactive skills.
Be open to Criticism.
Achieve the goals of the institution.
Working in collaboration & coordination.
Be a leader.
Developing rapport and creating congenial & friendly
environment.
156
TEACHERS AT HIGHER SECONDARY LEVEL :
Roles : Teacher performs various roles as
1) Manager
Teacher manages human resources i.e. students as well as
material resources i.e. Equipment, Facilities etc. As dealing with
students teachers should reach out, share, show concern, help to
get realistic goals & face the failure.
2) Facilitator
Developing life skills like decision making, problem
solving, Critical thinking etc.
Cope with rapidly increasing knowledge explosion.
Develop subject expertise.
Be a motivator.
3) Evaluator
Not only evaluate students (Continuous & Comprehensive)
but also, programme, Course material & teacher her / himself.
4) Guide and Counsellor.
Friend, confidantor, advisor.
Problems of relationship with opposite sex.
Extending activities to society.
Competencies :
1) Personal
Develop positive self concept
Emotionally stable
Physically sound
Self motivator
Wider reading interest
2) Professional
Research minded
Competency of Presentation (Communication, Mechanics of
delivery, simulation and skills of teaching)
157
Competency of maintaining discipline
Competency of evaluating techniques
Competency of handling feedback
5.10 LETS SUM UP :
In this unit we have discussed the objectives, structure,
Curriculum framework of teacher education programme at
secondary and higher secondary level. It also deals with role and
competencies required of teachers at secondary and higher
secondary level.
Unit End Exercise :
1. Compare the objective of teacher education programme at
Secondary and Higher Secondary Level.
2. Discuss the Curriculum framework of teacher education
programme at:
a) Secondary Level
b) Higher Secondary Level academic stream
3. Discuss the roles and competencies required of teachers at:
a) Secondary Level
b) Higher Secondary Level
158
6
TERTIARY LEVEL
Unit Structure :
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Need for Teacher Education for Preparation of Teachers in
Higher Education
6.3 Objectives of Teacher Education at Tertiary Level
6.4 Structure of Teacher Education Programme at Tertiary Level.
6.5 Curriculum for Teacher Education Programme at Tertiary
Level.
6.6 Role and Competencies Required of the Teacher at The
Tertiary Level.
6.7 Let us Sum up
6.0 OBJECTIVES :
At the end of this unit you will be able to :-
Analyse the importance of Teacher Education at higher level.
Explain the need of Teacher Education at Tertiary level.
6.1 INTRODUCTION :
Education is a transmission of knowledge and information
through predefined teaching methods and various training
programmes. The quality of learning mainly depends on the ability
and the capability and also the opportunity available to individual
159
learner. Hence transmission of qualitative education at higher level
may have various receptions.
When we talk about quality in higher education which is perceived
in terms of satisfaction of students, teachers and society. There is also a
growing realization that we are practicing in our schools and colleges
these days will define the social and intellectual competencies and
character of the new generation which has to take upon itself the
responsibility of shaping and functioning the society of incoming
generation. The concerned for quality in higher education in particular
surfaced strongly in the recommendations of education commission which
noted that The essence of a programme of teacher education is nothing
but quality and in its absence, teacher education becomes overall
deterioration in educational standards.
Tertiary education is a constituent part of the life long education
system. The out puts of secondary education are inputs for it and a quality
of higher education products solely depends on the their quality Teacher
Education inputs which are meant for the world of labour and the system
of further Non Formal formal education system.
The fast changing world today is characterized by the emergence
of global markets, the application of new knowledge in production,
requirements, for new skills in teaching professions changing nature of
equality of work , and introduction of information and communication
technologies in all spheres of human endeavors. This explains for new
concept of learning in the field of teacher educational institution is no
more a place where teacher and students have face to face interaction
Traditional approach to develop curriculum based on perceived
requirements of skills and professional and there fore curriculum and
study programmes have become more flexible , complex and dynamic
infact education at tertiary level is over coming state and national
boundaries, Researches at higher education are being redefined as
collective teachers M. S. University Baroda introduced D H E. for
training of college teachers at tertiary level which was also discontinued
after few years of trial As things stands teacher education at tertiary level
enter this professional without any proper programme preparation,
knowledge of pedagogy and educational psychology. The conventional
thinking in the academic circles is that appropriate scholarship in a
discipline is enough to become a food for teacher in higher education, The
University teachers learn how to teach by the pure trial and error to one
method of teaching lectures method to complete their teaching roles,
modern knowledge however present a different concept of teaching
learning must change to bring and develop new and advanced skills and
apply it in their class room teaching.
160
Re-orientation of subject knowledge which should include a study
of fundamental concepts and their implications for the college syllabus
preparation and use of text books and preparing source materials to assist
teaching, On order to over come the curriculum load arising had anisiving
out of such re-organization of course content the number of working day
and be extended.
The experiment of integrated courses of teacher education could be
tried in universities having strong education departments of education,
Theses courses should not be organized in separate institutions set up for
the purpose, other way is to accredit and call for accountability of the
institution expecting quality in all the required parameters in education
programmes.
The current system for teacher education at territory level has
failed to provide the teachers the training they normally need. Indeed there
is a little systematic coordination between various elements of teacher
education which may leads to a lack of coherence and continuity
especially between teacher initial professional education and their
subsequent induction in service training and professional development.
There is an urgent need for ensuring professional development
well coordinated coherent and adequate resources. It is essential to
promote culture of reflective practice and research among teachers in
order to sustain not only quality but the skills and collaboration of scholars
in distant time zones in order to cope with assimilate vast information and
knowledge, hence universities and other institutions of teacher education
at tertiary level take on new features which needs new modes of
administration and management in order to keep quality in teacher
education programme at tertiary level.
It is the need of the hour to bring and modify the teacher education
programme at universities and colleges to reflect on its objectives
curricular transaction, the structure of the education system and mainly the
competencies and the skills expected of the teacher at the tertiary level.
6.2 NEED FOR TEACHER EDUCATION FOR
PREPARATION OF TEACHERS IN HIGHER
EDUCATION :
It is learnt and expected that the learners of today are expected to
be more independent and autonomous in respect of their learning
activities, the rapid expansion and adoption of distant and open learning
161
education at tertiary level has reduced the need to spend more time within
the four walls of classrooms. The question arises what type of
professionalism is expected of teacher education teachers to effectively
handle the new learning situations at tertiary level ?
It is observed that very few teachers education frame works
developed by NCTE except in 1978 frame work talked about teacher
education programmes for teachers at tertiary level. In practice a teacher
education degree is never made compulsory to teachers in colleges of
higher education or in universities. At this time there were hardly any
preservice courses for university and college teachers. Even though their
innovative programmes developed during the mid 70 s were
discontinued later the course was in much demand. The very first
programme was the Master of College Teaching (M.C.T.) started in the
Calicut University way back in 1975, which was later discontinued after
few years of functioning. Another course for college teachers began in
1978 in Kerala. M. Phil in Science Education too was scrapped
after few years, when there was a great demand for the course Annamalai
University run a Master of Higher Education course ( MHED ) for training
of college teachers and later discontinued after few years when it had
sufficient competencies to compete with other teacher education system at
national and international territory.
Thus the need of teacher education is reflected in the cohesion of
activities which are lacking need improvement in to bring creativity,
novelty in teacher education programme at higher level.
Activity :
1) Organize a discussion on the existing need of teacher education
programme at tertiary level seek the views of colleague and present it
to the authority concerned in the institute of higher
education..
2) There is a common feeling that teacher education programmes meant
for different stages of education are isolated, how can be remove this
kind of isolation ?
Have a paper reading session on this issue
We have discussed about the importance of quality education in
teacher education programmed at tertiary level. It is learnt that in the
absence of quality, the education standard can never be met. In this
context how some universities like, Annamali Kerala and other places
started the training programmes to teacher education and later scraped
162
when the courses were in demand. Integrated education vocational
education is the need of the hour. There should be a coordination between
various elements of teacher education. It is essential to promote culture of
reflective practice and research among the teacher educators. The teacher
educator should bring creativity novelty and productivity as out put in
teacher education programmes
Question for critical reflection :
a) How far do you think the training of teachers in teacher education are
benefited with the current system of teacher education ?
b) Do you think that there is need to introduce teacher education
programme at tertiary level for college teachers ? Justify your views
on this.
PROGRAMME AT TERTIARY LEVEL :
The Role of teacher is becoming more specific and specialized and
yet demanding in the new world order on account of the explosion of
knowledge. This would mean the need for increased professionalism
among the incoming teaching community. If the objectives have to reflect
the new national and international needs will have to be integrated with to
local working conditions and be made more receptive to the realities of
Indian social context along with the requirements at international
competition.
We are aware that till today we followed independent programmes
of teacher education that varied form one system to another, the advent of
apex bodies for monitoring and controlling quality in teacher education
has helped to achieve certain degree of homogeneity in the objectives of
teacher education. What are the objectives of Teacher Education
programme at tertiary level ? How far these objectives be achieved is an
important introspection to be made by the teacher community.
Learning Outcomes :
At the end of this unit you
1) Shall be able to explain the important objectives of Teacher Education
at Tertiary Level.
2) Become aware of the objectives of Teacher Education at the tertiary
Level.
Objectives of Teacher Education Programmes :
163
To develop essential competencies and skills for curriculum
development, transaction and evaluation of Teacher Education
programme.
Inspire and demonstrate research based and reflective practices.
Able to share and use modern and applicable learning centred teaching
and assessment methods.
Develop among teachers commitment to scholarship of teaching and
learning in discipline and in the inter discipline scientific community.
Able to show and promote active participation in national and
international networks.
Develop abstract reasoning creative and critical thinking among the
students.
Build excitement and increase anticipation of professional educators
for the use of information and communication technology to enhance
instruction.
Identify computer and related technology resources for facilitating life
long learning and emerging roles of the learner and the educator.
Inspire students for higher and Independent study and promote library
and laboratory Skills to develop managerial and organizational skills
required for functioning of modern system of education.
To enable the perspective teacher educators to evolve need based and
culture specific pedagogogy.
To empower them to induce their students for self employment.
Develop insight among the students to transfer their vocational skills
in higher learning form one area to another.
To make them aware of national problems environmental crisis and
Indian cultural ethos.
To enable them to develop the spirit of self reliance and self
confidence.
To develop and inculcate the skills of problem solving and research
based activities.
Develop communication, psychomotor skills and abilities conducive
for human relations which enable to promote learning effectively.
To develop skills in making use of educational technology in teaching
vocational subjects by providing appropriate learning experiences.
To Develop skills cognitive and psychomotor for teaching academic /
Vocational subjects.
Activity : -
164
1) Compare the objectives of secondary education teacher education
programme with that of tertiary level. Bring out the similarities and
differences. (In about 150 Words)
2) Give an opportunity to be the Director of NCTE, how would set up
objectives for vocational courses. (In about 200 Words)
We have discussed about the various objectives related to tertiary
level. It has also dealt with objectives of vocational course. It is important
that the objectives like developing competencies and skill in transaction of
curriculum, development of scientific temper, identifying computer related
technology researches for facilitating life long learning. It has dealt with
library and laboratory skills. It had stressed need based and culture
specific pedagogy.
Question for Critical Reflection :
What is your opinion regarding the experience teachers can alone
mature enough to teach appropriately at higher education ? If yes justify
with your views what are the special required objectives at Tertiary Level?
6.4 STRUCTURE OF TEACHER EDUCATION
Introduction :
In the present world with advancement in science and
technology the teaching structure and models are prominent. The
structure of education system varies from states to national to
International scenario. The three levels of education system includes
primary education, secondary and higher education. The syllabus
curriculum do varies at different levels of education system it is
imperative that for the entire Indian education, is to bring the 2 stage
of education within the purview of school education and to give it a
vocational bias, This requires immediate attention be paid to the
development of functional teacher education programme at this
stage.
The tertiary teacher education programmes need different
structure present system need changes in the structure in order to
compete with other countries.
165
Learning Out Comes :-
At the end of this unit you will be able to
i) Differentiates the structure of teacher education programme with
secondary education.
ii) able to perceive the various courses in teacher education
programmes
Structure of Teacher education Programme and institutions at
Tertiary Level.
In this context that Teacher Education Frame work developed
by the NCTE in 1978 recommended the framing of functional
teacher education programme for the + 2 stage as well as for college
teachers. The framework suggested three structures of teacher
education programme for the +2 stage and for the collegiate stage.
Structure I
Modified version of secondary teacher education programme
and was meant for preparing post graduate teachers for the academic
stream.
Greater importance to pedagogical inputs
Specialize in only one subject
Structure II
As suggested for + 2 stage vocational stream
All the components of structure 1
Trainees for the vocational stream
Work experience programmes
Structure III
Importance to pedagogical theory and general methods of
teaching to college teachers
166
Duration <---- > One semester the structure of teacher
education at tertiary level means the logical arrangement of the
components of teacher education inclusive.
Teaching Skills.
Perpetuates objectives to individual and social development.
To generate teaching culture
STAGES OF STRUCTURE OF TEACHER EDUCATION :-
M. Ed. Teacher Education for those who have completed
L. T. or B. Ed. 1 Year Full Time.
M. Phill Completed M. Ed. Course teaching at higher
level 18 months
Ph. D. Doctor of Philosophy Research related aspect
M. A. Education Higher Education related course Research
Methodology (2 years)
Distance and open learning formal system of
education Department / University
B. Ed. Conventional System 1 Year
Open and Distance Learning 2 Year
Teaching Skills Teaching Objectives Teaching Culture
Methodology and
Teaching
Strategies
National
Goals and Values
Sociological
Values
Human Qualities
167
Courses / Subject Offered :-
Educational Sociology / Philosophy
Educational Psychology
School Management / Educational Evaluation
Information Communication Technology
Special fields in Education
Environmental Education
International Education
Languages / Social Science
Science and Mathematics
Economics And Commerce
M. Ed. Theory Dissertation
Methodology of Education
Problems in Any Educational area Research
Research Practical Work
6 Papers
Phill. Sociology Advanced Psychology
Teacher Education Management
Of Education Guidance Counselling
Educational Technology
Area M. Ed. M. Phill
a) Pedagogical Theory 1) Foundation Courses
20 %
2) Research Courses 20
%
3) Theoretical Course
60 % Research
Courses 20 %
4) Task Oriented
Courses 60 %
5) Any two areas of
specialization
Not Essential for M. Ed.
But needed For other
discus.
Research Courses 20%
Guidance and
Counselling
Action
Research
Rural
Development
Inclusive
Education
Computer
Education
168
3) Interdisciplinary four years integrated course related to Teacher
Education Programme
B. Sc. (Ed) M. A. (Ed.)
B. A. (Ed) M. Sc. (Ed.)
M. A. (Education) 2 years (Open and Distance Learning)
MATE Master of Arts in Teacher Education (Sri Lanka)
M. Phill - Those who have passed B. Ed / B. Phil
Topics Like Research Methodology and tools
* Educational Organization and Administration
* Teacher Education
Designing of Curriculum
Ph. D Study of significant problem presenting
solution, collecting data analyzing and
interpreting it statistically
M. A. T. E. Master of Arts in Teacher Education Related to
teach Education programme
P. G. D. H. E. Post graduate Diploma in Higher Education
Ignou / Distance Education
Activity If you were to be an authorized faculty in
U. G. C. N. C. E. R. T. how would you structure
and design Teacher Education Courses ?
(In about 150 Words)
List Out the probable programmes launched for teacher training
at tertiary level ?
* Social Understanding
* Leadership Traits
* Creativity Development
* Progressive Attitude
Teaching Skills
Teaching Objectives
Teaching Culture
Core Skills / Special Skills
Identifying, analyzing,
Solving skills
169
( In about 200 Words )
We have discussed about the structure of teacher education
programmes at tertiary level. The structure of teacher education
includes teaching skills, objectives, to individual and social
development and to generate teaching culture. It has highlighted the
courses like. M. Ed. M. Phil Ph. D where in the course content like
research methodology in the form of research is very important, the
course duration varies in formal and Distance Education It elaborates
pedagogical and specialization thus the structure varies in different
system of education.
Questions for reflective / Entical Reflection :
Enumerate the importance of vocational education at tertiary
teacher education programme.
What are the other courses can be included in teacher training
programmes at Tertiary Level of teaching
6.5 CURRICULUM FOR TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMME AT
TERTIARY LEVEL :
Introduction :
The implications of the paradigm shift for curricula in
institution of higher education in general and Teacher Education in
particular are far reaching . Humanities curriculum of the past has
undergone progressive diversification in order to meet contemporary
needs courses in science and technology, business and commerce
have been directly or indirectly located with in the curriculum of
arts. Commerce and science courses have become more holistic.
The other expectations is to make Teacher Education globally
relevant with learner centred pedagogy and objective continuous
assessment
Curriculum of T. E. Programme at Tertiary Level
Over Reaching Goals / Objectives
Specialized Studies :
Language Studies
170
Career Preparation
Global Issues
Choice Based Optional
Learning Outcomes :
At the end of this Unit you will be able to
Analyse the Importances and parameters that helps to prepare
curriculum for teacher education at tertiary level.
Able to explain the importance of theory and practical aspects of
curriculum for teacher education.
Able to suggest other components required while framing
curriculum.
Need Based curriculum :

The primary purpose of teaching education curriculum in our
country is to prepare teacher for the different school levels. The
concept of teacher preparation for higher education has not gathered
enough momentum An ideal teacher education curriculum should be
deduced from the professional competencies to be required and the
roles to be performed and the habits attitudes and values to acquire.
The great and general complaint about the school curricula is that
they are overloaded. This is often due to the non involvements of
teachers in the process of curriculum development and in the
preparation of textual material and also to the rigid nature of the
curriculum document.
Quality Curriculum :
The quality curriculum is one which has the potential to
realize its stated objectives with minimum efforts. In this context of
teacher education a quality curriculum stands for its ability to
develop professionally competent teachers within the assigned time
for the operation. The quality of curriculum refers to its attributes are
in corporated in its development. As the existing curriculum in
higher education is mostly non functional, it ought to be
restructured. At may be well be made to respond to the challenges
enumerated to avoid the pitfalls Apart from the Apex bodies like
NCERT and NCET, Curriculum building should be more democratic
in spirit in corporating the suggestions from social workers,
psychologists, eminent persons in the various field.
171
Preparation of final draft curricula only after extensive
deliberation of subject teachers at grass root level. Integration,
inter-disciplination components are essential in framing
curriculum.
Creation of an atmosphere in the colleges conducive to
participation in such academic activities and the appreciation
and recognition of the teachers in teacher education work would
be a motivating factor.
It is clearly reflected that the curriculum component should
includes science and technology with prime importance to
recognition subjects keeping the local and international scenario.
Need based curriculum catering to the needs of both rural and
urban folks.
The syllabus preparation should coordinate with management
and industrial requirement is essential. It should coinage /
synchronizes with what you learn and how you apply in your
future work oriented adjustment.
Different aspects of Curriculum of Tertiary Level
TEACHER EDUCATION : CURRICULUM
Languages Science Maths
I.C.T. (E.T.) Education Field Work
Vocational Courses General
Education
Curriculum
Designing
Education
Management
Research Project Intereerated Courses
a) Pedagogic Theory
b) Working with Community
Theory
Papers
Practical
Work
Research Extension
Programmes
172
c) Content Cum Methodology
Content of Integrated Programme :
Curriculum Frame work :-

Higher Education states problems and issues
Research Methodology
Methods of Teaching of a subject at + 2 stage
Information and communication Technology
Management of Education
Planning and Finance
Innovations in Education
Physical education
Environmental Education and Computer Education
Practical Work :-
Specialization Additional Specialization
Content
Professional Education General Education
173
Vocational Stream :
Theory Practical Components
Management
Project formulation
Computer Education
Marketing and Advertising
Entrepreneurship /
Organizational Behavior
Working with computers
Projects imparting
vocational Education
Formulating and
Implementing Projects
Research Based Curriculum at Tertiary Education :
The curriculum must cater to the needs of higher education
learners by making research as a compulsory component which
should be conducted at two levels.
Organizing on the job
training workshop /
practices
Project work in
every Subject
(Research Based)
Preparation and
use of
instructional
technology
Library and
Laboratory Work
Sessional and
Practical Work
Field Work
Problem Solving
Approach
Action Research
Development Stage Implementation Stage
174
Action Research :
It is considered to be of high Pragmatic Value > teachers to
find a practical solution to the problem faced. It can be done in the
field of special education general / inclusive set up.
Case Studies :
The curriculum in Teacher Education programme to provide
insight into the severity of the problems
Studies to test the effectiveness of various approaches to
strengthen teaching learning process.
Experimental :
Descriptive Research methods
Role and Implementing ICT based curriculum :
Integration of information and communication Technology in
the curriculum at tertiary level is vital. In this era of e-education,
e-business and e-administration in cybernetic society. The ICT
knowledge be highlighted, the curriculum should comprise of
examples of ICT use be prominent.
ICT
The use of multimedia like television, tele-conferencing,
radio counseling, video counseling, computer assisted instruction,
use of hard ware and soft ware in computer technology is essential.
The preparation of power point presentation has become a common
phenomena in the present system of education.
The use of multimedia like television, teleconferencing, radio
counseling, Video counseling, computer Assisted instruction, use of
Theoretical Practical
175
hard ware and software in computer technology is essential. The
preparation of power point presentation has become a common
phenomena in the present system of education .
Activity :
Compare the existing curriculum of teacher education at
tertiary level with those of secondary education bring out the
similarities and differences ( in about 150 words)
________________ ________________ ________________
________________ ________________ ________________
________________ ________________ ________________
List out the methods of transaction of curriculum (Subject) in your
teaching in what way you feel more creative than your
colleagues.
..(in about 200
words)
We have discussed the curriculum different ways of
designing and organizing curriculum be the frame work of
curriculum at tertiary level. The curriculum should be need based
entering to the Local level to global level. The teacher education
curriculum composes of pedagogic theory to technological aspect,
the research based working with community, content cum
methodology, curriculum should reflect general and professional
education, Theory with practical is an essential components of any
curriculum.
Questions for critical reflection :
1. How do you define hidden curriculum with regard to tertiary
education in our country?
2. What are the major implications of college curriculum reforms
for reform of teacher education syllabus at Tertiary level?
3. Teachers must involve in framing curriculum for college level
compulsorily justify the statement.
TEACHER AT THE TERTIARY LEVEL :
When we talk of sustenance of quality and professional
development, it implies strengthening and sharpening of the
professional competencies of understanding and insights concerning
various intricacies of a profession. Professional development leads to
176
job satisfaction and helps the professional to attain higher degree of
self actualization. Teacher and teaching at tertiary level is much
more responsible in the art and science of teaching. It is imperative
for every teacher to reassess and reflect professional competence and
identify and provide input programme for up dating them in terms of
new professional needs, apart from routine teaching in form
institutionalized in service education, A teacher can make use of
multiple alternate modalities to upgrade and update knowledge and
professional skills. This can be tackled once teachers make use of
Research facilities provided by universities.
Institutional interlinking and interaction with reputed institutions
functioning every where.
Latest development from the internet
Teacher exchange and membership on professional
organizations.
Attending state sponsored formal in service education
programme.
Learning outcomes :-
Once you complete the learning of this unit you should be able to
Critically analyse the existing programmes meant for
professional development of teacher educators in our country.
Reflect on the various skills required to become a competent and
competitive teacher educator.
Explain the essential features of professionally organized in
service education programme.
Competencies and Role of Teacher Educator:
is a
Promotes
is
Uses
Competent
Teacher In an
academic
discipline
TERTIARY
EDU
Creative Develop Research
based
reflective
demonstrator
Comitted
Scholarship
Active
Participation in
National and
International
networking
Modern
Learning
Centred
Teaching and
Assessment
method Tools
177
How to develop qualities competencies :
The teacher at tertiary level is expected to play the role of
counselor, guide and humanistic provided he / she firstly involve in
the study habits like.
Self study and self improvement
It is one of the most effective tools for achieving the
professional growth. Every individual is free to choose reading
material and learning time as per once need a teacher has to remain
in touch with the latest developments and publications in the area of
interests and professional needs. Learning the treasure within are
examples of UNESCO publication of education has to be
acquainted. There are certain standard publications, research
journals, management of education teaching methodologies be read
continuously. The latest events and changes in the national and
international area be kept in mind. Thus self study leads to self
improvement by updating knowledge and professional skills from
others and develop self study habits.
In service education and training
This is one area where teachers should make utmost use of in
service education training. There is worth attending a routine,
mechanical educational in service education programme, on the
other hand In service education must be an investment ensure to
yield appropriate returns in the form of
Assessment of training needs
The effectiveness of an in service programme depends on the
appropriateness of the training content, quality of the trainers,
availability and utilization of essential support and equipments
178
randomly selected course topic will be futile. The content relevant to
the objectives of training and has the potential to meet the training
needs of the target group. A content is appropriate if it helps in
solving difficult problems related with teacher education and will
help in the teaching practice. The content should be interested and
the area be explored by conducting research be it action research or
Descriptive scientific research. Training needs be assessed by the
following manner.
Expert comments by experts / researchers attending the in
service programme
Identifying areas of teacher performance which attract large
scale public critisam
Preparation of training curriculum
While preparing curriculum during in service training
programme, adequate practical exercises should be included in the
course subject content and its pedagogy. Each major unit is to be
conducted using the distance education mode of instruction along
with IT support, the objectives to be achieved and strategies
recommended for the transaction of the unit should be identified and
an instructional model be developed to facilitate self study.
Organization of training
The Resource persons should be thoroughly oriented on the
objectives, content and methodology of training. The course material
distributed to the teachers should be made available for personal use
and reference. The physical arrangement be made appropriately.
Appraisal of training
A variety of techniques could be used to appraise the quality
of training sessions by expert evaluators, quality of curriculum
transaction in different sessions. The result of assessment should be
utilized for designing new programmes.
Study Visit :-
In order to widen the mental horizon of the teachers a visit to
institutions like NIEP / NCERT / RTE will acquaint teacher with the
progressive practices adopted by those institutions Discussion with
the subject experts will help to develop new ideas about the teacher
education.
Study circles and book clubs :-
179
In order to upgrade their professional competence the teacher
educators should seek membership in study circles and book clubs.
Latest developments, researches, current issues and problems
pertaining to teacher education.
Seminar presentation :-
Teacher education institutions need to encourage and
motivate for seminar presentations. The like minded institutions be
invited to participate. It would be useful if the theme may be
research study conducted by any teacher educator, it is an
opportunity for every teacher educator to participate in involve in
presentation.
Conferences / Seminars :-
The teacher educator can gain competency by participating
and presenting paper in seminar and conferences and sponsored by
UGC and other noted apex bodies of education. The faculty of
teacher educator institutions should collaborate to conduct The
teacher educator seminar conferences can benefit from the seminar
by exchanging new ideas from other participants.
The teacher competences be developed as suggested by
NCTE (1998)
Contextual content
Teaching learning material
Conceptual Educational activities
Management , Evaluation Working with parents
Working with community
A competent and confident teacher needs to build personal
and professional skills while competing with others at national and
international level if he / she develop.
emphasis on thoughts and broad altitudes towards students and
field of knowledge
focuses on group discussion particular Lecture Associative
discussion
Excel and enhances quality if analyses,
SWOT, Intercollgial audits, information system, quality hand
book,
180
Research is one of the most essential areas where teacher
educator should work on action research, problem solving and other
related project activity
ACTIVITY :-
1. How do you justify the prior assessment of training needs for an
in service training programme intended for teacher educator
emphasized ?
__________ ___________ ____________ ____________
___________ ___________ ____________ ____________
___________ ___________ ____________ ____________
___________ ___________ ____________ ____________
[ in about 150 words ]
2. Write down your views and opinion after attending the refresher
course.
Recommend your colleagues from different disciplines to attend
the refresher course -------------- how would you convince them?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6.7 LET US SUM UP :
In this unit we have discussed about the professional
development of a teacher educator. It obviously implies further
enrichment of teachers knowledge about theories and practices.
How a teacher educator develops competitive skill by updating
knowledge and understanding of the content, pedagogy, various
strategies for professional development, the teacher educator at
tertiary level should perform his / her role by using positive and
constructive skills, commitment to profession, in-depth learning
habits, self study attending in service Programme, The utility of
attending workshops and seminars. Presentation skills can be
developed by participating in such academic activities.
Questions for critical Reflection :-
1. What parameters do you keep in mind while teaching at tertiary
level related ICT?
2. How do you create interest and motivate students to do research
activity on their using different methods of research activity
using different methods of research?
Suggested reading :
181
Arora G.L. Panda Pranati (eds) 2001. Fifty years of teacher
education in India. Post independence development, New Delhi,
NCERT (mimeo).
Liberman (1992) Building professional culture in schools and
colleges, New York, Teachers college press.
NCTE (1998) competency based and commitment oriented,
teacher education for quality college education, New Delhi
NCTE
S.K. Singh, Role of educated, competent teacher in upliftment of
the weak students.
Quality of Higher Education A new paradigm.
182
7A
MAJOR ISSUES AND PROBLEMS OF
TEACHER EDUCATION
Unit Structure
7.A.0 Objectives
7.A.1 Introduction
7.A.2 Issues in Teacher Education
7.A.3 Problems of Teacher Education
7.A.4 Suggestions for improving the condition of Teacher
Education
7.A.5 Maintaining standards in Teacher Education
7.A.5.1 Admission Policies and Procedures for student
teachers
7.A.5.2 Recruitment of Teacher educators
7.A.6 Service conditions of Teacher Educators
7.A.6.1 Terms and Conditions of Service
7.A.7 Quality Management of Teacher Education
7.A.7.1 Concept of Quality
7.A.7.2 Characteristics of Quality
7.A.7.3 Principles of Quality
7.A.7.4 Quality in Education
7.A.7.5 Quality Management in Teacher Education
7.A.8 Let us Sum up
7.A.0 OBJECTIVES :
Know the issues and problems of teacher education.
State about the admission policies of procedures of teacher
education.
Explain about the recruitment of teacher educators.
Realize the Service condition of Teacher Educators.
Explain the terms and conditions of service.
Define quality.
183
Discuss about quality management of teacher education.
There are many problems and issues plaguing the system of
teacher education. Teacher preparation has been a subject of
discussion at all levels, from the government, ministries, regulatory
bodies, schools, to teachers themselves.
7.A.2 ISSUES IN TEACHER EDUCATION
Major issues in teacher education concern the following:
Proliferation of Colleges of Education
Isolation of Colleges of Education
Regional imbalances
Alternative modes of teacher education
Duration of teacher education programmes
Examination system
Further there are issues related to the quality of the teacher education
Curriculum
Personal and social skills
Competencies
Subject knowledge
ICT skills
Context sensitivity
New pedagogy for the global world
7.A.3 PROBLEMS OF TEACHER EDUCATION :
1. Several types of teacher education institutions thereby lacking
in uniformity.
2. Poor standards with respect to resources for colleges of
education.
3. Unhealthy financial condition of the colleges of education
4. Incompetent teacher educators resulting in deficiency of
scholars.
5. Negative attitude of managements towards development of
both human as well as material resources.
6. Uniform education policy of the government treating
excellent institutions alike.
7. Improper selection of the candidates (student teachers) to be
admitted.
184
8. Traditional curriculum and teaching methods of teaching in
the teacher education programme.
9. Inadequate duration of the teacher programme.
10.Haphazard and improper organization of teacher education.
11.Unplanned and insufficient co-curricular activities.
12.Subjective evaluation pattern.
13.Practice teaching neither adequate nor properly conducted.
14.Feedback mechanisms lacking.
15.Objectives of teacher education not understood.
16.Secondary level teacher education is not the concern of higher
education.
17.Lack of dedication towards the profession.
18.Lack of occupational perception
7.A.4 SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVING THE
CONDITION OF TEACHER EDUCATION :
There are some suggestions here for improving the condition of
teacher education:
1. Teacher education, like higher education and technical
education must be the responsibility of the central
government.
2. Uniformity among teacher education institutions must be
ensured and maintained in terms of curriculum, duration and
timings of the programme.
3. Curriculum development on a continuing basis to keep pace
with current trends.
4. Government should look after the financial requirements of
the institutions.
5. Teacher educators must be well qualified and experienced
with language proficiency.
6. Teacher educators to be trained in the use of ICTs.
7. Privatization of teacher education should be regulated.
8. Institutes of low standards should be reformed or closed.
9. Conditions for affiliation should be made strict.
10.Regular and rigorous inspection by NCTE should be done on
a regular basis.
11.Selection procedure must be improved and interviews, group
discussions along with common entrance test and marks
should be introduced.
12.Duration of teacher education should be increased to two
years.
13.More emphasis should be given on practice teaching till
mastery is reached with appropriate feedback.
185
14.Internship should be of sufficient time (six months) and
student teachers must be exposed to the full functioning of the
school.
15.Evaluation in teacher education should be objective, reliable
and valid.
16.Teacher pupil ratio should be ideally 1:8.
17.Several types of co-curricular activities should be included in
the curriculum.
18.Professional development of teacher educators as ongoing
ritual.
19.Refresher course should be organized frequently for teacher
educators.
20.Research in teacher education should be encouraged.
21.Number of teaching days to be increased to 230 per year.
7.A.5 MAINTAINING STANDARDS IN TEACHER
EDUCATION :
The two key players in teacher education are the Student
teachers and teacher educators. The selection of both is very
important for making successful teachers, who are responsible for
the education of millions across the country. These issues need to be
dealt with in details.
7.A.5.1. Admission Policies and Procedures for Student Teachers
Qualifying marks 50% at the graduate level and an entrance
exam (CET).
The candidate must have studied at least two school subjects
at the graduation level.
It is unfortunate that the teacher in the making should possess
only 50% of knowledge in the subject of his specialization. How is it
possible for such a candidate to teach concepts which perhaps they
themselves have not studied or understood? Content knowledge of
such teachers will remain poor. By adding subject mastery at the
B.Ed. level is ideal provided the duration of the B.Ed. course is
increased. An integrated B.A. B.Ed. / B.Sc. / B.Ed. / B.Com. B.Ed.
of four years duration after higher secondary is the right way to do
this.
The Common entrance Test (CET) does not really test the
candidates aptitude for teaching or attitude towards teaching. An
interview, group discussions essay writing would enable to
186
understand the readiness of the candidate as well his attitude and
communication skills.
7.A.5.2. Recruitment of Teacher Educators :
Qualifications prescribed for teaching positions in the
Regulations of NCTE are as follows:
(i) Principal / Head (in multi-faculty institution) :
a. Academic and professional qualification will be as prescribed for
the post of lecture;
b. Ph.D. in Education and.
c. Ten years teaching experience out of which at least five years
teaching experience in a Secondary Teacher Educational
Institution.
d. A minimum score as stipulated in the Academic Performance
Indicator (API) based.
Performance Based Appraisal System (PBAS) developed by UGC in
these Regulations shall be a mandatory requirement.
(ii) Assistant Professor:
(a) Foundation Courses
i) Masters Degree in Science / Humanities / arts with 50% marks
ii) M. Ed. With at least 55% marks or its equivalent grade and
iii) Any other stipulation prescribed by the UGC in the general
norms including a pass in NET/SLET/SET prescribed in these
regulations shall be mandatory
iv) A minimum score as stipulated in the Academic Performance
Indicator (API) based
OR
i) M.A. in Education with 55% marks or its equivalent grade
ii) B.Ed. with at least 55% marks and
Indicator (API) based Performance Based Appraisal System
187
(PBAS) developed by UGC in these Regulations shall be a
mandatory requirement.
(b) Methodology Courses
i) Masters degree in subject with 50% marks
ii) M. Ed. degree with at least 55% marks or its equivalent grade
and
Having obtained 55% at Master of Education level and 50%
at Masters level or 55% at M.A. Education and B.Ed. and qualified
the NET/SET exam teacher educators become eligible to apply in a
College of Education. This is followed by an interview. Success at
the interview forms the basis of appointment. Some institutions
appoint teacher educators without the NET/SET qualification,
thereby paying less salary.
Qualifications For M. Ed. Course :
(i)Professor / Head:
i) Masters Degree in Arts / Humanities / Sciences / Commerce and
M. Ed. each with a minimum of 55% marks OR M. A.
(Education) with 55% marks and B. Ed each with a minimum
of 55% marks
ii) Ph. D. in Education and
iii) At least 10 years of teaching experience in University department
of education or College of Education of which a minimum of 5
years at the M. Ed. level with published work in the area of his
specialization.
(ii) Associate Professor:
188
M. Ed. each with a minimum of 55% marks or its equivalent
grade OR M. A. (Education) and B. Ed each with a minimum of
55% marks
of education or College of Education which a minimum of 3
years at the M. Ed. level and published work in his area of
specialization.
(iii) Assistant Professor:
M. Ed. each with a minimum of 55% marks or it equivalent
55% marks
ii) Any other stipulation prescribed by the UGC in the general
iii) A minimum score as stipulated in the Academic Performance
Once again having obtained 55% at Master of Education level
and 50% at Masters level or 55% at M.A. Education and B.Ed. and
qualified the NET/SET exam teacher educators become eligible to
apply in the University Department of Education. This is followed
by an interview. Success at the interview forms the basis of
appointment.
There are many problems and issues faced by the system of
teacher education. An in depth look at them and a serious thought to
experimenting with the suggested solutions may help to bring about
a change in the system.
1. Suggest a detailed procedure for selection of students for the
B.Ed. programme.
189
2. Suggest appropriate qualifications for teacher educators at the
B.Ed. and M.Ed. levels. How can the system of teacher educator
recruitment be made more stringent?
7.A.6 SERVICE CONDITIONS OF TEACHER
EDUCATORS :
The expectations with regard to teachers role in the
education of children are very high. This in turn places high
expectations from the teacher education system. Teacher educators
working in unaided schools often face several disadvantages as
compared to aided schools. Incidents of exploitation by the
managements in terms of low salaries, no emoluments, long working
hours, no job security are plenty. The government has made attempts
to regulate the functioning of private institutions. However,
existence of mere laws is a not sufficient guarantee against teacher
exploitation. Therefore, selection procedures, probation period,
promotion, job security, emoluments and salaries, leaves and
professional development of the teacher educators need to be taken
care of.
7.A.6.1 Terms and Conditions of Service :
As per the National Council for Teacher Education, the norms
and standards for the Master of Education programme leading to
Master of Education (M.Ed.) degree terms and conditions of service
of teacher educators are:
a. The appointment shall be made on the basis of
per the policy of the UGC/Affiliating University.
190
b. All appointments are to be made on full-time and regular
basis.
c. Appointment of supporting shall be made as per the norms of
the UGC/University concerned.
d. The academic and other staff of the institution (including
part-time staff) shall be paid such salary in such scale of pay
as may be the UGC/University concerned from time to time
through account payee cheque or as per the advice into the
Bank account of the employee.
e. The management of the institution shall discharge the
statutory duties relating to pension, gratuity, provident fund,
etc. for its employees.
f. The age of superannuation of the staff shall be determined by
the policy of the concerned Government.
g. The reservation for SC/ST/OBC and other categories shall be
as per the rules of the Central Government/ State Government
Following aspects as stipulated by the UGC should be
adhered to bring transparency into the system of education and the
service conditions of the teacher educators.
The Selection Procedure: The overall selection procedure
should be transparent, objective and credible. Methodology of
analysis of the merits and credentials of the applicants should be
based on weightages given to the performance of the candidate in
different relevant dimensions and his/her performance on a scoring
system proforma, based on the Academic Performance Indicators
(API) as provided by the UGC.
In order to make the system more credible, universities may
assess the ability for teaching and/or research aptitude through a
seminar or lecture in a class room situation or discussion on the
capacity to use latest technology in teaching and research at the
interview stage.
These procedures can be followed for both direct recruitment
and for promotions under the Career Advancement Scheme (CAS)
191
wherever selection committees are prescribed in these Regulations.
UGC observer in the selection committee for the post of Associate
Professor/Professor under CAS . In all the selection Committees of
direct recruitment of teachers and other academic staff in universities
and colleges, an academician representing SC/ST/OBC/Minority/
Women/Differently-abled categories should be present to ensure
fairness.
Pay scales, designations and promotion: under CAS of Incumbent
and newly appointed assistant professors/ associate
Professors/professors
Increments: Each annual increment shall be equivalent to 3% of the
sum total of pay in the relevant Pay Band and the AGP as applicable
for the stage in the Pay Band.
Allowances: Allowances such as Leave Travel Concession, Special
Compensatory Allowances, Childrens Education Allowance,
Transport Allowance, House Rent Allowance, Deputation
Allowance, Traveling Allowance, Dearness Allowance, area based
Special Compensatory Allowance etc. as applicable to teachers has
to be given.
Duty Leave, Study Leave, Sabbatical Leave:
(i) Duty leave of the maximum of 30 days in an academic year may
be granted for: (a) Attending conferences, symposia and seminars on
behalf of the university or with the permission of the university; (b)
delivering lectures in institutions and universities at the invitation of
such institutions or universities ; (c) working in another Indian or
foreign university, any other agency, institution or organization,
when so deputed by the university; (d) participating in a delegation
or working on a committee appointed by the Government of India,
State Government, the University Grants Commission, a sister
university or any other academic body, and (e) For performing any
other duty for the university. The leave may be granted on full pay,
provided that if the teacher receives a fellowship or honorarium or
any other financial assistance beyond the amount needed for normal
expenses.
(ii) Study leave may be granted after a minimum of 3 years of
continuous service, to pursue a special line of study or research
directly related to his/her work in the university or to make a special
study of the various aspects of university organization and methods
of education. In respect of granting study leave with pay for
acquiring Ph.D. in the relevant discipline while in service, the
number of years to be put in after entry would be a minimum of two
years or the years of probation specified in the university statutes
192
concerned, keeping in mind the availability of vacant positions for
teachers and other cadres in colleges and universities, so that a
teacher and other cadres entering service without Ph.D. or higher
qualification could be encouraged to acquire these qualifications in
the relevant disciplines at the earliest rather than at a later stage of
the career.
(iii) Sabbatical leave is granted to Permanent, whole-time teachers
of the university who have completed seven years of service as
Reader/Associate Professor or Professor to undertake study or
research or other academic pursuit solely for the object of increasing
their proficiency and usefulness to the university and higher
education system. The duration of leave shall not exceed one year at
a time and two years in the entire career of a teacher. A teacher, who
has availed himself/herself of study leave, would not be entitled to
the sabbatical leave. A teacher is paid full pay and allowances during
the period of sabbatical leave along with the increment on the due
date. The period of leave is also counted as service for purposes of
pension/contributory provident fund, provided that the teacher
rejoins the university on the expiry of his/her leave.
Research Promotion Grant: The UGC or the respective funding
agency (Central/State Governments) provides a start-up grant at the
level of Rs.3.0 lakhs in Social Sciences, Humanities and Languages,
and Rs.6.0 lakhs for the disciplines in Sciences and Technology to
teachers and other non vocational academic staff through the
respective universities to take up research immediately after their
appointments which should facilitate such new appointees for
generating major sponsored research proposals/grants for the
respective departments/ schools/ universities.
Incentives For Ph.D / M.Phil and other Higher Qualification: Five
non-compounded advance increments are admissible at the entry
level of recruitment as Assistant Professor to persons possessing the
degree of Ph.D. awarded in a relevant discipline by the University
following the process of admission, registration, course work and
external evaluation as prescribed by the UGC. M.Phil. degree
holders at the time of recruitment to the post of Assistant Professor
shall be entitled to two non-compounded advance increments.
Teachers who complete their Ph.D. Degree while in service shall be
entitled to 3 noncompounded increments if such Ph.D. is in a
relevant discipline of the employment and has been awarded by a
University complying with the process prescribed by the UGC for
enrolment, course work and evaluation, etc. Teachers who acquire
M.Phil. Degree or a post graduate degree in a professional course
193
recognized by the relevant statutory Body/Council, while in service,
shall be entitled to one advance increment.
The government has made attempts to regulate the
functioning of private institutions. However, existence of mere laws
is not sufficient guarantee against teacher exploitation. Therefore,
selection procedures, probation period, promotion, job security,
emoluments and salaries, leaves and professional development of the
teacher educators need to be taken care of. UGC has stipulated in all
these aspects. It is important that they are followed in spirit and
action leading to a satisfied faculty.
1. Under what conditions can duty leave be availed of?
2. Analyze the incentives given to teachers to work towards their
professional development?
194
7.A.7 QUALITY MANAGEMENT OF TEACHER
EDUCATION :
According to Jan D. Timmer quality is a state of mindthe
relentless pursuit of excellence, of never being satisfied with what
you do, how you do it and how quickly you do it. There is always
room for improvement. Everything can always be done better.
Quality should be a part of our soul. Quality is perceived differently
by different people. Quality is not something that is bestowed by
others, it is attained and maintained as a result of ceaseless efforts.
Quality of a product may be good for one but not for another
because it does not serve the purpose.
7.A.7.1 Concept of Quality :
Quality refers to basic and essential character, the
distinguishing element or characteristic of a product, service,
organization or entity. Consumers look at these elements in deciding
whether or not to buy particular products or services.
According to Bennis (1993) Quality often is not measured at
all, but is appreciated intuitively. Ones response to quality is a
feeling, a perception that is connected intimately with our experience
of meaning, beauty and values in our lives.
Quality has been defined by several management experts. The
dictionary meaning of quality is the degree of excellence. Juran
says quality is fitness of purpose i.e. something is of good quality
if it satisfies ones need. Deming is of the opinion that quality is a
positive concept. Product or service which helps someone and
enjoys good sustainable markets is of good quality. According to
Crosby if a product or service conforms to requirements then it is
said to be of good quality. Seymour opines that quality is
continuous improvement.
Quality and excellence are often used synonymously. In a
sense, they trigger the same response when they are experienced.
Gardener (1961), who wrote a seminal book on excellence, makes
the point that there are many kinds of excellenceacademic,
professional, artistic, athletic and so on. Some form of excellence is
fostered through education, some is not; some kind of excellence
leads to worldly success, some does not; some form of excellence
involves becoming while some involves being, excellence involves
comparison, either with others or with oneself; excellence indicates
action (it does not just happen) and requires the exercise of human
will. That explains the frequently used expressionsthe pursuit of
excellence and the quest for quality. There can be poor quality, but
not poor excellence.
195
In recent times some themes have become more significant
including quality culture, the importance of knowledge management,
and the role of leadership in promoting and achieving high quality.
Disciplines like systems thinking are bringing more holistic
approaches to quality so that people, process and products are
considered together rather than independent factors in quality
management. The influence of quality thinking has spread to nontraditional
applications i.e. manufacturing, to service sectors such
as hospitality, transport, and even education.
Customers recognize that quality is an important attribute in
products and services. Suppliers recognize that quality can be an
important differentiator between their own offerings and those of
competitors. Applying this to the field of education, the customers
of education, the students, parents and future employers recognize
the importance of quality students i.e. the products of the system. In
this sense the different educational institutions must provide the best
of courses, and training in order to meet the demands of the students
and future employers and try to give better opportunities than other
competing institutions. From this discussion it is possible to identify
certain characteristic of quality.
7.A.7.2 Characteristics of Quality :
Quality is a matter of perception, not logic. It is the perception
that resides outside the product, service or organization. Peter
Drucker (1990) says the results of an organization are always
outside the organisation. Inside, there are only costs. The result
of a business is a satisfied customer, the result of a hospital is a
healed patients and the result of an educational institution is a
student who has something of value which he/she can use ten
years later. Thus, quality is perceived by the consumer.
Quality is relative and not absolute: It is a matter of degree.
Theoretically, there are no maximum or minimum limits. Quality
improvement, like pursuit of excellence, is a journey without a
destination. There is nothing that cannot be little better in some
way or the other.
Quality is subjective: The criteria for judging quality can be
substantially different from people to people, based on
experience, values and culture.
Quality is a contextual idea: Indicators of quality are institution
specific. A high rate of job placement of graduates is a legitimate
indicator of quality for vocational-technical-professional
196
education programmes, but would not hold for humanities and
liberal arts education. Each institution has a mission, a clear
understanding of what it is, why it exists and what its primary
obligation is. All functions and activities are informed by this
mission. Assessment of performance and quality are valid only in
terms of mission and goals.
Quality can be measured inferentially: Like intelligence,
motivation, attitude and other educational outcomes indicators of
quality are established that serve as a basis of measurement.
Quality is attainable: quality is not something that is bestowed
by others it is attained and maintained as a result of ceaseless
striving (Sapre 1999)
Quality is applicable to the system and its parts: Quality is
applied to each component of a system i.e. input-process-output.
7.A.7.3 Principles of Quality :
Quality management adopts a number of management
principles that can be used by upper management to guide their
organizations towards improved performance. The principles are:
Customer focus
Leadership
Involvement of people
Process approach
System approach to management
Continual improvement
Factual approach to decision making
Mutually beneficial supplier relationships
1) Define quality. Explain the characteristics of quality.
197
2) Apply the quality principle to education.
7.A.7.4 Quality in Education :
Quality has become a defining element of education in the
21st century in the context of new social realities. The information
communication revolution, the knowledge economy and
globalization are greatly influencing the next society.
How to provide quality education to large numbers at
affordable costs is the primary concern of developing countries.
Quality makes education as much socially relevant as it is
personally indispensible to the individuals. In this sense quality
becomes the defining element of education. In this context, quality
and excellence should be the vision of every higher education
institution including teacher education. Acquisition of quality and
excellence is the great challenge faced by all higher education
institutions.
7.A.7.5 Quality Management in Teacher Education :
Applied to the field of Teacher Education, quality refers to
the totality of features and characteristics of the student teacher
acquired as a result of the teachers education programme. If the
expectations of the schools, students, parents and the society are met
that indicates that the right type of teachers have been prepared by
the teacher education institutions. And if the teachers continue to
improve themselves then there is value addition in education
(Feigenbaum, 1951). Such teachers will continue to meet the needs
of the society. There is fitness of educational outcome and
experience for use (Juran and Gryna 1988). There will be defect
avoidance in education process (Crosby 1979) of teachers in a
quality teacher education institution.
In any educational institution there are three aspects to be
managed-academic, administrative and financial. Besides these there
198
are the human and physical resources to be managed to their
optimum level. In other words management of input-processproduct
is of utmost concern of the system of teacher education. If
every component is of good quality then the final product i.e. the
teacher will be perceived as fulfilling the needs of the consumers.
Quality in teacher education can be indicated by the
educatedness of the products of the institution i.e. the student
teachers. Quality teachers are indicated by their educatedness
that they have achieved through their education and training.
The teachers are well informed and possess knowledge about
facts figures, concepts in their subjects. They are cultured and
possess integrated personality which is warm, empathetic and
ethical. One level ahead of being cultured is emancipation
wherein teachers are individuals who rise above the known
artificial boundaries of religion, caste, creed, gender, linguistic
and geographic belongingness, social mores, cultural traditions
and forms and treat their students fairly. Finally, teachers
should achieve the best of potential already in them. However, if
the following questions are answered by the educational
institutions in general they will be able to achieve quality.
1. What key outcomes have we achieved?
2. How well do we meet the needs of our stakeholders?
3. How good is our delivery of education processes?
4. How good is our management?
5. How good is our leadership?
6. What is our capacity for improvement?
Quality Indicators for Teacher Education (NAAC)
Curriculum Design and Planning
Curriculum Transaction and Evaluation
Research, Development and Extension
Infrastructure and Learning Resources
Student Support and Progression
Organisation and Management
organization or entity. Quality is a matter of perception, it is relative,
199
subjective, attainable, measured inferentially, and is applicable to the
system and its parts. Providing quality education to large numbers at
affordable costs is the primary concern of developing countries. If
the expectations of the schools, students, parents and the society are
met that indicates that the right type of teachers have been prepared
by the teacher education institutions to impart quality education. The
three aspects to be managed are academic, administrative and
financial as well as the human and physical resources. In other
words management of input-process-product is of utmost concern of
the system of teacher education.
1. Identify some aspects of your institution that need to improve.
Apply the principles of quality management to improve those
aspects.
2. Elaborate the quality indicators for teacher education.
3. What are the indicators of a quality teacher?
200
In this unit, we have discussed some of the issues & problems
of Teacher Education. We also have discussed how to improve upon
these conditions. Maintaining standards of teacher education is
possible by following proper admission procedures & proper
recruitment of teacher educators. We can manage & maintain
quality in teacher education by following the quality indicators given
by NAAC.
References :
1. Norms and Standards for Bachelor of Education and Master of
Education UGC/NCTE website. Accessed in 2008.
2. University Grants Commission (1990) Towards New Educational
Management New Delhi UGC.
3. NCTE Website
4. UGC Website
5. Paul H. Selden (December 1998). "Sales Process Engineering:
An Emerging Quality Application". Quality Progress: 5963.
6. Mukhopadhaya M. (2007) Quality Management of Schools, New
Delhi, NIEPA
7. Menon Mohan, K. Rama, T. K. S. Lakshmi and Vasant D. Bhat
(Edrs) (2007) Quality Indicators for Teacher Education,
Bangalore, National Assessment and Accreditation Council
(NAAC), India and the Commonwealth of Learning (COL),
Canada.
8. Thareja P (2008), "Total Quality Organization Thru People,
Each one is Capable", FOUNDRY, Vol. XX, No. 4, July/Aug
2008
9. http://unstats.un.org/unsd/dnss/QAF_comments/Object%20Orien
ted%20Quality%20Management.pdf.
http://ssrn.com/abstract=1488690
10.Web: http://www.naacindia.org and http://www.col.org.
201
11.Wikipedia accessed in June 2010.
7B
PRIVATIZATION, GLOBALIZATION AND
AUTONOMY IN TEACHER EDUCATION
Unit Structure :
7.B.0 Objectives
7.B.1 Introduction
7.B.2 Privatisation
7.B.2.1 Concept of Privatisation
7.B.2.2 Education and Privatisation
7.B.2.3 Need for Privatisation
7.B.2.4 Advantages of Privatisation
7.B.2.5 Fears in Privatisation
7.B.3 Globalisation
7.B.3.1 Concept of Globalisation
7.B.3.2 Features of Globalisation
7.B.3.3 Global Education
7.B.3.4 Professionalizing the teacher and teacher education
for global world
7.B.4 Autonomy in teacher education
7.B.4.1 Concept of Autonomy
7.B.4.2 Autonomy in Education
7.B.4.3 Need for Autonomy
7.B.4.4 Types of Autonomy
7.B.4.5 Challenges before autonomous institutions
7.B.4.6 Factors conducive for Autonomy
7.B.4.7 Problems faced by institutions for Autonomy
7.B.4.8 Apprehensions about Autonomy
7.B.5 Let us sum up
202
7.B.0 OBJECTIVES :
Define Privatisation, globalization and autonomy.
Define autonomy.
Explain the need of autonomy and challenges before autonomous
institutions.
Explain the concept of privatisation, globalization and autonomy
with reference to teacher education.
7.B.1 INTRODUCTION :
At the time of independence India declared itself as a socialist
democratic state. Public sector undertakings were initiated and
developed to provide for all and usher India towards development.
But the nineteen eighties witnessed disillusion with socialist
economies which led to dissatisfaction with the public sectors.
Education too was considered as a public good and the government
set up institutions just as other public enterprises, which provided
education to the masses. With passage of time these institutions
became inefficient.
As a reaction to the inefficient working of the state owned
enterprises, the wave of privatization has spread all over the world,
including India. What was needed were economic reforms and the
idea of privatization was seen as panacea to all the problems. India
too could not remain unaffected and the wave of privatization has
influenced education sector.
7.B.2 PRIVATIZATION :
7.B.2.1 Concept of Privatization :
Privatization connotes a wide range of ideas. Privatization
implies induction of private ownership, management and control of
organizations. Privatization can imply deregulation meaning thereby
lesser control of the government. It refers to expansion of private
sector and reduction of public sector. It also means that areas
reserved for the public sector will be opened to the private sector.
The shift towards privatization reduces the role of the government
and increases the role of the private, cooperative and local
203
government. The areas of shift are mainly decision making and
responsibility of money and administration.
7.B.2.2 Education and Privatisation :
Applied to the education sector, privatization can be seen as
part of the wider reform of the public sector. Education is both a
private and social investment. It is therefore the responsibility of
both the individual including the student, his family and even his
employers and the society which includes the community and the
state. The areas of shift in the education sector are mainly decision
and responsibility of money, administration and a relevant
curriculum of high quality.
Privatization is management by private sector with total
absence of government intervention. Such institutions generate their
own funds through higher fees, user charges and full use of
resources. They survive on the philosophy that they do not have to
pay for those who can pay.
Privatization of higher education has emerged in several forms
and types in the recent decade in India.
1. Privatization within government higher education institutions
takes place in the form of introducing self-financing courses
within government institutions.
2. Converting government aided private institution in to private self
financing institution.
3. Allowing to expand self financing private institution with
recognition and also without recognition, which may be termed
as commercial private higher education institutions.
1) What is privatization?
2) Explain privatization of higher education.
204
7.B.2.3 Factors Responsible for Privatization of Higher
Education
(Need for Privatization) :
1. Need for competitive efficiency: Main justification for
privatization rests heavily on the grounds of efficiency to
promote a more competitive economic environment. Operation
of public sector enterprises is considered inefficient. It is
believed that private ownership and control are more efficient in
terms of resource allocation and work.
2. Growth in population: India has a population of nearly one
hundred and seven cores.In order to provide to a large number of
people more private institutions are needed. To fulfill the demand
for higher education of young people in the country privatization
of higher education is needed.
3. Financial burden on government: Higher education in India is
in financial stress. The state/government can no longer bear the
financial burden of public enterprises. Current spending on
education in India is not more than 3.5% of GDP. The center
itself concedes that the minimum should be 6%. Very little is
being spent on higher education. This compares unfavorably with
the international level, especially when compared with countries
such as South Africa, which invests eight per cent of GNP on
education. Therefore there is a need to evolve policy through
which private resources are mobilized.
4. Education is an Economic good: Education is no more being as
a social service but as a necessary economic input. Investment in
education is treated as a factor contributing to the development of
human resources. In this effort private initiative can help since
the private sector is the beneficiary of the knowledge industry.
5. Quest for Quality: Private institutions do not require long
procedures for procurement of human as well as material
resources. In order to purchase and maintain good qualitative
205
infrastructure and equipment like furniture, buildings, different
types of laboratories and qualified and competent academic staff,
who can be paid as per the demand, there is a need for
privatization.
6. Rapid growth of school education: Growing number of schools
naturally pushed the demand higher education which the
government is not able to provide, therefore demand for
privatization of higher education is the need of the hour.
7. Fulfilling the need for skilled manpower: There is very little
initiative from the public sector due to limited freedom. Private
institutions are free to initiate modern and advanced courses in
order to fulfill the demand for subjects which facilitate economic
development of the nation. The demands of the market and the
times can be fulfilled. For this privatization is needed.
8. Curtailment of corruption: In order to control the corruption in
the government sector, private sector is much needed.
Privatization stops the corruption to some extent and brings about
some discipline. As a result there will be capacity utilization.
9. Desire for more autonomy: Privatization of higher education
will provide autonomy to institutions and there will be less
dependency on the government. This will remove political
interference in areas of administration, management and finance.
10.Synergy for information based economy: In the present times
there is a need for interaction between UGC, academic
institutions of higher learning, industry, R&D institutions and
funding agencies. This could be achieved by a synergy process
wherein they will be partners in various activities,
complementing each other in reaching their visions, objectives
and goals. This can be achieved through private participation.
11.Technological developments: Information revolution has been
brought about and strengthened due to technological
developments such as microchips, genetics, communications,
robots, lasers, growth of satellite TV and computer technologies.
Due to limited resources public sector cannot meet the demands
of the industry and other sectors of economy. Thus private sector
should undertake to train manpower in technology and respond to
market demands.
206
12.Greater responsibility with the recipients of education: Over the
years education has been considered as a free public good
thereby devaluing education. Privatization of education where
the recipient will bear the full cost will help bring greater
responsibility in them. As a consequence, students are likely to
demand greater efficiency and quality in teaching.
1) What are the factors responsible for privatization of higher
education?
7.B.2.4 Advantages of Privatization :
Privatization will enhance:
Decentralization and debureaucratization of educational
institutions.
Initiatives in educational reforms.
Innovativeness in teaching and evaluation.
Tailor made services and provision of wide choice of courses and
subjects to students.
Competition.
Quality education and training.
Shaping of the curriculum according to global, national and local
needs.
Availability and better maintenance of resources
transparency in all procedures.
Fulfill the need of the country in liberalization, privatization, and
globalization.
Utility of human and physical resources in proper way.
7.B.4.5 Fears in Privatization :
207
Privatizing education
Will badly affect the poor
Undermine equity, diversity and openness
Does not address issues of equality, fairness and responsibility
Exorbitant fees will deprive many of availing education
Accountability problem will arise
Courses in humanities and social sciences will be sidelined due
to no economic gain
Civic and democratic values may not get passed down
Apprehensions about job security and retrenchment of staff
Cost saving will lead cost cutting
Collected funds may be misused by the owners
Favoritism towards family members and friends
Benefits remain un proven
1) What are the advantages of privatization of higher education?
2) Why is privatization of higher education feared?
Privatization is essentially deregulation meaning thereby
lesser control of the government. Private institutions generate their
resources. Need for privatization arose due to governments
inability to financially support higher education and provide efficient
and effective education to its young population. While there are
208
many advantages of privatization, at the same time there are many
obvious fears which put privatization at a disadvantaged position.
7.B.3 GLOBALIZATION :
The closing decade of 20th century saw major social, political
and economic transformations on a global level. The developments,
combined with increasingly rapid advances in the nature of and
impact of information and communication technologies have had a
powerful influence on all nations, societies and cultures worldwide.
All this has intensified globalization.
7.B.3.1 Concept of Globalization :
Globalization is a much talked about term today and has
become a phenomena, which is greatly affecting the society in
general and different nations in particular. Globalization is the
integration of economic, political and cultural systems and trends
across the world for economic growth, prosperity and democratic
freedom. It pursues liberal or free market policies in world economy
for economic liberalization. It aims at realizing one single unified
world community where no social conflicts exist calling for social
and cultural integration.
Globalization entails privatization and marketization of
economic and political structures in which ability of the state to
control all the activities within its borders is becoming limited.
Simply put, globalization in fact is a combination of free exchange
of goods services and capital.
Globalization is the tendency of any entity, activity, and
technology to acquire a dimension that grows beyond any frontier
that would be imposed by such criteria as geography, religion,
gender, age and the like. Anything or anybody can have a worldwide
impact. Globalization seeks to deal with relations that go beyond the
confines of the nation state or country boundaries.
Historically globalization dates back to the international trade
in the middle ages. During the second half of the 19th century it was
highlighted by the Industrial Revolution as result of colonial
exploitation. The continuous modernization of the international
exchange process during the 20th century and its ramifications
during the international agreements, for example The General
Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT) have maintained and given
pace to increasing globalization of the society.
209
However, in the past few years there has been acceleration in
this trend. This acceleration can be characterized by three essential
factors:
1. Extent of economic trend which is spreading world wide
2. Increase in technological innovations especially in the areas of
communication and transportation and
3. Interdependence between people and nations.
Contemporary social theorists and analysts David Harvey
(1989, 1999), Giddens (1990), Held, Mcgraw, GoldBlatt and
Perraton (1999) also associate globalization with three aspects.
Detritorization which has increased possibilities for action
between and among people where geographical space is immaterial
to social and economic activity. E-commerce and television allow
people situated anywhere to do business and see the impact of war,
famine, floods, fire and accidents.
Interconnectedness can be seen as distant events, forces and
decisions impacting local and regional endeavors through exchange
of ideas in cyber space through the internet. Interconnectedness also
creates feelings for humanity.
Speed and Velocity of social and economic activity has been
largely due to proliferation of high speed transportation,
communication and information technologies which have blurred all
boundaries, geographical and territorial as well as social and
economic. Movement of people, information, capital and goods is at
amazing speed.
There are two contradictory emerged as a result of
globalization, standardization and diversification. Standardization of
eating habits, clothing, lifestyles, communication, language tend to
produce similarities in living conditions of societies. On the other
hand diversification strives to preserve the multi facets of the society
by promoting access to diverse features of the world heritage. There
is a great desire in people to preserve, defend and protect their
cultural identities and thereby promoting a resistance to uniformity.
7.B.3.2 Features of Globalization :

Growth of transnational corporations and multinational
corporations/organizations.
International division of labor.
210
Encouragement of markets rather than government central
planning.
Growth of offshore finance and telecommunication that can link
banks, stock markets, companies and organizations together in a
global network.
Increasing migration of peoples within and across national
boundaries in search of work.
The growth of media by satellite that ensures programs to be
beamed across the globe regardless of national boundaries.
Growth of national and international Non-Governmental
Organization (NGOs).
7.B.3.3 Global Education :
The purpose of globalization and global education is to
develop a global perspective and sensitize the youth for
understanding the multicultural world and maintaining peace and
harmony in the world. People in general and the youth in particular
has to be aware of the global happenings and issues and the
interdependence of people.
Global perspective means sharing and cooperation with
others allowing them to use whatever resources are available to
attain individual as well as common goals. Further, empathy towards
others, i.e. understanding and sharing feelings, communication
ability in order to express and exchange thoughts, feelings and
information and resolving conflicts by finding satisfactory ways of
dealing with disagreement or argument between people, groups,
societies or nations.
7.B.3.4 Professionalizing the Teacher and Teacher Education for
Global World :
There are many challenges before the teaching profession.
Firstly, teachers need to radically adapt to the new skills, techniques,
methods and demands and secondly a change in the mind set to take
up new responsibilities. It is only then that the teacher can be
professionalized.
Teaching is a profession with competing demands. In spite of
a high demand for teachers the profession has not attracted the best
with adequate qualifications, training and desire the world over. As
such, the following steps will help in professionalize the profession
and the teacher.
211
No devaluing of teacher functions
Good salaries
Good working conditions
Flexible hours
Individualized training to meet the needs of heterogeneous group
of teachers catering to heterogeneous students.
Constant training in use of new methods of teaching, counseling,
meeting curricular demands, computers, finding and interpreting
information
Autonomy to teachers in classroom management, teaching
strategies, arrangement of furniture and work spaces,
Standardize the skills and their certification, to be acquired by a
teacher enabling it to be used world over.
In order to prepare the new age teachers the system of teacher
education has to adapt to and adopt new challenges faced by the
system. Systemic changes have to be made to prepare the global
teacher. These could be in the form of infrastructure, facilities,
selection, recruitment and retention of competent human resources,
adopting and training in new technologies, and upgrading the
curriculum.
Globalization is the integration of economic, political and
cultural systems and trends across the world for economic growth,
prosperity and democratic freedom. It pursues liberal or free market
policies in world economy for economic liberalization. Acceleration
in this trend can be characterized by three essential factors,
economic activity spreading worldwide, increase in technological
innovations especially in the areas of communication and
transportation and interdependence between people and nations.
Globalization can be associated with three aspects, deterritorization,
interconnectedness and speed and velocity. Globalization has also
resulted in the emergence of two contradictory phenomena,
standardization and diversification.
1. Explain the concept of globalization. What are its key features?
212
2. How can teacher education help to professionalize the teacher
due to global demands?
7.B.4 AUTONOMY IN TEACHER EDUCATION :
The system of higher education in India is one of the largest
in the world and is continuing to expand. Many universities are
burdened with unmanageable number of affiliated colleges, because
of which many of the reputed universities and colleges have lost
their eminent positions. Only a few manage to maintain their status
and dignity in an environment of complex socio-economic pressures
and worldwide changes in approaches to the educational process.
In the Tenth Plan the University Grants Commission (UGC)
indicated a vision for higher education making it more flexible in
diversity of programmes, in its structure, its curricula in its delivery
systems and in its use of innovative use of information and
communication technologies. It was proposed to identify colleges
and universities with potential and fund them for achieving
excellence in teaching and research with greater academic,
administrative and financial autonomy. It was thought that delinking
colleges from affiliating universities would give them academic and
operative freedom as well as credibility.
As a result the question of autonomy has recently received
considerate attention in the main stream education. Autonomy is
thus considered as an important tool for quality improvement of
213
education. Successful implementation of the concept requires willing
and honest participation of students, teachers and management in the
educational process and their openness for scrutiny and audit.
Besides, dependence on UGC or the State institutions also require
some financial autonomy to mobilize resources.
7.B.4.1 Concept of Autonomy :
Autonomy is an attitude of the mind which can be equated
with critical intelligence, independent mindedness, a determination
and think things out for one self. Autonomy consists of ones own
independent judgments freely choosing among alternatives and
governing ones own action and attitudes in the light of ones own
thinking.
Etymologically, there are two features of autonomy viz. the
nature of self i.e. autos and the kind of norm and rule nomos.
Put together autonomy would thus mean adopting for oneself self
norms self governance and responsibility. Autonomy thus
introduces the idea of self direction as well as recognition of norms
or principles with which the autonomous person governs himself.
Autonomy therefore, essentially means the relative independence of
an individual in guiding and regulating his or her own conduct
without any external control.
Autonomy or freedom is accompanied by accountability.
Autonomy means accountability to stakeholders and society.
Therefore, it is important to strike a balance between stakeholders
needs, societal demands and institutional autonomy.
7.B.4.2 Autonomy in Education :
The concept of autonomy in education is a structural solution
intended to provide an enabling environment to improve and
strengthen the teaching learning process. Autonomy is the
unrestrained freedom of action within the established norms of the
institution. In the field of education the feeling of freedom percolates
to the each and every academic unit, creating in teachers and
students a sense of involvement in the pursuit of learning. Teachers
in colleges and departments are then to actively be associated with
four fundamental questions of what to teach, how to teach, whom to
teach and how to evaluate?
In education autonomy can relate to budgets, appointments,
students intake, curriculum, degrees awarded, quality of teaching
and research. Autonomy provides an enabling environment, to
214
improve and strengthen teaching-learning process. A decentralized
management culture can encourage autonomy within the
environment. However, no institution can have effective institutional
or academic autonomy without financial autonomy.
1) Explain the concept of autonomy.
2) What is autonomy in education?
7.B.4.3 Need for Autonomy :
These days some of the universities in India are too large and
have many affiliating colleges. Managing its own post graduate
courses, teaching and research is getting difficult by the day.
Managing the colleges, conducting number of exams, declaring
results and certification has become unwieldy.
The colleges, on the hand feel restricted in developing
themselves due to lack of freedom. They feel that too many controls
only hinder in their development.
It is also observed that same regulations govern all colleges
irrespective of their performance or non performance, management
215
or mismanagement, regularities or irregularities. The colleges which
are doing well face the same appraisal.
Academic freedom of teachers too is affected. University
bodies decide the curriculum, its transaction as well as evaluation
without consideration of the needs and aspirations of the students
residing in different parts of the city. The teachers in an institution
are too occupied completing what is mandated by the university and
are not motivated to give beyond the minimum requirements.
7.B.4.4 Types of Autonomy :
Essentially there are two types of autonomy or two levels of
autonomy.
1. Autonomy at individual level (individual autonomy)
2. Autonomy at the institutional level (institutional autonomy)
Individual Autonomy incorporates autonomy to be given to its
academics and its students to pursue knowledge. The teacher
(academic) is given freedom to learn and the freedom to teach i.e.
operational freedom to develop and innovate different methods and
styles of teaching, research testing and evaluation.
Role of teacher changes as they develop capacity to acquire
knowledge through continuous inputs and feedback. This implies
professional freedom for self directed teaching and self directed
learning. The student is given the freedom to choose courses which
they think would help them grow, are of interest to them and
students have the ability and capacity to pursue.
Institutional Autonomy implies freedom of operation to universities
and colleges. The universities and colleges have the freedom to
determine their own policies and programmes. University is a
community of teachers, students and researchers committed to
communication and advancement of knowledge. University
autonomy is governance of the university by the stakeholders
without any interference from any outside agency be it the
government (bureaucracy) or political parties. College autonomy
means that the principal, teachers, students are in charge of
admissions, curriculum, teaching-learning, exams and appointmentssubject
to university control. Autonomy can be of departments of
universities or a college or of a teacher.
216
An Autonomous institution/university/college requires three
types of autonomy
1. Administrative autonomy implies recruitment of staff both
academic and non-academic, appointment of examiners,
admissions of students.
2. Academic autonomy answers four questions- a) What to teach?
b) How to teach? c)Whom to teach and d) How to evaluate? Each
institution will have its own Board of Studies, Academic Council
and the Management Council.
3. Financial autonomy involves generating money for its operation
through fees, endowments, consultations, courses, using
premises. Further spending for its operations the institution will
have complete freedom.
Autonomy envisages two-pronged liberation for universities
and colleges, specially in the affiliating system. One, liberating the
universities from the burden of conducting examinations for lakhs of
students and their certification. In this process universities do not
discharge their main functions of teaching, learning and research and
giving academic and administrative leadership in higher education.
In the autonomous system the process and programmes of testing,
evaluation, grading and certification will be the portfolio of colleges
and universities are relieved of these responsibilities for autonomous
colleges. Second, autonomy also liberates colleges from excessive,
minute, oppressive control of the universities and allows freedom to
chalk out their plan of action including course, curriculum and
examination management, subject to of course overall supervision
and control of the universities.
The basic philosophy is that when a person or group is free
and autonomous, is more efficient than a person or group which is
controlled. Of course one has to be responsible and accountable for
its actions but there is no interference in the day-to-day functioning
of the individual or the group.
1) Describe the types of autonomy.
217
2) Why is autonomy liberating?
7.B.4.5 Challenges Before Autonomous Institutions :
Running an autonomous institution is challenging and
problematic.
Survival depends on achievement. This is the same as free
market economy, where there is greater productivity than in
controlled economy
Students placement and employability helps institutions achieve.
Autonomous institution has to be its own policy formulator.
It has to match declared objectives and performance.
It has to ensure coordination of teachers for qualitative
improvement through professionalism.
Autonomous institution to take steps towards excelling in
innovations in syllabi and curriculum
achieve larger number of teaching days
better regularity of teachers and classes
Objective evaluation-frequently conducted and expeditiously
conducted.
Will support teachers academic freedom
7.B.4.6 Factors Conducive for Autonomy :
For an institution to be autonomous the social and political
discipline, national consensus and new work ethos is important.
There should be no political and bureaucratic interference.
Functional independence has to be given. Government /UGC should
appoint expert committee to review state of affairs. University
nominees can be appointed on monitoring cell to give feedback to
218
autonomous institutions. External assessment and accreditation to
monitor for periodical review will help to improve the institution.
The institutions seeking autonomy should have clarity of
objectives of autonomy and aim of academic growth. They must
have improved infrastructural facilities and amenities. Well defined
measures of performance should be in place. Each autonomous
institution/college is to have its own Board of Studies, Academic
Committees, Governing Council. The management should be less
top heavy and Principals should have full freedom to function. The
board of management should have members from faculty, and expert
educationalists.
Focus should be on redesigning of high quality courses,
preparation of learning material, workshops, seminars, and
examination reforms. Curriculum and new courses should be need
based from the point of view of students, and the society. There
should be vocational courses leading to employability.
Parents, students, teachers should be educated on the merits
of autonomous institutions. Separate orientation course for
explaining the approach to autonomy should be held.
Teachers should be mentally prepared for this organizational
and academic change as it entails extra efforts and accountability.
Teachers are to have a respected status. Competent and devoted
teachers who are motivated, sensitized, understanding to be given
incentives for assistance in new courses, research, teaching, pursuing
excellence, teacher exchange.
1) What are the challenges in adopting autonomy?
2) What are the factors responsible for an autonomous institution?
219
7.B.4.7 Problems faced by Institutions for Autonomy :
No complete financial autonomy because the government
through UGC gives grants, so spending has to be incurred with
approval of government / university / UGC. Besides, budget
finalization committees, utilization certificates, audited accounts, are
looked by same committees causing external delays.
No full academic freedom because of the relationship
between university-government, university-colleges, universitycolleges-affiliation.
There is no freedom with regard to what to
teach, how to teach, and how to evaluate. There is fear that syllabus
will get diluted, wasted working days, prolonged examination,
distribution of bogus marks and mercy chances to undeserving will
become the norm.
No full administrative freedom because if the
Government/UGC finance then the Government/UGC nominees are
appointed to tell how to govern, state policies, and governance takes
place from the top.
7.B.4.8 Apprehensions about Autonomy :
UGCs offerings are too low and there are few takers of
autonomy. As such the progress is slow. State government is not
enthusiastic to let go control (abandon) good colleges. Universities
are indifferent and not encourage the schemes. Teachers too are not
prepared to accept challenge of independent functioning and take
additional work and accountability. They want to play safe and
maintain status quo. Due to negative experiences, and bitter feelings,
they are reluctant and think that managements will become stronger
and autocratic. It is assumed that there is no way to check
malpractices by managements especially financial matters.
The non-government institutions are confused and lack clarity
about the scheme of autonomy. There is paucity of resources. There
are no indigenous models available for autonomy. Only foreign
models and theories are available, which may or may not work in
Indian conditions. Operational difficulties will thus be a hindrance in
the smooth functioning of the institution. Finally, social attitude
220
towards autonomy is such that public wants university stamp on
the degrees.
All these apprehensions are due to lack of knowledge and
ignorance about autonomy. Pros and cons of the scheme and its
influence on quality of teaching-learning, teacher, students and
administrators of the college is not understood fully. Malpractices in
exam and admissions are feared.
It is also felt that autonomous colleges will promote elitism
and there will be accessibility to rich. Autonomy will be misused by
colleges for admission and evaluation leading to corruption.
Teachers and students will be victimized and administrators will use
power to penalize teachers arbitrarily. Teachers service conditions
will be affected, affecting job security, work load.
1) State at least five apprehensions for acceptance of autonomy.
The idea of autonomy of higher education institutions is
considered to be a step in the right direction. In education autonomy
can relate to budgets, appointments, students intake, curriculum,
degrees awarded, quality of teaching and research. Autonomy
provides an enabling environment, to improve and strengthen
teaching-learning process. Autonomy can be at the individual and
institutional level including three types of autonomy-academic,
administrative and financial. However, there are many challenges
before autonomous institutions and many are apprehensive about its
efficiency and effectiveness.
In this unit, we have discussed Privatisation, its need,
advantages and fear, globalization, its features and how to
professionalising the teacher and teacher education for global world.
We have also discussed about autonomy, its need and challenges
before autonomous institutions. Its uses and misuses in the field of
221
teacher education is to be analysed and care should be taken for
effective development in teacher education.
1. Explain the concept of privatization of higher education. Why is
privatization needed in education?
2. Discuss the pros and cons of privatization.
3. What is the concept of autonomy? What are the challenge faced
by educational institutions wanting to get autonomy from the
university?
4. How can autonomy help the affiliated colleges?
Suggested References :
1. Powar, K.B. and Johar, K.L.: Private Initiatives in Higher
Education.
2. Tilak, J.B.G.: The Challenging Concerns in Economics of
Indian Education in Perspectives in Education Vol. 17, 2001.
3. Hallak, Jacques Globalization and its Impact on Education. In
Mebrahtu. T Crossley. M. Johnson, D, (2000). Globalization
Educational Transformation and Societies in Transition (U.K.:
Symposium Books).
4. Harvey, David (1996) Justice, Nature, and the Geography of
Difference (Oxford, UK: Blackwell).
5. Held, David, McGrew, Anthony, Goldblatt, David, and Perraton,
Jonathan (1999), Global Transformations: Politics, Economics
and Culture (Stanford: Stanford university Press)
6. Scholte, Jan Art (19960 Beyond the Buzzword: Towards a
Critical Theory of Globalization, in Eleonore Kofman and
Gillians Young (ed) Globalization: Theory and Practice
(London: Pinter).
7. Tomlinson, John (1999), Globalization and Culture (Cambridge,
UK: Polity Press)
222
8. Global Transformations website (maintained by David Held,
Political Science, London School of Economics, and Anthony
McGrew, International Relations, Southampton University)
9. The Globalization Website, maintained by Frank Lechner (Emory
University)
10. http://www.bavside.sd63.bc.ca/home/rcoulson/globaled/perspecti
ve. html (accessed on 27.08.2004)
11.Palamattan V.P. : Autonomy: A Structural Innovation in Higher
Education in AIU University News 2
12.Kapur, J.N. in AIU University News 2 p 131.
223
8
INNOVATIVE PRACTICES IN TEACHER
EDUCATION-I
Unit Structure :
8.A.0 Objectives
8.A.1 Introduction
8.A.2 Co-operative and Collaborative teacher education
8.A.3 Constructivist and Reflective Teacher Education
8.A.4 Let us Sum up
8.A.0 OBJECTIVES :
After going through this unit you will be able to;
Define Co-operative Learning
Explain the elements of Co-operative Teacher Education
Enumerate the features of a Co-operative/Collaborative team
Define Constructivism
Describe the 5ES of the Constructivist Approach
Explain the concept of Reflective teaching
Elaborate the criteria for Reflective teacher education
Discuss the approaches to Reflective teacher education
Problems in education have no fixed answers. No teacher
education program can prepare teachers for all the situations they
will encounter. Teachers themselves will make the final decisions
from among many alternatives. Such judgments may be good or
poor. Therefore, it is important for teachers to constantly reevaluate
their decisions. This can be achieved through collaborative and
reflective practices in teacher education. Co-operative learning in
teacher education can instill in future teachers the value of social
interactions. Reflection improves a teacher's ability to make
appropriate and sound judgments and, therefore, become an
empowered decision-maker.
224
8.A.2 CO-OPERATIVE AND COLLABORATIVE
TEACHER EDUCATION :
What is Cooperative Learning?
Cooperative or collaborative learning is a team process
where members support and rely on each other to achieve an agreedupon
goal. The classroom is an excellent place to develop teambuilding
skills you will need later in life.
Cooperative learning is a successful teaching
strategy in which small teams, each with students of
different levels of ability, use a variety of learning
activities to improve their understanding of a subject.
Each member of a team is responsible not only for
learning what is taught but also for helping
teammates learn, thus creating an atmosphere of
achievement. Students work through the assignment
until all group members successfully understand and
complete it.
Cooperative / collaborative learning is interactive; as a team
member, the student teacher :
Develops and shares a common goal
Contributes his/her understanding of the problem: questions;
insights and solutions
Responds to, and works to understand, others' questions, insights
and solutions
Empowers the other to speak and contribute, and to consider their
contributions
Is accountable to others, and they are accountable to him/her
Is dependent on others, and they depend on him/her
Elements of Cooperative Learning :
The conditions/elements that will ensure more productive than
competitive and individualistic efforts are:
1. Positive Interdependence
Each group member's efforts are required and indispensable for
group success
225
Each group member has a unique contribution to make to the
joint effort because of his or her resources and/or role and task
responsibilities
2. Face-to-Face Interaction
Orally explaining how to solve problems
Teaching one's knowledge to other
Checking for understanding
Discussing concepts being learned
Connecting present with past learning
3. Individual and Group Accountability
Keeping the size of the group small. The smaller the size of the
group, the greater the individual accountability may be.
Giving an individual test to each student.
Randomly examining students orally by calling on one student to
present his or her group's work to the teacher (in the presence of
the group) or to the entire class.
Observing each group and recording the frequency with which
each member-contributes to the group's work.
Assigning one student in each group the role of checker. The
checker asks other group members to explain the reasoning and
rationale underlying group answers.
Having students teach what they learned to someone else.
4. Interpersonal and Small-Group Skills
Social skills must be taught:
o Leadership
o Decision-making
o Trust-building
o Communication
o Conflict-management skills
5. Group Processing
Group members discuss how well they are achieving their goals
and maintaining effective working relationships
Describe what member actions are helpful and not helpful
226
Make decisions about what behaviors to continue or change
What makes for a good Co-operative/Collaborative learning
team?
Team activities begin with training in, and understanding group
processes. An instructor begins by facilitating discussion and
suggesting alternatives but does not impose solutions on the
team, especially those having difficulty working together
Three to five people in a team. Larger teams have difficulty in
keeping everyone involved.
Teacher-assigned groups. They function better than self-assigned
groups
Diverse skill levels, backgrounds, experience
o Each individual brings strengths to a group
o Each member of the group is responsible to not only
contribute his/her strengths, but also to help others understand
the source of their strengths
o Any member who is at a disadvantage or not comfortable
with the majority should be encouraged and proactively
empowered to contribute
o Learning is positively influenced with a diversity of
perspective and experience increasing options for problem
solving
expanding the range of details to consider
Commitment of each member to a goal that is defined and
understood by the group
o Confidential peer ratings are a good way to assess who is and
who is not contributing
o Groups have the right to fire a non-cooperative or nonparticipating
member if all remedies have failed. (The person
fired then has to find another group to accept him/her)
o Individuals can quit if they believe they are doing most of the
work with little assistance from the others. (This person can
often easily find another group to welcome his/her
contributions)
Shared operating principles and responsibilities, defined and
agreed to by each member. These include:
o Commitment to attend, prepare and be on time for meetings
227
o Have discussions and disagreements focus on issues, avoiding
personal criticism
o Take responsibility for a share of the tasks and carry them out
on time. You may need to perform tasks that you have little
experience, feel ill-prepared for, or even think others would
do better. Accept the challenge, but be comfortable in stating
that you may need help, training, a mentor, or have to resign
and take on different task.
Some Activities for Co-Operative Learning :
1. Jigsaw - Groups with five students are set up. Each group
member is assigned some unique material to learn and then to
teach to his group members. To help in the learning students
across the class working on the same sub-section get together to
decide what is important and how to teach it. After practice in
these "expert" groups the original groups reform and students
teach each other.
2. Think-Pair-Share - Involves a three step cooperative structure.
During the first step individuals think silently about a question
posed by the instructor. Individuals pair up during the second
step and exchange thoughts. In the third step, the pairs share their
responses with other pairs, other teams, or the entire group.
3. Three-Step Interview- Each member of a team chooses another
member to be a partner. During the first step individuals
interview their partners by asking clarifying questions. During
the second step partners reverse the roles. For the final step,
members share their partner's response with the team.
4. RoundRobin Brainstorming- Class is divided into small groups
(4 to 6) with one person appointed as the recorder. A question is
posed with many answers and students are given time to think
about answers. After the "think time," members of the team share
responses with one another round robin style. The recorder writes
down the answers of the group members. The person next to the
recorder starts and each person in the group in order gives an
answer until time is called.
5. Three-minute review- Teachers stop any time during a lecture or
discussion and give teams three minutes to review what has been
said, ask clarifying questions or answer questions.
6. Numbered Heads Together- A team of four is established. Each
member is given numbers of 1, 2, 3, 4. Questions are asked of the
228
group. Groups work together to answer the question so that all
can verbally answer the question. Teacher calls out a number
(two) and each two is asked to give the answer.
7. Team Pair Solo- Students do problems first as a team, then with a
partner, and finally on their own. It is designed to motivate
students to tackle and succeed at problems which initially are
beyond their ability. It is based on a simple notion of mediated
learning. Students can do more things with help (mediation) than
they can do alone. By allowing them to work on problems they
could not do alone, first as a team and then with a partner, they
progress to a point they can do alone that which at first they
could do only with help.
8. Circle the Sage- First the teacher polls the class to see which
students have a special knowledge to share. For example the
teacher may ask who in the class was able to solve a difficult
math homework question, who had visited Mexico, who knows
the chemical reactions involved in how salting the streets help
dissipate snow. Those students (the sages) stand and spread out
in the room. The teacher then has the rest of the classmates each
surround a sage, with no two members of the same team going to
the same sage. The sage explains what they know while the
classmates listen, ask questions, and take notes. All students then
return to their teams. Each in turn, explains what they learned.
Because each one has gone to a different sage, they compare
notes. If there is disagreement, they stand up as a team. Finally,
the disagreements are aired and resolved.
9. Partners- The class is divided into teams of four. Partners move
to one side of the room. Half of each team is given an assignment
to master to be able to teach the other half. Partners work to learn
and can consult with other partners working on the same
material. Teams go back together with each set of partners
teaching the other set. Partners quiz and tutor teammates. Team
reviews how well they learned and taught and how they might
improve the process.
Why use Cooperative Learning?
Research has shown that cooperative learning techniques :
Promote student learning and academic achievement
Increase student retention
Enhance student satisfaction with their learning experience
Help students develop skills in oral communication
229
Develop students' social skills
Promote student self-esteem
Help to promote positive race relations
Check your Progress :
1. Describe the elements of Co-operative Learning.
2. What are the aspects that make for a good co-operative learning
team?
3. What are the advantages of Co-operative Learning?
8.A.3 CONSTRUCTIVIST AND REFLECTIVE
TEACHER EDUCATION :
Reflective Teacher Education :
In the past ten years, the terms `reflection' and `critical
reflection' have increasingly appeared in descriptions of approaches
to teacher education. It is clear however that the terms are often illdefined,
and have been used rather loosely to embrace a wide range
of concepts and strategies.
230
Reflection is a natural process that facilitates the development
of future action from the contemplation of past and/or current
behavior. Reflection refers to the ongoing process of critically
examining and refining practice, taking into careful consideration the
personal, pedagogical, societal (including social, political, historical
and economical) and ethical contexts associated with schools,
classrooms and the multiple roles of teachers (Knowles, Cole and
Presswood, 1994).
Educators and researchers have struggled to define the term
"reflection." While Dewey (1933) believed that reflection is an aim
of education, others view it as a means to help pre-service teachers
become effective. Much of the writing on reflection in teacher
education is derived from Dewey (1933). He believed that
reflectivity involves active, persistent and careful consideration of
any belief or practice in light of its supporting grounds and its
eventual consequences. Dewey implies that two distinct components
are involved in reflective thinking: the process and the content. In
order to have a better understanding about teachers' reflective
thoughts, both the process and the content of reflective thinking must
be considered simultaneously.
While the process element of reflection emphasizes how
teachers make decisions, content stresses the substance that drives
the thinking. What type of knowledge do teachers or prospective
teachers draw upon when they reflect? Content includes
understanding children, including their developmental levels and
perspectives. Teachers must also consider appropriate teaching
methods, teacher's image, professional collaboration and support,
and the impact of society on schools; they must have knowledge of a
wide range of educational environments, evaluation and
interpersonal relationships; and they must have an ethical
commitment to children, parents and the field (Surbeck, Han and
Moyer, 1993).
Kemmis (1999) presents five propositions about the nature of
reflection, that not only clarify what reflective teacher education
entails but also indicate that reflective teacher education is a
complex approach, not easy to put into practice and even less to
evaluate:
1. Reflection is not biologically or psychologically determined, nor
is it pure thought; reflection expresses an orientation towards
action and is about relation between thought and action in real
historical situations.
2. Reflection is not the individualistic working of the mind as a kind
231
of mechanism or speculation; it presupposes and shapes social
relations.
3. Reflection is not value-free or neutral as regards values; it
expresses and serves concrete human, social, cultural and
political interests.
4. Reflection is not indifferent or passive towards social order, nor
does it extend socially accepted values; it either reproduces
actively or transforms the practical ideologies that support social
order.
5. Reflection is not a mechanical process or a purely creative
exercise to construct new ideas; it is a practice that expresses our
power to reconstitute social life through participation in
communication, decision making social action.
These propositions highlight the transform Tory potential and
empowering role of reflection, both at individual and social levels.
The basic assumptions of reflective teacher education are as follows;
1. Promoting critically reflective teachers is a value laden goal, with
direct implications for deciding the direction of reflection, its
aims and scope.
2. Critical reflection involves critical reason, critical self reflection
and critical action.
3. Critical reflection should facilitate teacher autonomy, especially
through the mediation between pedagogical goals and situational
constraints, within a research-like approach to teaching, whereby
educational contexts are questioned and scrutinized in order to be
understood and changed.
4. Critical reflection must entail an understanding of the nature and
goals of school education and of its role in social transformation.
Criteria for Reflective Teacher Education :
The criteria for reflective practices in teacher education are
grouped in six broad areas, namely, Assumptions, Goals, Tasks,
Content, Roles and Discourse : These areas are essential for the
critical regulation of teacher development practices and also to plan
teacher development programmes.
Assumptions : All teacher development practices are based upon
assumptions about the nature of teacher education and school
pedagogy. Analyzing these practices requires inquiry into those
assumptions;
232
To what extent do teacher development practices build on the
assumptions of a reflective approach? The assumptions as
developed by Donald Schon, Kenneth Zeichner and John Smyth
can be summarized as follows- Teacher education is a process of
personal and social transformation; practice generates theory; a
good teacher is a reflective practitioner; an autonomous teacher
develops autonomous learners.
Goals : An understanding of teacher development practices implies
the analysis of its direction. Reflective teacher education aims at
primarily the empowerment of student teachers towards the
promotion of a pedagogy for autonomy;
To what extent do teacher development practices promote an
empowering transformation of student teachers in tandem with
pedagogy for autonomy? Basic knowledge, abilities and attitudes
involved in this goal are, content knowledge, pedagogical
knowledge, artistry, ability to act, ability to self regulate, ability
to communicate and negotiate and a critical stance towards
institutional and socio-cultural contexts.
Tasks : The nature of teacher development tasks greatly determines
the quality of teacher education. This area involves the following
criteria;
Transparency- To what extent are teacher development tasks
made explicit as regards their assumptions and aims, steps and
demands, potential value and limitations and evaluation? Task
transparency improves awareness and enhances a critical attitude
towards practices. It can be promoted directly by the teacher
educator/the task instructions (external explicitness), or achieved
by student teachers reflection on tasks (participatory
explicitness).
Theory-practice integration- To what extent do the teacher
development tasks focus on the integration of private and public
theories and practices? Integration implies the activation of
student teachers experiential knowledge and/or practical
experimentation. Experimentation may be indirect or direct.
Indirect experimentation involves tasks other than teaching,
aiming at preparing for teaching (e.g. communication
development tasks, analysis and production of teaching materials,
observation of video-taped lessons, etc.). Direct experimentation
is school based and refers to all the tasks involved in real
233
teaching (planning, developing, monitoring and evaluating
pedagogical action). Both the types of experimentation should
foster a pedagogy for autonomy.
Consistency- To what extent do teacher development tasks reveal
congruence between aims and processes, as well as between their
different steps? Internal consistency increases task
meaningfulness, intentionality and impact. Lack of consistency
affects course credibility and student-teacher commitment.
Organization- To what extent is the management of resources,
space and time adequate to the assumptions, goals, content and
roles of teacher development practices?
Content : The content of teacher development practices highlights
the arena of professional reflection and action and it is important to
assess their relevance and progression.
Relevance- To what extent is the content of teacher development
programme/s relevant considering student teachers previous
knowledge, expectations, interests and needs (meaningfulness);
past/recent developments within the area of study (information);
contribution to challenging established assumptions and practices
towards the development of a pedagogy for autonomy
(innovation)?
Progression- To what extent does the content of teacher
development practices promote the elaboration of student
teachers theories and practices?
Roles : The roles student teachers assume vary according to the
assumptions and goals that orient development practices.
Reflectivity, (inter)subjectivity, negotiation and regulation are
important qualities of roles in a reflection-oriented approachReflectivity-
What kind of reflection does teacher development
practices promote? What view of school pedagogy do they
encourage? Reflection should be the basis for the definition of
the teachers role. At a technical level, reflection aims at the
achievement of short term objectives; in order to improve
performance (What do I do? How can I improve my action?). At
a practical level, reflection is centered on the analysis of
assumptions, predispositions, values and results of teachers
practice (How do I explain my action? What are the implications
of my action upon others?). At a critical or emancipatory level,
234
reflection includes the ethical, social and political dimensions of
teachers practices. This level includes reflection on teacher
education processes (metacognition), from an inquiry-oriented
perspective. All three levels of reflection are important in
promoting the development of pedagogy for autonomy.
(Inter)subjectivity- To what extent do teacher development
practices integrate the student teachers self in interaction with
others? The construction of professional knowledge is both a
personal and social process which involves description,
interpretation, confrontation and reconstruction of educational
practice. This means that roles are redefined through meaningful
interaction that fosters both individual and collective
commitment.
Negotiation- To what extent do teacher development practices
create opportunities for negotiation? Negotiation can involve
various degrees of student teacher autonomy, but it always
requires that teacher education curricula are conceived as praxis,
not as pre-defined products to be consumed.
Regulation- To what extent do teacher development practices
enable the individual and collaborative regulation of
development processes? The promotion of student teachers
autonomy requires their critical participation in the supervision
of their own learning and of the learning and of the learning
contexts.
Discourse : Reflective teacher education assumptions and goals
have implications for the discourse of student teachers and teacher
educators, especially for the quality of communication, which has a
strong influence on the quality of development processes,
particularly in terms of relevance and degree of democracy.
Communication- To what extent do teacher development
practices integrate focused and expressive communication?
Need for Reflective Teacher Education
Professionalization has become a very important issue in the field
of education. Reflection on one's own work is a key component
of being a professional (Schon, 1983) and is essential to teacher
education. Teachers must examine their beliefs, assumptions and
biases regarding teaching and learning, and determine how those
235
beliefs influence classroom practice.
Pre-service teachers should examine any cultural baggage they
may carry in order to evaluate its appropriateness in teaching.
Since teaching is often an uncertain, dynamic and complex
practice, teachers must make constant judgments about
appropriate goals, teaching methods and students' learning.
Recent research on teacher education raises concerns about
teacher education programs' tendency to encourage acquiescence
and conformity to the status quo of both schooling and society
(O'Loughlin, 1992). These studies also note that teacher
education programs too often espouse utilitarian perspectives in
which teaching is separated from its underlying educational,
social or ethical domains and the technical aspects become an
end in themselves rather than a means toward some broader
educational purpose. Constant re-evaluation of teaching practices
allows a teacher to question assumptions about teaching and
learning, and prevents teaching from becoming a passive role in
schooling.
Approaches to Reflective Practice
Using a reflective or inquiry-oriented approach to teacher
education relies greatly on identifying the quality of inquiry that is
being sought and the desirability of the ends intended. Following
principles need to be considered while deciding the approaches to
reflective practices.
a) Concern with the development in student teachers of a personal
style and philosophy of teaching, including ethical dimensions;
b) Use of action research or enquiry-based approaches to investigate
and improve teaching in a supportive environment;
c) Recognition of the problematic nature of schooling, including
classroom and curriculum decision-making;
d) Sensitivity to contexts for teaching, and in particular, to the range
of school students' backgrounds, abilities, and characteristics;
e) Attempts to build in cycles involving preparation for practicum
action, data collection about what happened, reflection upon it,
and possible (often `if-then') modifications;
236
f) Ongoing monitoring of program implementation, with careful
attempts to provide some evidence of their outcomes and impact;
and
g) Use of techniques such as microteaching to build a repertoire of
skills, journaling to encourage recording, thinking and selfevaluation,
and regular dialogues with peers, staff and/or teachers
to clarify issues and value positions.
Van Manen identified three levels of reflectivity: technical,
professional and critical. The third and final level, the critical level,
considers moral and ethical criteria, such as justice and equity, as
part of the discourse about education practices. Pre-service teacher
education should aim for this level, even though it is difficult to
reach.
Four types of writing could be identified as leading to
reflection. They are descriptive writing, descriptive reflection,
dialogic reflection and critical reflection. In essence, the first is not
reflective at all, but merely reports events or literature. The second,
descriptive, does attempt to provide reasons based often on personal
judgment or on students' reading of literature. The third form,
dialogic, is a form of discourse with one's self, an exploration of
possible reasons. The fourth, critical, is defined as involving reason
giving for decisions or events which takes account of the broader
historical, social and/or political contexts.
Sparks-Langer identifies three distinctive ways of looking at
teaching and teacher education, each of which may be related to Van
Manen's levels of reflection, or to the descriptive, dialogic and
critical types. The Cognitive Approach utilizes studies of teachers'
information processing and decision making. The Narrative
Approach has teachers telling their own stories through problem
framing, naturalistic enquiry and case studies. The Critical Approach
requires teachers to use ethical and moral reasoning, taking account
of the social and political contexts.
Three approaches that support the facilitation of reflective
practice are; self and peer assessment, problem-based learning and
personal development planning.
Self and peer assessment :
Both self and peer assessment can be used to support
reflective practice, since they involve students thinking about their
own learning. Boud, responsible for much of the pioneering work on
self and peer assessment, defines it as the "involvement of students
in identifying standards and/or criteria to apply to their work and
237
making judgements about the extent to which they have met these
criteria and standards" (1995: 12). For Boud, self assessment
involves two clear stages: a) the identification (and learner
understanding) of standards and criteria, and b) the making of one's
own judgements against those criteria. This two part process
necessarily involves students reflecting on their own learning.
Self assessment can be used to facilitate both a process of
learning and an assessment product. Self assessment can be used in
an informal way to encourage students to think about their work and
what they know in a given subject. Peer assessment is a particularly
useful device for supporting reflective practice, because of its focus
on dialogue and shared interpretations of teaching and learning
between staff and students (Stefani, 1998). Students learn from each
other and use the feedback provided by peers to inform their own
learning. Using the peer assessment approach students are
encouraged to make qualitative comments about the work of their
peers. The key to using self and peer assessment is to ensure that
each new group of students is given the same opportunities to
discover how they learn. There is a temptation for teachers to try to
streamline the process and offer students feedback, but students need
to discover for themselves what they know and don't know and to
make their own connections if these processes are to support
reflection.
Problem Based Learning :
Problem-based learning (PBL) is used in a number of
disciplines as a way of engaging students in 'real' problems. Unlike
conventional teaching, PBL starts with a problem and requires the
student to research, select, analyse and apply information and
theories to solve it. Students work in groups or teams to solve or
manage these situations, but they are not expected to acquire a
predetermined series of 'right answers'. Instead they are expected to
engage with the complex situation presented to them and decide
what information they need to learn and what skills they need to gain
in order to manage the situation effectively (Savin-Baden, 2000)
Characteristics of problem-based learning.
Using stimulus material to help students discuss an important
problem, question or issue
Presenting the problem as a simulation of professional practice or
'real life' situation
Encouraging critical thinking and providing limited resources to
help students learn from defining and attempting to resolve the
given problem
238
Students working co-operatively as a group, exploring
information in and out of class, with access to a tutor (not
necessarily a subject specialist) who knows the problem well and
can facilitate the group's learning process
Students identifying their own learning needs and the appropriate
use of available resources
Reapplying this new knowledge to the original problem and
evaluating their processes (Boud and Feletti, 1997: 4)
The advantage of students working upon real or simulated
situations is that real problems do not have simple solutions, but
require comparison and analysis of resources, strategies and costs.
What the PBL approach does is facilitate a dialogue between the
student, tutor, and peers (and in some cases external parties), which
helps the individual make sense of his or her learning.
PBL offers a genuine experience or context in which
reflection can take place. Unlike traditional problem solving where
the student is directed towards appropriate resources PBL forces
students to think on their feet and draw on previous experience to
transfer to new settings. This reflection and process of learning can
be articulated in the final report or presentation and, if required,
assessed. One of the advantages of using peer assessment or PBL is
that they enable law students to work together on a problem.
Macfarlane(1998) suggests :
The notion of capability in a reflective practice model
requires students to learn to work effectively with others as well as
on their own. Teamwork also tends to enhance self-reflection and
awareness of learning process, as individuals are accountable to the
group and especially if the group is encouraged to analyse its own
successes and weaknesses in accomplishing the set task.
Personal Development Planning and Portfolios :
Personal development planning (PDP) has existed in many
guises for over 20 years. It is a structured and supported process
undertaken by an individual to reflect upon their own learning,
performance and/or achievement and to plan for their personal,
educational and career development.The educational aim is to
provide students with a structure for thinking about and planning
their own development. PDP might be seen as a process of
239
evidencing learning and reflection. Portfolios and records of
achievement are the common forms in which the PDP process is
presented. The advantage of PDP is that it provides a rounded
picture of the capabilities of an individual. Usually consisting of
three parts (a checklist of skills or competences achieved, evidence
of achievement and a reflective piece on how the skill has been
developed) PDP offers more information than a certificate and
engages students in a process of thinking about their learning.
PDP will help student teachers :
Become more effective, independent and confident self-directed
learners
Understand how they are learning and relate their learning to a
wider context
Improve their general skills for study and career management
Articulate their personal goals and evaluate progress towards
their achievement
Encourage a positive attitude to learning throughout life
Portfolios are a useful way of getting students used to writing
reflectively, introducing them to the idea of providing evidence for
their reflection. PDP offers another way of encouraging students to
think about what they know, what they don't know and how they
might develop the skills to fill the gaps in their knowledge such that
their appreciation of the profession improves.
Advantages of Reflective Teacher Education :
Reflective Teacher educationEnables
teachers to analyze, discuss, evaluate and change their
own practice, adopting an analytical approach towards teaching;
Fosters teachers appreciation of the social and political contexts
in which they work, helping teachers to recognize that teaching is
socially and politically situated an that the teachers task involves
an appreciation and analysis of that context;
Enables teachers to appraise the moral and ethical issues implicit
in classroom practices, including the critical examination of their
own beliefs about good teaching;
Encourages teachers to take greater responsibility for their own
professional growth and to acquire some degree of professional
autonomy;
240
Facilitates teachers development of their own theories of
educational practice, understanding and developing a principled
basis for their own classroom work;
Empowers teachers to better influence future directions in
education and take a more active role in decision making.
Reflective Teacher Education helps to develop:
Problem solving and critically reflective skills.
Communication skills.
A capacity to adapt to changing circumstances.
An ability to work in teams.
Networking skills.
The ability to use and apply communication technologies.
Awareness of and the ability to address diverse learning needs.
Awareness of the changing education environment and of their
role in equipping young people to operate effectively within this
environment.
Constructivist Teacher Education :
Constructivism is a philosophical view on how we come to
understand or know.
Definition :
Constructivism is a philosophy of learning founded on the
premise that, by reflecting on our experiences, we construct our own
understanding of the world we live in. Each of us generates our own
"rules" and "mental models," which we use to make sense of our
experiences. Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting
our mental models to accommodate new experiences.
The three main propositions of this philosophy are as follows :
1. Understanding is in our interactions with the environment. This
is the core concept of Constructivism. What one understands is a
function of the content, the context, the activity of the learner,
and the goals of the learner. Cognition is not just within the
individual but rather it is a part of the entire context, i.e.,
cognition is distributed.
2. Cognitive conflict is the stimulus for learning and determines the
241
organization and nature of what is learned. Learners puzzlement
is the stimulus and organizer for learning.
3. Knowledge evolves through social negotiation and through the
evaluation of the viability of individual understandings.
There are several guiding principles of Constructivism :
1. Learning is a search for meaning. Therefore, learning must start
with the issues around which students are actively trying to
construct meaning. Meaning requires understanding wholes as
well as parts. And parts must be understood in the context of
wholes. Therefore, the learning process focuses on primary
concepts, not isolated facts.
2. Learning is an active process in which the learner uses sensory
input and constructs meaning out of it. The more traditional
formulation of this idea involves the terminology of the active
learner (Dewey's term) stressing that the learner needs to do
something; that learning is not the passive acceptance of
knowledge which exists "out there" but that learning involves the
learner s engaging with the world.
3. People learn to learn as they learn: learning consists both of
constructing meaning and constructing systems of meaning. For
example, if we learn the chronology of dates of a series of
historical events, we are simultaneously learning the meaning of
a chronology. Each meaning we construct makes us better able to
give meaning to other sensations which can fit a similar pattern.
4. The crucial action of constructing meaning is mental: it happens
in the mind. Physical actions, hands-on experience may be
necessary for learning, especially for children, but it is not
sufficient; we need to provide activities which engage the mind
as well as the hands (Dewey called this reflective activity.)
5. Learning involves language: the language we use influences
learning. On the empirical level, researchers have noted that
people talk to themselves as they learn. On a more general level,
there is a collection of arguments, presented most forcefully by
Vygotsky, that language and learning are inextricably
intertwined.
6. Learning is a social activity: our learning is intimately associated
with our connection with other human beings, our teachers, our
peers, our family as well as casual acquaintances, including the
people before us or next to us at the exhibit. We are more likely
242
to be successful in our efforts to educate if we recognize this
principle rather than try to avoid it. Much of traditional
education, as Dewey pointed out, is directed towards isolating the
learner from all social interaction, and towards seeing education
as a one-on-one relationship between the learner and the
objective material to be learned. In contrast, progressive
education according to Dewey recognizes the social aspect of
learning and uses conversation, interaction with others, and the
application of knowledge as an integral aspect of learning.
7. Learning is contextual: we do not learn isolated facts and theories
in some abstract ethereal land of the mind separate from the rest
of our lives: we learn in relationship to what else we know, what
we believe, our prejudices and our fears. On reflection, it
becomes clear that this point is actually a corollary of the idea
that learning is active and social. We cannot divorce our learning
from our lives.
8. One needs knowledge to learn: it is not possible to assimilate
new knowledge without having some structure developed from
previous knowledge to build on. The more we know, the more
we can learn. Therefore any effort to teach must be connected to
the state of the learner and must provide a path into the subject
for the learner based on that learner's previous knowledge.
9. It takes time to learn: learning is not instantaneous. For
significant learning we need to revisit ideas, ponder them try
them out, play with them and use them. If you reflect on anything
you have learned, you soon realize that it is the product of
repeated exposure and thought. Even, or especially, moments of
profound insight, can be traced back to longer periods of
preparation.
10.Motivation is a key component in learning. Not only is it the case
that motivation helps learning, it is essential for learning. This
idea of motivation as described here is broadly conceived to
include an understanding of ways in which the knowledge can be
used. Unless we know "the reasons why", we may not be very
involved in using the knowledge that may be instilled in us.
The 5 E Model of Constructivism :
The 5 E's is an instructional model based on the
Constructivist approach to learning, which says that learners build or
construct new ideas on top of their old ideas. The 5 E's can be used
with students of all ages, including adults.
243
Each of the 5 E's describes a phase of learning, and each
phase begins with the letter "E": Engage, Explore, Explain,
Elaborate, and Evaluate. The 5 E's allows students and teachers to
experience common activities, to use and build on prior knowledge
and experience, to construct meaning, and to continually assess their
understanding of a concept.
Engage : This phase of the 5 E's starts the process. Students
encounter the material, define their questions, lay the groundwork
for their tasks, make connections from new to unknown and identify
relevance. An "engage" activity should do the following:
1. Make connections between past and present learning experiences
2. Anticipate activities and focus students' thinking on the learning
outcomes of current activities. Students should become mentally
engaged in the concept, process, or skill to be learned.
Explore : This phase of the 5 E's provides students with a common
base of experiences. Students directly involved with material,
inquiry drives the process, teamwork is used to share and build
knowledge base. They identify and develop concepts, processes, and
skills. During this phase, students actively explore their environment
or manipulate materials.
Explain : This phase of the 5 E's helps students explain the
discoveries, processes and concepts they have been exploring. They
have opportunities to verbalize their conceptual understanding or to
demonstrate new skills or behaviors. This phase also provides
opportunities for teachers to introduce formal terms, definitions, and
explanations for concepts, processes, skills, or behaviors.
Elaborate : This phase of the 5 E's extends students' conceptual
understanding and allows them to practice skills and behaviors.
Through new experiences, the learners develop deeper and broader
understanding of major concepts, obtain more information about
areas of interest, and refine their skills. They apply learning to other
situations sometimes leading to a new inquiry.
Evaluate : This phase of the 5 E's encourages learners to assess their
understanding and abilities and lets teachers evaluate students'
understanding of key concepts and skill development. Rubrics,
checklists, teacher interviews, portfolios, problem-based learning
outputs, and embedded assessments are made use of. Results are
used to evaluate and modify further instructional needs.
Features of A Constructivist Classroom :
244
Student autonomy and initiative are accepted
and encouraged.
By respecting students' ideas and encouraging
independent thinking, teachers help students attain
their own intellectual identity. Students who frame
questions and issues and then go about analyzing
and answering them take responsibility for their
own learning and become problem solvers.
The teacher asks open-ended questions and
allows wait time for responses.
Reflective thought takes time and is often built on
others' ideas and comments. The ways teachers
ask questions and the ways students respond will
structure the success of student inquiry.
Higher-level thinking is encouraged.
The constructivist teacher challenges students to
reach beyond the simple factual response. He
encourages students to connect and summarize
concepts by analyzing, predicting, justifying, and
defending their ideas.
Students are engaged in dialogue with the
teacher and with each other.
Social discourse helps students change or reinforce
their ideas. If they have the chance to present what
they think and hear others' ideas, students can
build a personal knowledge base that they
understand. Only when they feel comfortable
enough to express their ideas will meaningful
classroom dialogue occur.
Students are engaged in experiences that
challenge hypotheses and encourage
discussion.
When allowed to make predictions, students often
generate varying hypotheses about natural
phenomena. The constructivist teacher provides
ample opportunities for students to test their
hypotheses, especially through group discussion of
concrete experiences.
245
The class uses raw data, primary sources,
manipulatives, physical, and interactive
materials.
The constructivist approach involves students in
real-world possibilities, and then helps them
generate the abstractions that bind phenomena
together.
In a constructivist classroom, learning is . . .
Constructed
Students are not blank slates upon which knowledge is etched.
They come to learning situations with already formulated
knowledge, ideas, and understandings. This previous knowledge
is the raw material for the new knowledge they will create.
Active
The student is the person who creates new understanding for
him/herself. The teacher coaches, moderates and suggests, but
allows the students room to experiment, ask questions, try things
that don't work. Learning activities require the students' full
participation (like hands-on experiments). An important part of
the learning process is that students reflect on, and talk about,
their activities. Students also help set their own goals and means
of assessment.
Reflective
Students control their own learning process, and they lead the
way by reflecting on their experiences. This process makes them
experts of their own learning. The teacher helps create situations
where the students feel safe questioning and reflecting on their
own processes, either privately or in group discussions. The
teacher should also create activities that lead the student to reflect
on his or her prior knowledge and experiences. Talking about
what was learned and how it was learned is really important.
Collaborative
The constructivist classroom relies heavily on collaboration
among students. There are many reasons why collaboration
contributes to learning. The main reason it is used so much in
constructivism is that students learn about learning not only from
themselves, but also from their peers. When students review and
reflect on their learning processes together, they can pick up
strategies and methods from one another.
246
Inquiry based
The main activity in a constructivist classroom is solving
problems. Students use inquiry methods to ask questions,
investigate a topic, and use a variety of resources to find
solutions and answers. As students explore the topic, they draw
conclusions, and, as exploration continues, they revisit those
conclusions. Exploration of questions leads to more questions.
Evolving
Students have ideas that they may later see were invalid,
incorrect, or insufficient to explain new experiences. These ideas
are temporary steps in the integration of knowledge. For instance,
a child may believe that all trees lose their leaves in the fall, until
she visits an evergreen forest. Constructivist teaching takes into
account students' current conceptions and builds from there.
What happens when a student gets a new piece of information?
The constructivist model says that the student compares the
information to the knowledge and understanding he/she already
has, and one of three things can occur:
The new information matches up with his previous
knowledge pretty well (it's consonant with the previous
knowledge), so the student adds it to his/her understanding. It
may take some work, but it's just a matter of finding the right
fit, as with a puzzle piece.
The information doesn't match previous knowledge (it's
dissonant). The student has to change his/her previous
understanding to find a fit for the information. This can be
harder work.
The information doesn't match previous knowledge, and it is
ignored. Rejected bits of information may just not be
absorbed by the student. Or they may float around, waiting
for the day when the student's understanding has developed
and permits a fit.
The difference between a traditional classroom and a constructivist
classroom can be summarized as follows;
247
TRADITIONAL
CLASSROOM
CONSTRUCTIVIST
CLASSROOM
Curriculum begins with the
parts of the whole. Emphasizes
basic skills.
Curriculum emphasizes big
concepts, beginning with the
whole and expanding to include
the parts.
Strict adherence to fixed
curriculum is highly valued.
Pursuit of student questions and
interests is valued.
Materials are primarily
textbooks and workbooks.
Materials include primary
sources of material and
manipulative materials.
Learning is based on repetition. Learning is interactive, building
on what the student already
knows.
Teachers disseminate
information to students;
students are recipients of
knowledge.
Teachers have a dialogue with
students, helping students
construct their own knowledge.
Teacher's role is directive,
rooted in authority.
Teacher's role is interactive,
rooted in negotiation.
Assessment is through testing,
correct answers.
Assessment includes student
works, observations, and points
of view, as well as tests. Process
is as important as product.
Knowledge is seen as inert. Knowledge is seen as dynamic,
ever changing with our
experiences.
Constructivist Frameworks in Teacher Education :
Constructivist teacher education generally reflects two major
traditions--the developmental and social reconstructionist traditions
(Canella and Reiff, 1994). Programs influenced by the
developmental tradition attempt to teach students how to teach in a
constructivist, generally Piagetian, manner. They are typically
characterized by substantial direct instruction in theory and practice,
often without complementary opportunities for inquiry, discovery, or
self-examination. This approach can easily become overly
prescriptive.
248
Programs influenced by social reconstructionist tradition
attempt to help teacher education students deconstruct their own
prior knowledge and attitudes, comprehend how these
understandings evolved, explore the effects they have on actions and
behavior, and consider alternate conceptions and premises that may
be more serviceable in teaching. Critical analysis and structured
reflection on formal course knowledge and everyday practical
experience are incorporated.
Richardson (1997) identifies two factors that appear to affect the
approach teachers and teacher educators take in forming
constructivist settings :
The extent to which the social is acknowledged as a critical
factor in learning and individual cognitive development and
The specific content, subject matter, or discipline. Some subjects,
such as mathematics, are more "bounded" than others by rules,
formulae, and procedures. They are more likely to be regarded by
teachers as producing problems and tasks to which there are
"correct" answers. Individual interpretations and construction of
ideas and concepts are less likely to be encouraged by teachers
than in subjects such as literature and writing.
Challenges :
The overarching challenge constructivism presents to teachers
and teacher educators is the formidable task of translating a
learning theory into a theory of teaching (MacKinnon and ScarffSeatter,
1997), which in turn raises questions about what teachers
need to know and be able to do. For teacher educators, among
other tasks, this involves balancing the need to acknowledge the
different discipline-specific requirements of teaching with the
need to model constructivist methods in teacher education
courses and practicums. Richardson (1997) also notes the limits
of a perspective on teaching that values students' understandings
at the expense of "right" answers. Student knowledge becomes
idiosyncratic; 30 different students may arrive at 30 different
understandings or interpretations of a concept, all of which are
not equally appropriate. Inappropriately applied, constructivist
approaches may lead to the "abandonment" style of teaching
(MacKinnon and Scarff-Seatter, 1997).
Several authors cite the importance of teacher educators'
modeling constructivist approaches that engage students in
interdisciplinary exploration, collaborative activity, and field-
249
based opportunities for experiential learning, reflection, and selfexamination
(Kaufman, 1996; Kroll and LaBosky, 1996) if future
teachers are to be able to employ these strategies in schools.
To derive culturally relevant and socially just pedagogy and
practice from constructivist epistemologies, Martin (1994) and
Vadeboncoeur (1997) urge teacher educators to deconstruct and
scrutinize cultural assumptions that underlie various
interpretations of constructivism to expose how social beliefs
have influenced the development of theory and practices.
Without such scrutiny, societal inequities and historical forms of
oppression may be perpetuated in supposedly constructivist
classrooms, and the very constraints on individual development
constructivists seek to remove or ameliorate will be reinforced.
A final challenge faced by educators is the pitfall of regarding
constructivism as the only viable theoretical framework for
teaching and learning. It is one way of thinking about how
knowledge and understanding are formed, but it is not the only
way. Prospective teachers should be exposed to varying
perspectives and given opportunities to develop the discretion
needed to choose most appropriately and the skills to implement
their choices.
Advantages of Constructivism :
1. Students learn more, and enjoy learning more when they are
actively involved, rather than passive listeners.
2. Education works best when it concentrates on thinking and
understanding, rather than on rote memorization. Constructivism
concentrates on learning how to think and understand.
3. Constructivist learning is transferable. In constructivist
classrooms, students create organizing principles that they can
take with them to other learning settings.
4. Constructivism gives students ownership of what they learn,
since learning is based on students' questions and explorations,
and often the students have a hand in designing the assessments
as well. Constructivist assessment engages the students'
initiatives and personal investments in their journals, research
reports, physical models, and artistic representations. Engaging
the creative instincts develops students' abilities to express
knowledge through a variety of ways. The students are also more
likely to retain and transfer the new knowledge to real life.
250
5. By grounding learning activities in an authentic, real-world
context, constructivism stimulates and engages students. Students
in constructivist classrooms learn to question things and to apply
their natural curiosity to the world.
6. Constructivism promotes social and communication skills by
creating a classroom environment that emphasizes collaboration
and exchange of ideas. Students must learn how to articulate their
ideas clearly as well as to collaborate on tasks effectively by
sharing in group projects. Students must therefore exchange ideas
and so must learn to "negotiate" with others and to evaluate their
contributions in a socially acceptable manner. This is essential to
success in the real world, since they will always be exposed to a
variety of experiences in which they will have to cooperate and
navigate among the ideas of others.
1. Explain the meaning of Reflective Teacher education.
2. Discuss the need for Reflective Teacher education.
3. Elaborate the criteria for Reflective Teacher education.
4. Discuss the approaches to Reflective Teacher education.
251
5. What are the advantages of Reflective Teacher education?
6. Explain the concept of Constructivist Teacher education.
7. Discuss the guiding principles of Constructivism.
8. Explain the 5E Model of Constructivism.
9. Elaborate the features of a Constructivist classroom.
252
10.What are the advantages of Constructivist Teacher Education?
Teacher Education faces a major challenge of a divide
between theory and practice. The quality of teacher development
practices has become a major concern in recent educational
discourse. There is a great emphasis on collaborative and reflective
approaches for teacher empowerment. This unit has elaborated upon
these approaches that would serve to make teacher development
practices more meaningful and holistic.
References :
1. Cannella, G. S., and Reiff, J. C. (1994). Individual constructivist
teacher education: Teachers as empowered learners. Teacher
Education Quarterly 21(3), 27-38. EJ 498 429.
2. DeJong, L., and Groomes, F. (1996). A constructivist teacher
education program that incorporates community service to
prepare students to work with children living in poverty. Action
in Teacher Education 18(2), 86-95. EJ 536 849.
3. Fischetti, J., Dittmer, A., and Kyle, D. W. (1996). Shifting
paradigms: Emerging issues for educational policy and practice.
Teacher Educator 31(3), 189-201. EJ 525 345.
4. Kaufman, D. (1996). Constructivist-based experiential learning
in teacher education. Action in Teacher Education 18(2), 40-49.
EJ 536 845.
5. Kroll, L. R., and LaBosky, V. K. (1996). Practicing what we
preach: Constructivism in a teacher education program. Action In
Teacher Education 18(2), 63-72. EJ 536 947.
6. MacKinnon, A., and Scarff-Seatter, C. (1997). Constructivism:
253
Contradictions and confusion in teacher education. In V.
Richardson (Ed.), Constructivist Teacher Education: Building
New Understandings (pp.38-55). Washington, DC: Falmer Press.
7. Martin, R. J. (1994). Multicultural social reconstructionist
education: Design for diversity in teacher education. TEACHER
EDUCATION QUARTERLY 21(3), 77-89. EJ 492 141.
8. Myers, C. B. (1996, April). Beyond Pdss: Schools As
Professional Learning Communities. A Proposal Based On An
Analysis Of Pds Efforts Of The 1990's. Paper presented at the
annual meeting of the American Educational Research
Association, New York. ED 400 227.
9. Oldfather, P., Bonds, S., and Bray, T. (1994). Drawing the circle:
Collaborative mind mapping as a process for developing a
constructivist teacher education program. Teacher Education
Quarterly 21(3), 5-13. EJ 492 137.
10.O'Loughlin, M. (1995). Daring the imagination: Unlocking
voices of dissent and possibility in teaching. Theory into Practice
24(2), 107-116. EJ 512 860.
11.Richardson, V. (1997). Constructivist teaching and teacher
education: Theory and practice. In V. Richardson (Ed.),
Constructivist Teacher Education: Building New Understandings
(pp. 3-14). Washington, DC: Falmer Press.
12.Teets, S. T., and Starnes, B. A. (1996). Foxfire: Constructivism
for teachers and learners. Action In Teacher Education 18(2), 31-
39. EJ 536 844.
13.Vadeboncoeur, J. (1997). Child development and the purpose of
education: A historical context for constructivism in teacher
education. In V. Richardson (Ed.), Constructivist Teacher
Education: Building New Understandings (pp. 15-37).
Washington, DC: Falmer Press.
14.Wolffe, R. J., and McMullen, D. W. (1996). The constructivist
connection: Linking theory, best practice, and technology.
Journal of Computing In Teacher Education 12(2), 25-28. EJ
526 775.
8B
254
EDUCATION -II
Unit Structure :
8.B.0 Objectives
8.B.1 Introduction
8.B.2 E-teacher Education
8.B.3 Value-based Teacher Education
8.B.4 Let us Sum up
8.B.0 OBJECTIVES :
Explain the role of teacher educators in E-teacher education.
Discuss the outcome of E-teacher education on student teachers
and teacher educators.
Explain the Value Clarifying approach to value based education.
Elaborate the use of Contrived experiences in value based
education.
Teaching and Learning discourse has been changed. New
roles of the teaching process have been derived from the concept of
knowledge society at all educational levels. In the context of the
information and/or knowledge societies and lifelong learning
strategy, a new frame of pre-service and in-service teacher education
needs to be defined. The current level of the learning technology
development provides opportunities for collaborative engagement,
access to information, interaction with content and individual
empowerment. Rapid changes in communication technologies
enable teachers to move from traditional classroom activities to
online classrooms, or online activities in the traditional classrooms.
8.B.2 E-TEACHER EDUCATION :
Concept and Features of E-teacher Education :
Educational systems worldwide insist on using information
and communication technologies (ICT) to teach students who gain
255
the knowledge and skills needed for the future knowledge society
(Jimoyiannis and Komis, 2007). E-teacher education would develop
in pre-service a positive attitude towards e-learning and using
computers in their future classrooms.
E-teacher education is the instructional system of processes
and activities designed according to the ICT development,
characteristics and models of e-learning, principles of formal
communication, principles of e-education, principles of competencebased
education system, etc.
E-teaching adopts the constructivist principles in the
designing of learning experiences. The concept of co-operative
teaching is the fundamental construct to develop e-teaching
scenarios.
There are different forms of e-learning courses (Milosevic et
al, 2009). They are as follows;
E-learning activities in online professional learning community:
graduated students active teachers participate in a series of
learning activities, exchanging ideas with other students and
teachers; this form uses web based technologies, asynchronous
discussions, participation in school based activities
(implementation lessons, assessment procedures, etc.)
E-learning programmes use broadcast formats, lectures
reviewing, class demonstrations, reviewing other online
materials; this form uses multiple sites, interaction via video
conferencing, online text messaging; video conference-based
teaching approach is important part of the (presented)
curriculum;
Individualized self paced instructional procedures: series of
online learning activities which are delivered between e-teacher
and teacher participants who are the e-learners in the curriculum:
it includes some forms of the self study without interaction,
some interactions with instructor though online discussion, email,
Skype;
Hybrid teaching models: this form uses integrative onsite
meetings, classroom visits, face-to-face workshops, coaching and
mentoring programmes, small study groups;
E-learning based on the extend communication in distance
situation and without immediate connection.
256
E-Tutors :
Teachers play a vital role in realizing the educational goals of
a dynamic society. The quality of teachers is of prime importance for
the success of educational endeavours. Teachers competence
includes the following three fundamental professional competencies
(Bjekic and Zlatic, 2006) :
Educational competenciessystem of knowledge, skills, abilities
and motivation dispositions to realize educational professional
roles;
Programme competencies or course content competenciessystem
of knowledge and skills from the course content and
developed activities to teach the students about the knowledge
and skills;
Communication competenciessystem of the knowledge, skills,
abilities and motivational dispositions to realize the goals of
communication and teaching social interaction.
To gain the expected educational outcomes a teacher can use
information and communication technology. E-teaching
competencies would serve to enhance the professional competencies
of teachers.
Structure
of teachers competence (Bjekic et al, 2008)
E-teaching competence is the synthesis of the didactical,
technological, personal and organizational components that are
necessary for effective e-learning and e-teaching modeling and
realization.
There are three dimensions of the teachers ICT competencies
(Awouters et al, 2008):
257
1. The teacher knows what learning activities using ICT can be
used in teaching (ICT Awareness).
2. The teacher has the necessary skills for using hardware and
software (ICT readiness) and
3. The teacher knows the pedagogical-didactical elements of ICT
(ICT drill and practice).
Teachers can be in a position of the creator of e-teaching
process or the user of the e-teaching/e-learning modules. Teachers
need to rethink their underlying assumptions about teaching, about
the learning process and, most fundamentally, about their role as
educators. Teacher activities in the e-teaching scenarios can be
broken into two major tasks: providing the content for the students
and supporting communication between students and tutors. Eteacher
educators must therefore be able to organize different types
of e-learning and e-teaching scenarios.
Some models of learning scenarios and e-teaching scenarios are as
follows:
Web-based e-learning scenarios;
Classroom based e-learning scenarios;
Online classroom e-learning scenarios;
Scenarios of net based course;
Scenarios of e-learning with streaming media technology;
Scenarios of e-learning in the hypermedia classroom;
Scenarios of e-learning based on the combination of the
traditional classroom learning and e-learning.
E-tutors have many professional roles in the e-learning
process. Brigitte Denis et al. (2004) described some central and
some peripheral roles of e-tutors in e-learning. They are as follows;
Sr.
No.
Central
Roles
Activities and Behaviours of e-tutor
The E-tutor
1. Content
facilitator
Intervenes sometimes as subject expert,
sometimes as interpreter and guide through
the concepts of study.
2. Metacognition
facilitator
Supports reflection on learning activities
and outcomes, study skills development.
258
3. Process
facilitator
Supports learners learning strategies, time
management.
4. Advisor
(counselor)
Provides pastoral support, doorway to
institutional/local support systems.
5. Assessor
(formative
and
summative)
Gives feedback on task achievement and
performance, assignment development,
sometimes he/she is also examiner.
6. Technologist Guide, first-post support with technologies
and tools for learning.
7. Resource
provider
Identifies and locates, develops and
produces resources to provide learning
support.
Sr.
No.
Peripheral
Roles
The E-tutor
1. Manager and
Administrator
Supports the management of the course
keeping records and checking the
enrolments.
2. Designer Can sometimes intervene to help to design
the course or course module, the lesson
itself- the pedagogies, the tasks to be done.
3. Co-learner Genuinely friend to the end of the course,
walking with the learner-participants and
learning alongside them.
4. Researcher Can be a reflective practitioner and action
researcher who acts on the basis of his/her
e-tutor experience.
Gilly Salmon (2007) emphasizes the importance of emoderation
in different teaching situations supported by ICT. Thus,
e-moderator is one of the teachers roles in e-teacher education. The
curriculum for e-teacher education should focus on the different eroles
for teachers and e-teachers, namely e-creator, e-designer, efacilitator,
e-tutor, e-moderator, etc. E-teaching requires a wide
spectrum of e-roles. It is necessary for teachers in e-education
environment to acquire sufficient knowledge about e-teaching and elearning.
The Outcomes of E-Teacher Education :
259
The competencies that are developed through E-teacher education
are as follows;
1. General Competencies;
System of knowledge, abilities and skills of the vocational
and scientific critical approach to investigation and problem
resolving; writing skills and skills of the presentation of the
vocational and scientific papers; research autonomy and selfreliance;
Team competencies and effective communication skills in the
work and research processes;
Qualified persons for continual education and development of
interdisciplinary approach;
Professional activities in keeping with professional and
scientific ethics.
2. Subject specific Competencies:
Complex theoretical knowledge system of the education
processes and technological systems;
Qualification for selection, applying investigation, evaluation,
innovation and development of the current methods as well as
types of learning and teaching.
The skills of the planning and managing of learning and
teaching process, modeling of the learning situation;
Specialized knowledge and skills of the special domains of
the e-education, design, creation, implementation, delivering,
evaluation and management of the e-courses;
Qualification to use complex theory and interpretation, to
demonstrate practical knowledge and apply it in the online,
synchronous and asynchronous mode.
The student teachers and teacher educators would be able to :
Functionally explain the processes and dimensions of eeducation,
e-teaching and e-learning;
Research the basic principles of the learning base on the
multimedia, analyze interaction as well as synchronous and
asynchronous e-learning/e-teaching communication;
Select and apply the adequate technologies and tools in the
effective creation of different e-learning solutions;
Understand the functioning of the hardware, software and
260
communication e-learning infrastructure;
Create configuration and apply different multimedia devices,
software tools, video conferencing solutions in the process of
e-learning development and realization;
Design, develop and realize e-learning procedures based on
the specific educational needs of individuals, groups and
systems;
Develop assessment plan, e-assessment techniques, collect
data of the achievement, and interpret student performance in
the frame of the formal, informal and social learning;
Analyze and improve roles of e-educator, e-manager, eadministrator,
manage ones own learning and make plans for
professional development;
Resolve e-educational problems and innovate e-learning and
e-teaching process.
According to Kleiman (2004), e-learning can contribute to
addressing each challenge by enhancing the preparation of new
teachers, providing high quality and readily accessible professional
development opportunities for active teachers, and making the
teaching profession more attractive (e.g., by providing online
resources for teachers and new connections to colleagues and
mentors) to help address the teacher recruitment and retention
problem.
8.B.3 VALUE-BASED TEACHER EDUCATION :
Introduction :
Values are integral to the process of education. They are not
add-ons. All education is, in sense, value education. 'Value-less' or
'value neutral' education is a contradiction in terms, given the
meaning of 'value' and 'education'. Education is a process of bringing
about desirable changes in the way one thinks feels and acts in
accordance with one's concept of the good life. In this sense,
education necessarily involves the transmission of values. Our aims
of education development of personality, pursuit of knowledge,
preservation of culture, training of characterare no more than
statements of our value preferences. Towards realising them we
design a curriculum, a planned collection of desirable knowledge,
skills, attitudes and values that we wish to pass on to the younger
generation. And this we do in ways that do not violate the freedom
and autonomy of the learner. In other words, education, in its aims,
261
curriculum and methods, is inseparably linked with values. The
demand for value orientation of education (and teachers education),
therefore, needs to be considered visa-vis internal reform of the
objectives, content and processes of school education and teachers
education.
What does it mean to Value Educate?
Value education is a process of education. This means that it
is a process of inducing learning. Learning is not a passive process
of absorption. It involves thinking, reflecting, questioning, feeling,
doing, caring, experiencing. Value education, accordingly, is not a
process of authoritarian indoctrination of dogmas, exhortation or
propaganda. Nor is it the direct inculcation of a body of predetermined
'right' values in the learners through didactic approaches.
The goal is not to promote passive conformity and blind obedience
to whatever values are passed on, but to encourage critical and
reflective thinking, rational choice and responsible behaviour,
respecting the autonomy of the learner. When we are 'value
educating', we are putting the learners in situations that enable them
to think, to reason, to question, to reflect, to care, to feel concern, to
act. The purpose is to trigger discussions and reflections, and to
generate creative responses to value situations.
Value education is also education in the sense that it is
education for 'becoming '. It is concerned with the development of
the total personality of the individualintellectual, social,
emotional, aesthetic, moral and spiritual. It involves developing
sensitivity to the good, the right and the beautiful, ability to choose
the right values in accordance with the highest ideals of life and
internalising and realising them in thought and action. As such the
process calls into play all human facultiesknowing, feeling and
doing. Not only should the learner be enabled to know the right and
the good, but also to care, to feel the appropriate emotions, concern
and commitment and exercise the will to do the right thing. In other
words, to 'value educate' is to develop rational critical thinking, to
educate the emotions, to cultivate the imagination, to strengthen will
and to train character of the learner.
Value Education, as it is generally used, refers to a wide
gamut of learning and activities ranging from training in physical
health, mental hygiene, etiquette and manners, appropriate social
behaviour, civic rights and duties to aesthetic and even religious
training.
262
To some, value education is simply a matter of developing
appropriate behaviour and habits involving inculcation of certain
virtues and habits. In opposition to such a conception, it is pointed
out that value education has an essentially cognitive component in it
and that this should not be ignored. Actually the ability to make
moral judgement based on sound reasoning is a very important aim
of value education and has to be deliberately cultivated.
Moral development of a child, according to some, results
automatically from the social life of the school. The child as a
member of the group imbibes the attitudes, values and general
behaviour of the group and continually tries to mould himself
according to the group norm. Such adjustment to life constitutes his
moral development. Value Education is a process of aiding the
student in such adjustment. Such a view is contested on the ground
that although children learn the rules of group living from the social
life of the school, such learning does not constitute value education.
For morality, it is pointed out, is not concerned so much with `what
is' as with `what ought to be' and `what ought to be done'.
Value Education, according to one more view, is essentially a
matter of educating the feelings and emotions. It is the `training of
the heart' and consists in developing the right feelings and emotions.
It does not involve any cognitive abilities that can be trained. Like
poetry, it is `caught' rather than taught. It is essentially a matter of
creating the right atmosphere, imitation and learning by example
communion with nature or modelling one self after an ideal. Such a
view is countered by saying that mere imitation of a `good' person
and modelling oneself after an ideal does not confer any morality on
an individual. Morality is not a thing that simply `radiates' from one
person to another. Moral development includes both thinking
morally and behaving morally. Moral thinking is a distinct type of
thinking characterized by the exercise of rational choice. A moral
person is not only a person who does the `right' thing but also one
who does the `right' thing for the `right' reason.
What shall the teacher be trained in and for what?
This question has to be considered in the light of the purpose
of value education already discussed. The purpose is to kindle the
moral and aesthetic sensibilities of learners, to raise their level of
value consciousness, to stimulate them to think freely and critically,
to develop the ability to judge actions and events rationally, and to
choose and act courageously and with conviction for the sake of the
larger social good. Accordingly, the teacher has to be trained to
263
function as an agent who stimulates, provokes, informs and
sensitises the learners with reference to value situations in life.
Through involving the learners actively in discussion, dialogue and
practical activities, the teacher should make them think and reflect
on human actions and events. The teacher should also expose
students to works of art, beauty in nature, and in human relationships
and actions of moral worth, and develop their moral sensibilities.
The institutional processes in the training institution should help
teachers acquire these capabilities by providing concrete situations
and opportunities and actively involve them in appropriate learning
experiences.
The general tone and ethos of the school act as a powerful
source of value education. Children acquire sensitivity to values and
ideals by living in and coming into contact with the school
atmosphere. Such an atmosphere is not created overnight nor by
teachers or pupils alone. It needs the sustained, collective efforts of
all concerned with educationteachers, parents, community leaders
and students. Teachers have a major role in making the school what
it ought to be. They should help in creating an atmosphere of love,
trust, cooperation and security in the school conducive to the
development of high ideals and values. The teachers training
experience in its totality should lead to the motivation of teachers
towards the attainment of these ideals.
Value education is not a sphere of activity that is distinct from
the teacher's other professional activities teaching, guiding pupils
and interacting with them, organising co curricular activities and the
like. The very nature of teaching imposes certain obligations and
commitments on a teacher. Essentially, teaching is an act to bring
about learning. The primary obligations of a teacher are to the
learner and knowledge. These obligations of a teacher are
nonnegotiable. They imply that the teacher has to understand the
learner as a person as well as a learner. Regarding the former, the
teacher has to love the students and be genuinely interested in their
growth and development. To get them to learn, teachers have to
understand the way children learn, and equip themselves with all
necessary pedagogical skills to promote learning in them. They
should possess the right qualities of mind and heart necessary for the
pursuit of knowledgelove of knowledge, curiosity and desire to
know, sincere desire to keep on learning and update knowledge,
humility and honesty to admit ignorance. They should have a sound
social philosophy, characterised by social sensitivity, concern for
social justice and human rights. It is essential that they carry out
their professional obligations in accordance with the highest
264
standards and ethics of the teaching profession. Teachers education
should provide sample experiences for the trainees to understand the
professional code and its rationale, and ensure its honest observance
by teachers and teacher educators in the training institution.
Approaches to Value Based Teacher Education :
Currently various kinds of programmes, both pre-service and
in-service, are being conducted for the orientation and training of
teachers in value education. Under one scheme, identified 'lead
institutions' conduct 3-4 weeks long residential courses for teachers.
Shorter duration programmes for teacher educators are also
organised. Some observations on the format and content of these
programmes are given below:
These programmes carry nomenclatures like value-oriented
teachers education, value education for teachers and so on. Their
focus is on personal development of the subjects through mindimprovement
techniques, prayer, yoga, meditation and relief from
stress, although different value themes like scientific attitude and
environment also find a place. Messages are delivered through
lectures, discourses, benedictions and exhortations. The residential
atmosphere adds to the tone of the programme whose main objective
is to inspire the subject to live a life of peace, moral purity and
spiritual development. Although such programmes contribute in
their own way to the development of the trainees, from the point of
the philosophy of value education enunciated in this paper, they fail
to address the essential elements of value education training. First,
the typical programme (as can be made out from its contents)
addresses teachers and teacher educators as individuals and not as
professionals having specified roles to carry out. It sidelines the
value educating functions of the teachers and teacher educators and
treats them as individuals seeking spiritual perfection. It is true that
the two aspects are related, but a teacher education programme in
value education should be primarily concerned with the roles and
functions of teacher educators as 'value educators'. It is expected to
aim at the development in the trainees understandings, skills and
attitudes as would equip them to discharge their functions as value
educators.
Secondly, it misses the nub of value education, that it is a
learning experience that induces one to think, reflect, feel, question,
criticise, care, judge and act, and not a prescription for personal
peace, tranquillity and happiness, a kind of an intellectual sedative.
If we expect teachers to function as providers of such learning
265
experiences to children in schools, it behoves on trainers of teachers
(and teacher educators) to provide similar experiences to their
trainees. Attempting to 'train' teachers and teacher educators through
discourses and exhortations will not go far in making them effective
teachers of value.
Teachers and teacher educators are to be prepared as value
educators with reference to the concrete realities in which they have
to function. These may be: the state of school education and
teachers education; the curriculum and the manner in which it is
transacted; the goals and values that the schools pursue and their
compatibility with educational aims; the role expectations from
teachers and teacher educators; the actualities, the atmosphere of the
school and the training institution; and the processes of management,
administration and a host of other factors that go to make the school
and the training institution what they are. It is important to note here
that all the committees and commissions have referred to value
education in the concrete context of national goals on the basis of
analysis of the educational and social situations. The point is that a
programme of teachers training in value education should be rooted
in the realities of school and teachers education, with greater
emphasis on values like justice, equality, compassion, cooperation
and human rights.
The methods and strategies of value education are many and
varied the selection of, which depends much upon the values chosen,
sources of development of these values and many other limiting
factors. The entire curriculum functions as important sources of
value education. The democratic practice and activities sponsored
though a student self government contributes effectively for value
learning. Values education, therefore, is effected though direct,
indirect, incidental methods. Values get transmitted via both the
implicit or hidden and planned curriculum.
The point emphasized is that the entire process of value
education is a highly comprehensive and complex one that involves
a wide range and variety of learning experiences. All forms of
learning cannot be provided though single source or teacher should
draw form a variety of learning resources either independently or in
combination. With this analysis and understanding background, the
following methods and techniques may be suggested.
1. Classroom learning activities methods/approach
2. Practical activities method
3. Socialized techniques and activities
266
4. Incidental learning method
1. Classroom Learning Activities Method :
A very basic purpose of value education is to develop the
moral autonomy of the learner and also sensitivities of value content
of school and classroom activities. The methods and activities
should be free from attempt to indoctrinate the learner. Capacity for
value judgment and internalization are to be achieved by exposing
students to a variety of experiences and activities. This may include
reading, listening, discussions, narration, direct presentation of ideas
by the teacher and other strategies. These strategies should be used
with any of the following sources of value education (a) Biographies
(b) Stories (c) Extracts form essays, articles, classics and news paper
(d) Parables, proverbs, quotations and poems (e) value/moral
dilemmas (f) classroom incidents/anecdotes/ conflicts. These sources
can be used in many different ways to involve the learner in thinking
and reasoning about values. The classroom teachers can prepare
action plans/lesson plans using these sources, a few illustrations of
which are discussed here.
(a) Biographies: A biography is a written document on the life
history of an eminent personality. Biographies of scientist, social
reformers and spiritual leaders acquaint one personality.
Biographies of scientist, social reformers and spiritual leaders
acquaint one with their life, thoughts, and actions and various
forces which moulded their lives as depicted by biographer. For
being used as material for value education it should be condensed
in such a way as to highlight the virtues and their development in
the life of the eminent personality. The entire biography may be
retold after rearranging the content bringing together all the
related events depicting each one of the values hidden in it.
(b) Stories: Stories of various kinds are attractive to students of
varied age groups. Stories may be presented by the teacher or
presented by students themselves, followed by discussions and
on questioning and analysis. The teacher should use his direction
in selecting the story appropriate to the developmental level of
the learner. Simple and short stories such as fairy tales and fables
are better suited to elementary level children. Stories could be
used to develop value awareness of different kinds. Fables and
fairy tales could be used to develop values of kindness, love for
living beings, environmental awareness and courage. (The step
involved in story telling with illustrations are given in
appendix II)
267
(c) Extracts from Essays. Articles, Classics and Newspapers:
Non-fictional writings dealing with value themes, such as essays,
articles and news paper reports may be used for value education
purpose. These may be scholarly writings on issues of social and
national concern appearing in books and journals. Students may
be asked to collect articles and writings form various sources,
encouraged to write articles on a chosen value theme. Teachers
can frame questions that provoke in the learner to think and
reflect on many issues of the values covered. (Illustrations form
famous works are given appendix III).
(d) Value / Moral Dilemmas for Discussions: Value or moral
dilemmas may be used as important instructional strategies in
value education. They present very effective situations for
learners to think, to reason and to make moral judgment and
arrive at a decision after considering all issues involved in the
moral dilemma. The dilemmas constructed may be on issues like
environmental conservation, scientific temper, social justice and
equality. A teacher can prepare a lesson or initiate discussion on
a dilemma indicating all the essential steps involved. In view of
the great potential of dilemmas in developing the capacity for
moral judgment moral dilemmas are used as research tools in the
study of moral development and judgment in children. The
teacher can initiate discussion on the dilemma chosen by giving
the pros and cons of the issues involved. The student may be
asked to react to each issue with reason. There may be a student
leader to monitor/record the proceedings of the discussion (The
moral dilemmas and illustrations are given in appendix IV).
2. Practical Activities Method / Approach :
Value education merely by cognitive precept is not enough even
though it is essential. Children should engage themselves in life
related practical activities which will promote the application of
principles and values in daily life. The essence of practical
approach is that they provide the learners with suitable
opportunities to practice and live their lives according to the
principles and values they have perceived and understood. Under
the rubric of practical activities a wide range of activities may be
organized. Practically, all subjects of school curriculum lead to
project or practical work and this may be designed as to make it
relevant to value education. A sound program of value education
may include a combination of a few or all activities mentioned
belowa.
Social and ethical values, examples from day-to-day situations,
extracts from sayings of great men, incidents and problems
268
which develop value judgement among pupils, dramas,
dialogues, simple poems(Kavya Vachana) and scriptures from
world religions could form the major part of the content along
with the biographies of great men.
b. Personal, neighbourly and community values should be taught in
the classroom and thoroughly discussed with the students.
c. A variety of learning resources can be used for value education
ranging from biographies, scriptures, proverbs, hymns and
sayings of great men to current social and political events, stories
from religion and mythology, moral dilemmas and schools
events.
d. Yoga and other activities that develop self-discipline among
students could be included.
e. Group activities like cleaning the campus, visiting slums, visits to
hospitals, visits to places of worship of different faiths should
form part of content in value education. Discourses on the lives
of spiritual leaders can bring out values like self-sacrifice,
collective happiness, love for truth and ultimate values of life for
which the great leaders lived.
f. Personality Development Retreats' could be held to enable the
students to develop self-control, punctuality, sharing and caring
respect for other faiths, cooperation and the value of
silence(inner peace).
g. Prayer, meditation and `Shramadan' could form part of the
content of value education. They can help the students cultivate
inner poise and an attitudinal shift, and develop the quality of
`dignity of labour'.
h. Observing `Jayanthis' ie., birthdays of great national and spiritual
leaders and organizing youth organizations for character
development can go a long way in the inculcation of values in
students.
Organizing value related practical activities poses some
practical problems to the school. Great care should be taken in
planning and organizing practical activities mentioned above.
3. Contrived Incidents/ Socialized Techniques approaches
A variety of group oriented techniques may be used in value
education. The learner in socialized techniques is involved in
activities and experiences which best represent functions and
269
problems of agents of socialization. The experience the learner gets
here is not the same type of experience deriving from direct
encounters with reality, nor is it completely indirect and abstract as
in the case of cognitive area. They are the simplified versions of real
social experiences and one necessary and useful when the reality is
too abstract and obscured. These include social role playing enacting
and modeling.
The effectiveness of the social experiences planned to
promote healthy development among children could be increased
with the better understanding of social role playing. Children in
various social situations assume some roles. One can understand the
interrelationship between the expectations of other and the
identification of the self in the social role playing the learner should
be guided properly to understand the role behavior and enactment.
Role playing activities should be organized based on the life
experiences and age level of students. Expected role of an ideal
student, teacher, parent, patriot should encourage student to take role
taking activities voluntarily. Negative precepts are to be discouraged
in role playing.
In simulation activities the learner pretends to be in real
situation and portrays events and characteristics in the situation.
Modeling is a strategy in which qualities of an individual who is
considered to posses desirable or ideal values worth emulating are
presented to the learners as a model a broad indication of the kinds
of activities possible under the heads of socialized strategies for
value education purpose are listed belowa.
Dramatization activities like staging play, dramas, both of
traditional folk and modern on value themes.
b. Enacting opportunities to take up and practice the role of
different kinds, taking the role form epics/scriptures.
c. Modeling exercise, the ideal persons and groups on themes such
as
1) Gender inequality
2) Problems pertaining to women's role and education
3) Caring animals and human beings
4) Problems related to environmental protection
5) Consequences of air water pollution
270
(Constructing the image through discussions, questioning and
developing awareness about the specific problems in the above
mentioned areas).
Phases to be followed in the use of Contrived Incidents:
Orientation; In this phase, the participants are given a detailed
description of the strategy, and its purpose. This is done to create
a readiness for the class..
Participant briefing; In this phase, the participants are briefed
about the performance expected of them.
Participant performance; In this phase, the participants perform
and act as required by the incident.
Participant debriefing; Here the teacher educator asks questions
to relate the incident to real life situations, thus leading to
learning.
4. Incidental Learning Method :
An incident is an episode or experience in the life of an
individual or group. The incidental approach has a very good point
in its favor in that it can be used both inside as well as outside the
classroom for value education purposes. It consists in identifying the
wrong or right actions of an individual or group, either pre-planned
to occur or observed by accident, and reprimanding or rewarding
those concerned. This approach is psychologically effective since it
is like striking the iron while it is hot. Episodes or incidents centered
around experience of everyday occurrence in the life of children can
help children identify themselves with them and understand their
own thought powers and feelings. Incidents are to be recorded
properly and discussed to promote better insight into human
problems.
Several attempts have been made to evolve methodologies
suitable to the development of values in children and youth.
Douglas Supreka (1976) outlines eight different approaches to
value Education, which may be briefly stated as under :
1. Evocation Approach: The students are encouraged to make
spontaneously free, non-rational choices, without thought or
hesitation. It provides an environment which allows maximum
freedom for students, and provide a provocative situation for
which spontaneous reactions are elicited eg. The reaction to a
picture of starving children.
271
2. Inculcation Approach: Students are forced to act according to
specific desired values. A positive and negative reinforcement by
the teacher helps value inculcation. This can be done by a
teacher's natural actions and responses. This time honored
method has been notably unsuccessful.
3. Awareness Approach: This approach helps students to become
aware and identify their own values. The students are encouraged
to share their experiences. The teacher presents value laden
situations or dilemmas through readings, films, role playing,
small group discussions and simulation. Students thus engage
themselves in the process of making inferences about values
from the thoughts, feelings, beliefs or behavior of themselves and
others.
4. Moral Reasoning Approach: Kohlberg's theory of six stages of
moral development is the framework most frequently used in this
approach. The teachers setup learning experiences which will
facilitate moral development. These experiences fall under the
general category of what Kohlberg calls role taking. The critical
factor in role taking is empathy. Through placing themselves in a
role and experiencing the process of deciding, students can begin
to see moral decisions in a larger framework than their single
point of view. It consists of the students discussing a dilemma
and by reasoning they attain a higher level of knowledge. In this
way by discussion and reflection students are encouraged to
express a value position rather than compromise on a consensus.
5. Analysis Approach: the group or individuals are encouraged to
study social value problems. They are asked to clarify value
questions, and identify values in conflict. They are encouraged to
determine the truth and evidence of purported facts, and arrive at
value decision, applying analogous cases, inferring and testing
value principles underlying the decision.
6. Value Clarification Approach: It helps students to use both
rational thinking and emotional awareness to examine personal
behavior patterns and classify and actualize values. This
approach has been detailed by Raths et al (1966) and Simon et at
(1972) where the child is made to jot down a self - analysis
reaction work sheet, consisting of drawings, questions and
activities.
The Value Clarification Approach :
272
Of the various approaches to value education, the most
commonly discussed and most influential approach is the values
clarification approach espoused by Raths, Harmin and Simon in their
book, Values and Teaching. Raths et al. hold that a wide range of
conflicting values present themselves to each person. In view of this
medley of conflicting values, individuals seem to be confused in
values. Those children who experience value confusion are often
identifiable by idiosyncratic behaviour patterns inconsistency,
drift, over-conformity, over-dissension, and chronic posing; and
frequently, underachievement (Raths, 1966).
Raths, the originator of values clarification, encouraged
students to think for themselves about their value confusion in an
effort to enable them to be more self-directing in lifes confusions.
Merrill Harmin (co-author with Raths) notes that Raths view was
built on Deweys suggestions that reflection on life experiences
would serve integration of sense, need, impulse and action (1979).
This reflection, then, would lead to clarity in values. The following
statement of Harmin(1979) provides a summary of the aims of value
clarification, Values Clarification is merely meant to do what it is
meant to do, which is to assist people to think through lifes
confusions so they might be less confused and so they might learn
skills of self-direction that will serve them in the future.
In approaching value education this way, Raths and his
colleagues are concerned not with the content of peoples values, but
with a process approach to values i.e., they are concerned with the
process of valuing rather than the nature of values themselves. This
approach advocates that there are no absolute values.
The process of Value Clarification may be defined in terms of
specific patterns of language which students use and from which the
teacher may reasonable infer that valuing is occurring. This
approach is based on the principles of values relativity (that we
should not judge the worthiness of each others values), and that we
should strive to classify those values that are personally meaningful,
that is, the values that make us more purposeful, productive and
socially aware, and better critical thinkers.
According to values clarification, values are based on three
processes (Raths et al): 1) Choosing; 2) Prizing; and 3) Acting.
Accordingly, value is defined as that which results when and only
when all seven of the criteria given below are satisfied:
Choosing :
273
1) Freely
2) From alternatives
3) After thoughtful consideration of the consequence of each
alternative
Prizing :
4) Cherishing, being happy with the choice
5) Willing to affirm the choice publicly
Acting :
6) Doing something with the choice
7) Repeatedly; in some pattern of life
These processes collectively define valuing. Unless
something satisfies all seven of the criteria, then it is not regarded as
a value. The basic strategy involved in values clarification is called
the clarifying response. The clarifying response is (Raths et al,
1966): a way of responding to a student that results in his
considering what he has chosen, what he prizes, and or what he is
doing. It stimulates him to clarify his thinking and behaviour and
thus to clarify his values; it encourages him to think about them.
The utilization of values clarification as a therapeutic
process should include guiding the client through three phases. The
three phases are as follows:
1. The Discovery/Awareness Phase:
The client is encouraged to identify certain primary values
that may be acceptable to him/her. The value is determined to be
primary if the client believes that it definitely represents what is
good or worthy of cherishing. During this phase, the client begins to
accept particular values through a cognitive growth process. The
client must cognitively grow to comprehend the value in action.
After the conceptualization of the value is good, then it can be
emotionally embraced.
2. Claiming/Reclaiming Values Phase:
At this point in the process the values being considered move
more into the emotional realm and are more than mental constructs.
The values become more than an intellectual rule, model, spiritual
principle, moral principle, or desirable guide for self, significant
274
others, family, community, society and the world. The values being
examined becomes the focus of an internal struggle to integrate
something new or something that is missing, into the personality
system. As the individual claims or reclaims a particular value,
she/he must be encouraged to examine past experiences. The process
includes (1) how others treated the individual, (2) how the individual
treated others, (3) what was the meaning of the social interaction, (4)
how does the value relate to goals, pleasures and opportunities.
3. Acceptance:
The particular values that are examined will be referred to by
the client as now central to the clients world view and lifestyle. The
client will be able to refer to tangible expressions of the value
through daily interaction. The particular values that have been
accepted will be expressed as having a clear prominent position in
the individuals hierarchy of ideals and ideas.
Typical Value Clarifying strategies are as follows;
Y-chart: Students develop a list of actions that demonstrate a
value by listing them respectively in the three segments formed
by the Y, namely, what the value looks like, sounds like and feels
like.
SWOT Analysis: Students identify the Strengths, Weaknesses,
Opportunities and Threats relating to a particular issue.
Ranking: Students are given a list of statements related to a
particular issue and they are asked to rank them in accordance to
the statements that they value the most.
PMI: Students are required to list the positive (Plus), negative
(Minus) and interesting (Interest) aspects of a nominated issue,
thereby articulating their own values.
Consequences chart: Students record the likely consequences of
decisions and actions based on the values that individuals or
groups hold. The chart assumes the appearance of a branching
graphic organizer.
The Report on the UNESCO APIED on Education for
Affective Development has identified the following approaches that
can be used for teaching values in character building activities.
1. Telling : A process for developing values that enables a pupil to
have a clear picture of a value-laden situation by means of his
own narration of the situation.
275
2. Inculcating : An approach geared towards instilling and
internalizing norms into person's own value systems.
3. Persuading : the process of convincing the learner to accept
certain values and behave in accordance with what is acceptable.
4. Modeling : A strategy in which a certain individual perceived as
epitomizing desirable/ideal values is presented to the learners as
a model.
5. Role playing : Acting out the true feelings of the actor(s) by
taking the role of another person but without the risk of reprisals.
6. Simulating : A strategy in which the learners are asked to pretend
to be in a certain situation called for by the lesson and then to
portray the events and also by imitating the character's
personality.
7. Problem solving : An approach wherein a dilemma is presented
to the learners asking them what decisions they are going to take.
8. Discussing situations, stories, pictures, etc : This technique asks
the learners to deliberate on and explain the details in the lesson.
9. Studying biographies of great men : This is an approach that
makes use of the lives of great men as the subject matter for
trying to elicit their good needs and thoughts worthy for
emulation.
10.Moralizing : The process of working out a sense of morality
through active structuring and restructuring of one's social
experiences (e.g. moral reasoning and analysis)
11.Values clarification : Values clarification as a strategy for values
development may be considered as learner-centered. It relies
heavily on the pupils ability to process his beliefs, behave
according to his beliefs and to make a decision whenever
confronted with a value dilemma.
1. What is E-teacher education?
2. Explain the strategies for E-teacher education
276
3. What are the outcomes of E-teacher education?
4. Explain the Value Clarifying approach to value based teaching.
5. How would a teacher use contrived experiences for value based
education?
277
Teacher preparation courses need to consider the changes in
society in order to produce quality teachers. This unit focused on Eteacher
education and Value based teacher education as innovations
in teacher preparation. It highlighted the various strategies and
approaches therein and their outcomes. The two innovations would
serve to make teacher education in keeping with the needs of the
present society.
The challenge for teacher educators is to assist both pre and
in-service teachers by providing a deeper understanding of how to
implement values education. Because the approaches have different
methodologies they defy a uniform teaching model. Teachers also
need to know how seemingly disparate approaches can be integrated
into lessons, and how they can be incorporated into evolving models
of constructivist learning and teaching.
References :
1. Awouters, V., Jans, R., Jans S., (2008). E-Learning
Competencies for teachers in Secondary and Higher Education,
Conferencia International e-learning, Zaragoza, April 2004,
retrieved May 2, 2010 from
2. http://edict/documenten/Paper_Zaragoza_Valere_Awouters. pdf.
3. Beckett, E.C., Marques-Chisholm, I., Wetzel, K. (2003).
Preparing Technology competent Teachers, Technological
Horizons in Education Journal ONLINE, Retrieved April 30,
2010, from
4. http://www.thejournal.com/magazine
5. Hall, B. (1973) Values Clarification as a Learning Process: a
guidebook. New York: Paulist Press.
6. Harmin, M. and Simon S. (1973), Values, Readings in Values
Clarification, ed. Simon S. and Kirschenbaum H. (Minneapolis,
MN: Winston Press)
7. Harmin, M. (1979), A Review of Values Clarification, The Phi
Kappa Phi Journal, 69: 23, Winter.
8. Krneta, R., Bjekic, D,. Milosevic, D. (2007). Competencies of eteaching
in the system of Teachers competence, ETAI 2007,
September, Ohrid- Macedonia, Book of Abstracts, 29. Retrieved
on April 30, 2010, from
9. http://www.etf.ukim.edu.mk:/SCM_CO21A06/conference/E3-
2.pdf
10.Raths, L., Harmin, M. and Simon S. (1966), Values and Teaching
278
(Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill)
11.The Role of e-Tutor, Retrieved April 30, 2010, from,
12. http://www.unesco.org/en/competency-standards-teachers.
Websites :
http://www.tojet.net/articles/9122.pdf
http://www.allacademic.com//meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation
/0/3/6/2/6/pages36268/p36268-4.php
9
RESEARCH IN TEACHER EDUCATION
Unit Structure :
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Nature & Purpose of Research in Teacher Education
9.3 Scope of Research in Teacher Education
9.4 Areas of Research in Teacher Education
9.4.1 Problems of Research in teacher education
9.5 Trends in Research in Teacher Education
279
9.6 Importance of Networking and Collaboration in Teacher
Education
9.7 Implications of Research for Teacher Education
9.8 Let Us Sum Up
9.0 OBJECTIVES :
After reading this unit, you will:
Become aware of Purpose of Research in Teacher Education.
Become aware of Scope of Research in Teacher Education.
Become aware of Problems of Research in Teacher Education.
Become aware of Trends in Research in Teacher Education.
Become aware of Importance of Networking in Teacher
Education.
9.1 INTRODUCTION :
Educational research is that which develops new knowledge,
which is then applied to the improvement of educational practice.
Same is true for Teacher Education. The contributions of research to
educational knowledge are easy to demonstrate through reviews of
related literature. However, it is difficult to determine whether the
accumulation of research findings has made an impact on the
practice of education. Even when research knowledge attracts the
attention of policy makers in education, they generally consider it
just one source of information to use it in shaping a particular policy,
or use it to justify a unpopular decision, or cut funds, or may dismiss
the research findings which are contradictory to their beliefs.
In spite of this research in education in general and teacher
education in particular continues to grow and make its contributions
to the body of knowledge.
9.2 NATURE & PURPOSE OF RESEARCH IN
TEACHER EDUCATION :
Essentially there are two broad purposes of research in
Teacher Education.
(1) To understand the educational phenomenon and
280
(2) To transform it.
Understanding the Educational Phenomenon implies that it
should fit into a theoretical framework. This helps to conceptualize,
explain, control and predict the dynamics of a given phenomena. For
example, to explain the phenomena of teaching means arriving at a
conceptual framework of relationships with regard to teaching,
explaining the nature and extent of relationships among the variables
and controlling the effect of certain variables related to teaching on
certain other variables. Prediction would then give a comprehensive
understanding of the phenomena. Conceptualizing means arriving at
interrelated set of variables. Conceptualizing may not involve
verification since many paradigms are hypothetical in nature. A
well-articulated framework applicable to many contexts based on
systematic perspective is the presage-process-product paradigm of
teacher education. Prestage variables would include the personality
variables, process variables would imply curriculum transaction i.e.
mode of teaching students and product variable would be a
performance of students on a test. Explaining relationships among
variables in teacher education is important. There is a relationship
among variables is one thing but explaining why they have a
relationship is another. Thus it is essential to know the forces that
influence the relationships and at the same time understand the
underlying unobservable processes acting on theses relationships.
Controlling variables in a network of relationships among variables
operating in teacher education is essential. It is highly difficult to
study the dynamics of a variable in isolation. For example
Performance of a teacher trainee in practice teaching may depend on
several factors such as mental make-up, personality, language
fluency, communication skills, training received, experience,
motivation, the grade level of students taught, subject matter and
classroom conditions. The researcher wishes to study how the new
method of training the teacher affects the performance of teacher
trainees in practice teaching he/she probably has to control many of
the variables listed above. Other wise the researcher will not be able
to reach a precise conclusion about the effectiveness of the training.
Thus the influence of the intervening variables has to be controlled if
nor experimentally then at least statistically. Prediction i.e. the
researcher should be able to foresee the nature of changes that would
occur in dependent variables based on his/her knowledge of the
relationships of this variable with another variable which is
independent in its influence on the given variable.
Transforming the Educational Phenomenon means
incorporating changes in the phenomena as it exists because of some
281
dissatisfaction with it. In order to improve it. This is true of teacher
education too. When there is dissatisfaction with the existing
practices in teacher education changes may be required in the
structure as well as the processes of teacher education. Research
provides necessary ground for any changes to take place because
changes based on research are sound and effective.
1. What are the main purposes of research in Teacher Education?
2. How will research in the area of Teacher Education help in
understand the educational phenomena?
transforming the educational phenomena?
9.3 SCOPE OF RESEARCH IN TEACHER
EDUCATION :
The system of Teacher Education has several sub-systems.
There is constant interaction among them. As such the components
282
of the system, the inputs, processes and the outputs lend themselves
to research.
Inputs include the goals of Teacher Education, characteristics
of the teacher educators, characteristics of the students teachers, and
infrastructural facilities.
Processes include the classroom interactions among teacher
educators, student teachers and pupils. Interactions consist simulated
learning experiences in order to provide learning of various skills
such as teaching and evaluation.
Outputs are the immediate outcomes as well as delayed
outcomes. Immediate outcomes include the gaining of theoretical
knowledge, acquisition of the required skills and attitudes. Delayed
outcomes are the retention of the theoretical knowledge, skills,
attitude and developing teacher effectiveness.
Research Methodologies adopted are mainly descriptive
surveys, experimental studies, developmental studies, as well as
relational studies. Action research is also conducted by teacher
educators to improve classroom practices. Descriptive surveys are
used to procure data in teacher education or describe the
characteristics of teacher education. Experimental studies are
conducted mainly to study the effect of intervention strategies or
training programmes. Relational studies try to study relationships
between the input and process, process and output, or input, process
and output. Developmental studies put forth the historical
developments in teacher education in order to explain the status of
teacher education at a particular time or changes over a period in one
or more sub systems of teacher education. This gives a systemic
view of the temporal dimensions of teacher education.
9.4 AREAS OF RESEARCH IN TEACHER
EDUCATION :
There is a wide spectrum of variables related to teacher
education. For example, selection procedures, development of
battery of tests for selection and then try to predict success based on
the selection criteria. Research areas would include personality of
student teachers, teacher educators, different types of training such
as pre service and in service training, or the different levels of
teacher education i.e. teacher education for elementary level or
secondary level. Most of the researches are isolated and there seems
no connection between them As such, super imposing of a
283
classificatory system helps to identify cluster of variables. A cluster
of variables thus identified may be called an area of research.
During the seventies researches in teacher education were
classified in five areas such as selection criteria, abilities and
qualities of a teacher, pre and in service training of teachers, work
load, job expectations and difficulties expressed by teacher,
procedures and practices of teacher education in India and
personality variables of teachers. In the later years researches were
classified under context, input process and output variables. During
the eighties context, presage, process, product were the categories.
The context variables include student-teacher characteristics,
institutional characteristics related studies and on classroom context.
Student-teacher characteristics means student-teachers formative
experiences, academic qualifications, abilities, personality factors,
intelligence, etc. Institutional characteristics include climate of
teacher education institutions, administrative set up, classroom
climate, curriculum framework.
The presage variables include teacher-educator characteristics
i.e. formative experiences of teacher educators, their education and
training, motivation, abilities, personality factors, intelligence, and
teaching and training skills.
The process variables such as classroom interactions,
classroom transactions and mediating processes that lead to learning.
Such variables are attending, practicing, task persistence, active
learning time and student teacher engagement with learning task.
Teacher behaviour in the classroom and supervisory behaviour of
teachers relating to student teaching too are some of the research
variables.
The product studies on outcome of teacher education include
two types of variables. One, those describing immediate outcome of
teacher education i.e. student-teacher outcomes such as their
achievement, attitudes and skills, and two long term outcomes
describing level of professional skills and teaching success or
teaching effectiveness.
1) Explain the context, presage, process and product variable that
need to be researched in Teacher Education.
284
9.4.1 Problems of Research in Teacher Education :
There has not been much headway in research since the
researchers face a number of problems. More research is needed in
the area of teacher education and there needs to be qualitative
improvement too. Problems of research are both intrinsic and
extrinsic to the researcher. Following are some of the glaring
problems of research in teacher education.
Lack of Qualified Personnel :
Researchers lack the minimum abilities, skills, Acquiring
these is a deliberate process. It is important that besides acquiring
the qualifications researchers gain knowledge of the theory of
teacher education, skills of scientific inquiry, ability to analyze and
interpret data and make rational judgments.
Lack of Motivation :
This happens when researcher has no qualification and no
inclination to do research. The system fails to encourage them and
utilize their abilities. There are no proper incentives to do research.
Lack of Resources and Facilities :
Many a times there is lack of several adjunct conditions
influencing undertaking of research. For example unavailability of
expert advice for proper planning, or statistical procedures for
analyzing the data, or proper reporting of findings. Lack of material
facilities such as hardware, stationary can also cause hindrances.
Problems of Finance :
There is less research done due to lack of finance. Fund
agencies such as UGC, NCERT and ICSSR at times fail to provide
funds.
Arbitrariness :
285
Arbitrariness in research means lack of meaningful relation
among studies. Any research should be based on previous research
for its assumptions, hypotheses and theoretical background. Only
then will there be hierarchical growth in the discipline. Therefore it
is important to establish proper linkage among studies to develop a
coherent understanding of the phenomenon after a certain number of
studies. This avoids duplication in research and enhances the
possibility that all aspects and variables involved are attended to
properly. Prediction becomes difficult and it becomes difficult to
establish as to the direction in which research in teacher education is
going. Instead of paradigmatic set of hypotheses getting tested,
individual hypotheses are tested. As a result the growth of
knowledge is slow or zero. Thus it is important to have long term
plans for research.
Lack of Consensus :
There are as many views and priorities in education as there
are researchers involved in it. Concurrence of views in a point of
time will help researchers to work within common theoretical
purpose.
Lack of Coverage :
Lack of attention to some of the areas of teacher education or
differential attention form researchers to some areas of research
comes in the way of covering a large number of areas needing
attention. At some period of time certain areas come into
prominence. As a result many researches get done in the area, while
other areas get receded. For example there are many studies on test
construction or on teacher behaviour, or only on micro-teaching.
What is required is thematic research for balanced and uniform
progress.
1) What are the problems of conducting research in Teacher
Education?
286
9.5 TRENDS IN RESEARCH IN TEACHER
EDUCATION :
Quantitative Leap :
The first study reported in Teacher Education was by Banerji
in 1956. After the first study was reported the First Survey reported
45 studies on Teacher Education upto 1973. The Second Survey
during the next five years i.e. up to 1978 reported 65 studies. During
the period 1978 to 1983, 116 studies were reported. The growth of
researches in Teacher Education indicates that the researchers were
getting attracted towards this area. Some of the reasons cited for this
attraction were easy accessibility of sample for the studies,
availability of ready-made tools and expertise.
Systematization of Instruction :
Instruction dominated by lecture method, which is usually a
one way interaction and often unstructured was called the traditional
method. Research on instruction show a shift of emphasis from
lecture method to structured methods such as programmed learning,
instructional model-based teaching or structured lectures. The
purpose of research was to make instruction at Teacher Education
level a systematic activity. The main intention was to make
instruction reproducible. Further, the purpose was to develop
instructional strategies for Teacher Education.
Larger Coverage of Objectives :
Attempts to cover a larger number of objectives was seen.
These included classroom interaction analysis for objective
evaluation of lessons to achieve the objective of understanding
dynamics of classroom teaching. Micro-teaching studies aimed at
developing skills of teaching. Programmed learning for imparting
theoretical knowledge. Discussion as an alternative method for
developing social interaction skills and higher order cognitive skills,
and simulation for development of application and decision making
skills and abilities were also areas of research. The trend which
emerges indicates that objectives of teacher education were
researched.
Alternative Model :
287
Earlier researches on the Harbartian model as a method of
teaching, Flanders interaction model, micro-teaching were seen as
the behaviouristic models. However, recent researches indicated a
different trend wherein other behaviouristic models such as Concept
Attainment, Inquiry Training, Advanced Organizer Models. This
was indeed a welcome change.
During the current period researches on the context, presage,
process and product variables highlighting the importance of areas of
teaching and learning styles of teachers and students, cognitive
styles, student and teacher characteristics, management of education
and technology of education and technology in education are gaining
importance and attention of researchers.
1) According to you what are some of the areas of research which
need immediate attention of researchers?
9.6 IMPORTANCE OF NETWORKING AND
COLLABORATION IN TEACHER EDUCATION:
One of the reviews made on the status of Teacher Education
at the time of the formulation of the NPE (1986) and its POA was
concerning isolation of institutions of Teacher Education. It was
observed that institutions of Teacher Education are isolated from
each other and from schools. There is limited communication
between institution at one level and another. Institutions of Teacher
Education were found to be isolated from state and national level
agencies. In order to ensure efficiency and smooth functioning
appropriate networking of Teacher Education institutions as well as
state and national level agencies is therefore needed. Following are
some of the advantages of networking.
Advantages of Networking :
288
Resource Utilization :
Resource material and facilities at district, regional and state
levels can be mobilized for optimum utilization. This will avoid
duplication and wastage. Several agencies provide men and material
need by schools.
Development of Teachers :
Networking will facilitate development of required teacher
capabilities for qualitative improvement of the teaching learning
process. This developed and available expertise can be then utilized
to meet needs of teachers working in remote areas.
Improvement of Quality :
Networking will lead to rationalization of programmes of preservice
and in-service courses and thereby help develop a system of
quality teacher education which in turn will affect school education.
Feedback for Improvement :
Efficient and effective monitoring and evaluation of teacher
education programmes can be done through networking.
Structure of Networking :
Horizontal linkages among institutions of Teacher Education
is essential to enable the institutions to assist one another by sharing
educational resources Institutions need linkage to rationalize the
pre-service training programmes and the in service programmes of a
continuous nature to develop a national system of Teacher
Education. DIETS at the district level will have academic linkages
with District Boards of Education, have direct linkage with
secondary schools and have on its complex elementary schools.
Vertical linkages are needed to remove isolation with state
level agencies such as State Departments of Education, SCERTs,
State Institutes of Education, State Institutes of Science Education,
State Educational Technology Units.
Linkages are to be established between regional agencies
such as Regional Institute of English, Regional Technical Teacher
Training Institute, Regional Collages of Education and other support
institutes.
289
9.7 IMPLICATIONS OF RESEARCH IN TEACHER
EDUCATION :
Teaching, like other professions, has a developing knowledge
base that serves to guide practitioners. Knowledge generated by
research is an important component of this knowledge. Teacher
education and staff development programme might be considered to
be a central avenue of knowledge dissemination on one hand, and of
practicing its use in varied contexts on the other hand. The
curriculum of teacher education and the text books they use,
determine what aspects of research knowledge will be brought to the
attention of becoming teachers. The practicum and teacher
induction programmes might serve student teachers and novices in
learning how to use this knowledge base. Research findings
constitute a regular feature of teacher education courses in the
foundation disciplines, like psychology, and in method courses, but
the translation of the findings into class-room action is usually left to
the student teachers who find this an extremely difficult or even
impossible task.
Teacher education is an important field for research since the
quality of teacher education has been regularly questioned. At the
same time as teacher quality is increasing being identified as crucial
to educational outcomes and pupil gains. Consequently teacher
education researcher need to work together in order to
Share emerging research findings.
Develop innovative research methodologies within teacher
education.
Disseminate innovative pedagogical methods within teacher
education.
Find new publishing outlets within an overcrowded academic
field.
Support colleagues in institutions with under developed research
profiles.
Develop important emerging themes to give teacher education
research a distinctive positive.
Networking should be established with central level agencies
working in the area of Teacher Education. They are Teacher
Education unit in the MHRD, National Council for Teacher
Education (NCTE), National Council Educational Research and
Training (NCERT), University Grants Commission (UGC). There
290
are other supporting institutions like National Institute of
Educational Planning and Administration (NIEPA) now known as
National University of Educational Planning and Administration
(NUEPA), Central Hindi Institute (CHE), Central Institute of
English (CIE), Central Institute of Indian Languages (CIIL),
Directorate of Adult Education (DAE), National Institute for
Handicapped (NIH).
1) Why is networking between Teacher Education institutes at
different levels important?
9.8 LET US SUM UP :

This unit covers the nature & purpose of research in Teacher
Education, which is to understand the educational phenomenon and
transform it. The scope of research in Teacher Education
encompasses the whole system of i.e. the inputs, processes, the
context, presage, and process variables in Teacher Education.
Problems of research in Teacher Education are many. They are lack
of qualified personnel, lack of motivation, arbitrariness, lack of
resources and facilities, problems of finance, lack of coverage, and
lack of consensus among researchers. Trends in research in Teacher
Education indicate a quantitative leap in the number of researches
conducted, systematization of instruction, larger coverage of
objectives and alternative methods and models available. Finally
importance of networking between teacher education institutions,
and district, regional, state and central agencies has been
highlighted. Special importance has been given to its implications
in the field of teacher education.
1. Discuss the trends in research on Teacher Education in India.
Based on the findings of this research, what suggestions will you
291
make to transform the structure and process of Teacher
Education?
2. Discuss the tends in research in teaching and teachers. How can
the findings of research in this area be used for overhauling the
system of Teacher Education?
3. Research on Teacher Education should change the quality of
teacher and teaching. How far is this achieved through current
research on teachers?
4. Describe the research trends in Teacher Education in India with
reference to the variable studied and research designs and
methodologies used. What improvements can you suggest to
make research on Teacher Education more rigorous and
meaningful?
1. Borg, W.R. and Gall, M.D. (1983) Educational Research: An
Introduction New York, Longman Inc.
2. Biddle, B.J., Good, T., Goodson, L.I.F. (Eds.) International
Handbook of Teachers and Teaching Vols. I & II, Dordrechet,
Kluwer, Academic.
3. Dunkin M.J. (Ed.) (1985) The International Encyclopedia of
Teaching and Teacher Education, Oxford, Pergamon.
4. Gupta, A.K. (1984) Teacher Education: Current and Future
Prospects New Delhi, Sterling.
5. Kerawalla. G.J. (Ed.) (1990) Redesigning Teacher Education: A
Systems Approach Department of Education, University of
Bombay.
6. NCTE (1998) Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education
NCTE, New Delhi.
7. NCTE (1998) Policy Perspectives in Teacher Education, NCTE,
New Delhi.
8. Sharma S. Teacher Education in India.
Book, NCERT, New Delhi.
292
10A
TEACHER EDUCATION AS
A PROFESSION
Unit Structure :
10.A.0 Objectives
10.A.1 Introduction
10.A.2 Concept of Profession
10.A.3 Concept of Professionalism
10.A.4 Developing Professionalism for Teacher Educators
10.A.5 Developing Professional Ethics and Professional Code of
Ethics for Teacher Educators
10.A.6 Let us sum up
10.A.0 OBJECTIVES :
After reading this unit you will be able to :
Know about the concept of profession.
Relate and differentiate between profession and professionalism.
Explain how to develop professionalism for teacher educators.
Explain how to develop professional ethics and code of ethics for
teacher educators.
Define teacher effectiveness.
State the components of teacher effectiveness.
Know performance appraisal.
Explain how performance appraisal helps in enhancing and
evaluating teacher effectiveness of teachers and teacher
educators.
293
Teaching is a profession-indeed a noble one, conceptually and
ideally. It is also different from other professions because of its
multitude of dimensions. Teachers are the largest professional group
engaged in human development activities. It is only in the case of
teaching there is much more that is required to be accomplished than
in the case of other professions. Training of the practitioners is
considered to be one of the important characteristics of a profession.
Therefore, in order to befit the teachers to their roles, a sound
professional training is needed. Induction training and continuous
education thereafter equips the teachers with adequate knowledge
and skills to perform their professional functions. Hence, the
training of the teachers assumes special importance. Professional
training of a teacher implies his mastery in knowledge of the subject,
in pedagogy and teaching techniques.
Training of teachers is an important component of teacher
education. Teacher education covers in its ambity the whole gamut
of activities involved in the accomplishment of the teaching
profession. Teacher education denotes a real and holistic perception
of teacher for that task they are required to perform and to
continuously upgrade their professional skills. Therefore, in this unit
we will discuss about profession, professionalism and how to
develop professionalism, professional ethics and professional code
of ethics for teacher educators. We also discuss about teacher
effectiveness, its components and how to enhance and evaluate
teacher effectiveness through performance appraisal.
10.A.2 CONCEPT OF PROFESSION :
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A profession is a vocation founded upon specialized
educational training, the purpose of which is to supply disinterested
counsel and service to others, for a direct and definite compensation,
wholly apart from expectation of other business gain.
History :
Classically, there were only three professions : Divinity,
Medicine, and Law. The main milestones which mark an occupation
being identified as a profession are :
1. It became a full-time occupation;
2. The first training school was established;
3. The first university school was established;
294
4. The first local association was established;
5. The first national association was established;
6. The codes of professional ethics were introduced;
7. State licensing laws were established.
Just as some professions rise in status and power through
various stages, so others may decline. This is characterized by the
red cloaks of bishops giving way to the black cloaks of lawyers and
then to the white cloaks of doctors. With the church having receded
in its role in western society, the remaining classical professions
(law and medicine) are both noted by many as requiring not just
study to enter, but extensive study and accreditation above and
beyond simply getting a university degree. Accordingly more
recently-formalized disciplines, such as architecture, which now
have equally-long periods of study associated with them.
Although professions enjoy high status and publics prestige,
all professionals do not earn the same high salaries. There are
hidden inequalities even within professions.
Examples of Professions :
Professionals include, for example : Lawyers, Engineers,
Professors, Military Officers and Non-Commissioned Officers, and
Qualified Teachers, Architects, Accountants, Notaries, Advocates,
Actuaries, Dentists, Midwives, Pharmacists, Medical Technologists,
Nurses and Physicians.
Formation of a Profession :
A profession arises when any trade or occupation transforms
itself through the development of formal qualifications based upon
education, apprenticeship, and examinations, the emergence of
regulatory bodies with powers to admit and discipline members, and
some degree of monopoly rights.
Regulation :
Professions are typically regulated by status, with the
responsibilities of enforcement delegated to respective professional
bodies, whose function is to define, promote, oversee, support and
regulate the affairs of its members. These bodies are responsible for
the licensure of professionals, and may additionally set examinations
of competence and enforce adherence to an ethical code of practice.
However, they all require that the individual hold at least a first
295
professional degree before licensure. There may be several such
bodies for one profession in a single country.
Autonomy :
Professions tend to be autonomous, which means they have a
high degree of control of their own affairs : Professionals are
autonomous insofar as they can make independent judgements about
their work. This usually means the freedom to exercise their
professional judgement.
Professional autonomy which is an essential characteristic of
the concept of professional ideology is based on three claims.
First, the work of professional entails such a high degree of skill
and knowledge that only the fellow professionals can make
accurate assessment of professional performance.
Second, professionals are characterized by a high degree of
selflessness and responsibility, that they can be trusted to work
conscientiously.
Third, in the rare instance in which individual professionals do
not perform with sufficient skill or conscientiousness, their
colleagues may be trusted to undertake the proper regulatory
action.
However, it has other meanings. Professional autonomy is
often described as a claim of professionals that has to serve primarily
their own interests this professional autonomy can only be
maintained if members of the profession subject their activities and
decisions to a critical evaluation by other members of the
profession. The concept of autonomy can therefore be seen to
embrace not only judgement, but also self-interest and a continuous
process of critical evaluation of ethics and procedures from within
the profession itself.
Status and prestige :
Professions enjoy a high social status, regard and esteem
conferred upon them by society. This high esteem arises primarily
from the higher social function of their work, which is regarded as
vital to society as a whole and thus of having a special and valuable
nature. All professions involve technical, specialized and highly
skilled work often referred to as professional expertise. Training
for this work involves obtaining degrees and professional
qualifications (see Licensure) without which entry to the profession
296
is barred (occupational closure). Training also requires regular
updating of skills through continuing education.
Power :
All professions have power. This power is used to control its
own members, and also its area of expertise and interests.
A profession tends to dominate, police and protect its area of
expertise and the conduct of its members, and exercises a
dominating influence over its entire field which means that
professions can act monopolists, rebuffing competition from
ancillary trades and occupations, as well as subordinating and
controlling lesser but related trades. A profession is characterized by
the power and high prestige it has in society as a whole. It is the
power, prestige and value that society confers upon a profession that
more clearly defines it.
Characteristics of a Profession :
The list of characteristics that follows is extensive, but does
not claim to include every characteristic that has ever been attributed
to professions, nor do all of these features apply to every profession :
1. Skill based on theoretical knowledge : Professionals are
assumed to have extensive theoretical knowledge (e.g. medicine,
law, scripture or engineering) and to possess skills based on that
knowledge that they are able to apply in practice.
2. Professional association : Professions usually have professional
bodies organized by their members, which are intended to
enhance the status of their members and have carefully controlled
entrance requirements.
3. Extensive period of education : The most prestigious
professions usually require at least three years at university.
Undertaking doctoral research can add a further 4-5 years to this
period of education.
4. Testing of competence : Before being admitted to membership
of a professional body, there is a requirement to pass prescribed
examinations that are based on mainly theoretical knowledge.
5. Institutional training : In addition to examinations, there is
usually a requirement for a long period of institutionalized
training where aspiring professionals acquire specified practical
experience in some sort of trainee role before being recognized
297
as a full member of a professional body. Continuous upgrading
of skills through professional development is also mandatory
these days.
6. Licensed Practitioners : Professions seek to establish a register
or membership so that only those individuals so licensed are
recognized as bona fide.
7. Work autonomy : Professionals tend to retain control over their
work, even when they are employed outside the profession in
commercial or public organizations. They have also gained
control over their own theoretical knowledge.
8. Code of Professional conduct of ethics : Professional bodies
usually have codes of conduct or ethics for their members and
disciplinary procedures for those who infringe the rules.
9. Self-regulation : Professional bodies tend to insist that they
should be self-regulating and independent from government,
Professions tend to be policed and regulated by senior, respected
practitioners and the most highly qualified members of the
profession.
10.Public service and altruism : The earning of fees for services
rendered can be defended because they are provided in the public
interest, e.g. the work of doctors contributes to public health.
11.Exclusion, monopoly and legal recognition : Professions tend
to exclude those who have not met their requirements and joined
the appropriate professional body. This is often termed
professional closure, and seeks to bar entry for the unqualified
and to sanction or expel incompetent members.
12.Control of remuneration and advertising : Where levels of
remuneration are determined by government, professional bodies
are active in negotiating (usually advantageous) remuneration
packages for their members. Though this is sometimes done in
sometimes done in good intention but can be proven good when
the partner, family or mentor recommend something contrary to
the general norms. This was further buttressed in the world bank
essay paper written by Idiaro Abdulazeez Paper Challenges and
associated solutions for companies working together in collective
action to fight corruption. This has caused for global audience
and even the worldbank launched an international competition in
it people are used to Some professions set standard scale fees, but
298
government advocacy of competition means that these are no
longer generally enforced.
13.High status and rewards : The most successful professions
achieve high status, public prestige and rewards for their
members. Some of the factors included in this list contribute to
such success.
14.Individual clients : Many professions have individual feepaying
clients. For example, in accountancy, the profession
usually refers to accountants who have individual and corporate
clients, rather than accountants who are employees of
organizations.
15.Middle-class occupations : Traditionally, many professions
have been viewed as respectable occupations for middle and
upper classes.
16.Male-dominated : The highest status professions have tended to
be dominated although females are closing this gender gap
Women are now being admitted to the priesthood while its status
has declined relative to other professions. Similar arguments
apply to race and class : ethic groups and working-class people
are no less disadvantaged in most professions that they are in
society generally.
17 Ritual : Church ritual and the Court procedure are obviously
ritualistic.
18 Legitimacy : Professions have clear legal authority over some
activities (e.g. certifying the insane) but are also seen as adding
legitimacy to a wide range of related activities.
19 Inaccessible body of knowledge : In some professions, the body
of knowledge is relatively inaccessible to the uninitiated.
Medicine and law are typically not school subjects and have
separate faculties and even separate libraries at universities.
20 Indeterminacy of knowledge : Professional knowledge contains
elements that escape being mastered and communicated in the
form of rules and can only be acquired through experience.
21 Mobility : The skill knowledge and authority of professionals
belongs to the professionals as individuals, not the organizations
for which they work. Professionals are therefore relatively
299
mobile in employment opportunities as they can move teacher
employers and their talents with them. Standardization of
professional training and procedures enhances this mobility.
Teacher Education as a Profession :
Teachers play a vital role in the improvement of the quality of
education. In any assessment of the educational system, it is
important to know whether there are enough teachers, who are not
only well qualified to each different subjects, but are also able to
cope with the changing curriculum and growth in knowledge. It is
important to know about the facilities that exist for upgrading their
knowledge and improving their skills of teaching.
The professional development of teachers has received a great
deal of attention in all countries, including India, The volume of
professional and research literature on in-series education and
professional development is also considerable. In comparison, the
attention that teacher education has received is marginal. Even when
research and policy initiatives are directed towards teacher
education, the focus is on curriculum reform, programme structure,
institutional development, instructional resources, and the like. The
content of teacher educators professional development is rarely
examined and critiqued. More specifically, the concept of an
identifiable body of Knowledge a knowledge base for teacher
education does not seem to have been addressed so far in any
meaningful way.
Eraut draws a useful distinction between prepositional
knowledge and personal knowledge. The former owes its origin to
institutions of higher education where it is developed, organized and
codified. It acquires academic status and legitimacy. It becomes
public knowledge, available for further research and testing.
Personal knowledge is that which resides within the working
professional. It is obtained over many years from observation, social
interaction and experience, and gets reflected in the persons
performance. In fact, it forms an important part of a persons
competence. Erauts map of professional knowledge provides
useful guidance for those about to engage in the difficult task of
determining the knowledge base of a profession. Such a map is
needed for teacher education for several reasons :
i) To correct wrong notions about teacher education that are in
circulation.
ii) To illuminate the debate about theory-practice links and the role
of experimental learning.
300
iii) To highlight aspects of knowledge that have been somewhat
neglected in the teacher education programmes.
iv) To shed light on the growing debate about competence based
approaches to professional standards and qualifications.
The term professionalism is used to describe the methods,
manner, and spirit of a profession and of its practitioners. Each
profession has its own culture derived from the role of its
practitioners and the expectations the society at large has with
respect to the professional service.
If teacher education is to become a truly professional
enterprise fundamental changes are needed in the way teachers,
colleges and departments of education operate. The bureaucratic
administrative model needs to be replaced by a professional
managerial model. The following comparison of the two models is
intended to help visualize the needed change.
The Administrative bureaucratic model :
Largely a legacy of the British rule in India, the
administrative bureaucratic hierarchical model has taken deep roots
in our country and is reflected, in varying, degrees, in almost all
types of organizations, public as well as private.
The Managerial Professional Model :
By contrast, this model derives its characteristics from two
sources, the body of knowledge called management developed in the
context of business and industry but by no means limited to them, as
well as from the values inherent in professionalism.
Table 1 : Comparison of Characteristics of the
Administrative-Bureaucratic Model and Managerial Model
The Administrative
bureaucratic Model
The Managerial-professional
Model
Input orientation Output orientation
Accountability for maintenance
and control
Accountability for growth and
outcomes
Relationships based on authority
and jurisdiction
Relationships based on expertise
and autonomy
Rigidity in rules and procedures Flexibility in rules and
301
procedures
Reward system linked to
seniority
performance
The Image of Teacher Education :
It would be useful to review the basic assumptions and reality
of teacher education in order both to understand the image problem
in its historical perspective and to create an appropriate agenda to
deal with it. Some of the basic assumptions underlying university
based teacher education programmes are as follows :
i) That there is a common body of knowledge theory and skills
associated with teaching that must be acquired by every
prospective teacher;
ii) That universities are the repositories of this professional
knowledge;
iii) That universities tend to be future oriented with respect to
professional needs and development;
iv) That colleges and departments of teacher education enjoy
congenial relationship with academic departments and research
activity in higher education;
v) That teacher education programmes are best managed when
associated with professional research and development and
service activities;
How does reality (the prevailing situation in teacher
education generally) fit with these assumptions? Critics point out
the following.
i) Preparation of public school teachers is viewed by many as a low
level academic enterprise, counter to the intellectual traditions of
the university;
ii) Teacher education departments have not developed adequate
programmes for knowledge synthesis. We do not have a
coherent theory for the utilization of academic disciplines in
preparing teachers;
iii) Students in teacher education programmes are generally a
theoretical and practice-oriented, and show little confidence in or
felt need for research and theory;
iv) Research provides conflicting evidence regarding the influence
of university based teacher education programmes in shaping
302
the professional perspective of students. It is described as liberal,
conservative, or non existent;
An analysis of these assumptions and reality leads to two
fundamental problems for teacher education.
i) Unlike in the more mature professions, such as medicine and
law, there is little consensus among teacher educators as to
whether a prescribed body of professional knowledge is really
necessary in order to prepare a practitioner and if so, what the
ingredients of this knowledge are, or should be.
ii) Although teacher education institutions, public schools, and state
departments and agencies of education are the principal partners
in preparing and certifying teachers, there seem to be major
differences in their role concept, convictions, and values.
Healthy Practices in Teacher Education :
Theoretical aspect of professional management of teacher
education is clarified and glorified in all its dimensions. When it
comes to practical reality in teacher education institution it is a
matter of divine glory of the time. There has been knowledge
explosion in very discipline. A college / university teacher has to
continuously update his / her knowledge in his / her chosen field of
expertise, or run the risk of becoming totally outdated in a very short
period of time.
While the really motivated and industrious teachers use their
own resources to keep themselves abreast of new knowledge and to
train themselves in the latest processes, methodologies and
techniques of teaching, it is necessary to provide systematic and
organized orientation programmes for the large number of teachers
at the college and university level.
The Academic Staff Colleges developed by University Grants
Commission under the National Policy on Education (1986) has the
main philosophy to keep in mind that teacher is central to the
system. While it is universally accepted that the teacher is the pivot
of the educational system, our system does not provide adequate
opportunities for their professional development. It is, therefore,
necessary to develop inbuilt mechanisms to provide opportunities for
teacher within the framework of knowledge society. It is also
accepted that a teacher must not be confined only to transmitting
information, she / he must also orient students to meet the challenges
303
of life, to not merely becomes a trained professional, but also a
better citizen.
It was believed in the past that a college / university teacher
learnt the art of teaching on the job by emulating outstanding
models such as his / her own teachers or senior colleagues. The
stock in trade of the college / university teacher has always
motivated the students. Today, it is no longer possible to expert a
newly appointed teacher to acquire the art of teaching by emulating
his / her peers.
The concept of an orientation programme emphasizes
teachers as agents of socio-economic change and national
development. As per the guideline issued by UGC it is intended to
inculcate in young lecturers the quality of self reliance throw their
awareness : inner and outer. In order to achieve this objective, the
curriculum for the orientation course includes the following four
components with minimum of 144 contact hours, that is six hours
daily for a four week programme.
Component A : Awareness of linkages between society,
environment, development and education.
Component B : Philosophy of education, Indian education
system and pedagogy.
Component C : Resource awareness and knowledge generation.
Component D : Management and personality development.
The above components are illustrative in nature depending
upon the requirements of lectures and their academic background,
the Academic Staff College is empowered to select the number of
topics and methodologies of teaching.
One of the major criticisms of teacher education as a
profession, or perhaps as one claiming professional status, is the lack
of an identifiable body of knowledge that is established by a
consensus as a prerequisite of effective performance as a practicing
teacher. While the criteria that distinguish the profession from other
occupations are subject to continuous revision and refinement, the
validity of at least some of these has never been questioned.
Foremost among these relates to the knowledge base. As Eraut
points out, The power and status of professional workers depend to
304
a significant extent on their claims to unique forms of expertise
which are not shared with other occupational groups and which are
valued by society.
1. Define profession
2. Give example of some Profession
3. Explain any three characteristics of Profession.
4. Explain the managerial Professional model.
305
10.A.3 CONCEPTS OF PROFESSIONALISM :
It is sometimes difficult to identify the true meaning of
professionalism. Many individuals use professionalism as a faade
to cover their lack ability to perform their job effectively. Others use
it to for intimidation to gain power. Still others use it as a way to
impress the unknowing. However, it seems that very few individuals
use it for its original intent to provide a foundation for effective
communications and efficient performance.
Different people have different opinions about the term
Professionalism. We will now discuss different views about it.
This can cause considerable confusion for someone trying to define
professionalism in their own career. But, you should always keep
one point in your mind that the core definition of Professionalism is
always the same. A general, raw view is professionalism is a
focussed, accountable, confident, competent, motivation toward a
particular goal, with respect for hierarchy and humanity, less the
emotion. What this means is that you leave out the outbursts and
emotional thralls that accompany stressful situations and success.
You maintain focus, with a sense of urgency, and accept
responsibility on a path towards a specific goal. In the process, you
maintain respect for your superiors, peers, and subordinates as well
as respect them as human beings.
Dictionary meaning of professionalism is the expertness
characteristics of a professional or the pursuit of an activity as an
occupation. We often talk about the quality of what we do and
measure the professionalism of our work against others. Although
we often use different terms, the overall meaning is the work of x
is more professional than y. Some views are given below for
getting more idea about it.
Professionalism is the expertness characteristic of a Professional
person.
306
Professionalism is following the rules and regulations and have
the courage to change them.
Professionalism is balancing the personnel and professional life.
It means to be practical and professional in life. One who has
skills, knowledge and attitude and uses them is called a
professional. The attitude which a professional shows is called a
professionalism.
Professionalism is all about attitude towards work i.e. the
dedication, sincerity with which you approach to your work, the
work which makes you earn money.
To get clear idea about Professionalism you should agree on
something that just because one is professional, he or she
automatically does not exhibit professionalism. A very general, raw
idea of Professionalism is a bundle of the following concepts :
A focused approach
Pride in what one is doing
Confident
Competent
Motivation towards a particular goal
Accountability
Respect for people irrespective of rank, status and gender
Responsibility whole on the path to a particular goal
Commitment to word and deed and
Control of emotions well
From the above discussions you may got idea about
Professionalism. It is anything done with lot of common sense. It is
something done with end result in mind. It is something that is done
with planning. It is something where person shows forward
thinking.
It means it is not important that what types of work you are
doing but important that how you are doing it. To develop
professionalism you should follow the following criteria.
Have pride in yourself and confidents in your abilities
Do your best and be your best
Achieve your full potential
Be on time no matter what
307
Dress for the job
You should follow the quotes Professionalism is knowing
how to do it, when to do it and doing it.
In short, professionalism are language, behaviour, act, dress
and work. It has to do with how to handle ourself in situations. It is
the character, spirit and competencies demonstrated by the standing
practice of the profession. The challenge of maintaining
professionalism involves subscribing to the ideal behaviours and
values shared by colleagues.
10.A.4 DEVELOPING PROFESSIONALISM FOR
TEACHER EDUCATORS :
Teacher professionalism has relevant significance in
education in that it affects the role of the teacher and his or her
pedagogy, which in return affects the students ability to learn
effectively. It can be defined as the ability to reach students in a
meaningful way, developing innovative approaches to mandated
content while motivating, engaging, and inspiring young adult minds
to prepare for ever-advancing technology. However, this definition
does little to exemplify precisely how a professional teacher carries
himself or herself. Due to the growing autonomy being given to
educators, professionalism remains one of the most influential
attributes of education today. Teacher professionalism contains
three essential characteristics, competence, performance and
conduct, which reflect the educators goals, abilities, and standards,
and directly impact the effectiveness of teaching through the
development of these qualities.
To begin, the characteristic of competence is fundamental in
an educators pursuit of excellence. A discussion on competence
focuses on three important ideas : preparation, knowledge of subject
area, and defined pedagogy. The first, preparation, prepares the
professional for the adversity of the classroom. From language and
cultural barriers to socio-economic differences, all educators face
deterrents in the classroom that must be broken down by
individualized techniques. Decision making by well-trained
professionals allows individual clients needs to be met more
precisely and promotes continual refinement and improvement in
overall practice (Darling Hammond, 1988, p. 59). Thus, by
bridging these barriers, the educator will be better prepared for
classroom management and create an effective learning
environment. Furthermore, by doing this, the professional teacher
308
leads students by his or her example: one who is prepared for
difficulties will be able to overcome them.
Along with preparation, a professional educator with a strong
knowledge of his / her subject area has the opportunity to concern
themselves with preparing innovative techniques to teach material
rather than spending significant amounts of time studying the
material. With the advantage of knowing ones curriculum material
well, the educator has more confidence in their teachings, having
already placed significant though on the material being taught.
Thus, a professional is able to dwell on how to relate subject matter
to the students and their cultures in an original method.
The final portion of competence is discovering and assuming
a defined pedagogy. A professional teacher who has a defined
pedagogy has already journeyed through several trials to discover
which pedagogical techniques are more effective. According to
Lunenburg and Ornstein (2000), Hiring teachers by subject and
skill presumes that curricular priorities have been established, which
means that decisions have been made about how much time will be
devoted to each segment of the curriculum. Although this may take
years to fine-tune, a professional is willing to self-evaluate his or her
pedagogy as s/he develops it, revise their edification when deemed
necessary, and apply ones ideas to a practical situation.
Furthermore, by acquiring a defined pedagogy, a professional
creates more autonomy for him or herself, allowing for a partial
release from the constraints constructed by the administration,
school board, or parents.
Although competence is essential to teach professionalism, it
is only useful if the educator is able to perform. Performance is the
ability to effectively teach the concepts of a curriculum. However,
this is performance defined at its most fundamental level. As
individuals, professionals have the right to perform their work as
they see fit, based on knowledge acquired through specialized
training (Newman, 1998,p. 121). Such a quote demonstrates the
essentiality of performance, which derives from both premeditated
and improvisational techniques. A professional teacher educates so
that students learn concepts and apply them to their lives. Although
this undermines the schools emphasis on state test results, a quality
educator prepares for the tests through this unique style of applying
to his / her students lives. Thus, the application of these concepts
must be inside the bounds of students lives. Furthermore, an
educator that has a high standard of performance is reliable and
dedicated. This type of educator becomes an active teacher rather
309
than a passive teacher, showing the students a genuine interest in
their progress as a student.
The final characteristic of teacher professionalism, conduct, is
equally as significant as the first two. The manner in which an
educator carries himself or herself is a reflection on ones classroom,
school, community, and educational system. Conduct is a
representation of how well one takes care of himself or herself, from
aesthetics to language and behavior. However, these are minor
qualities of conduct. Conduct also includes ones ability to initiative
and maintain quality communication with all the parties involved in
education : students, fellow teachers, school board, administration,
and parents. It is through energetic communication by a professional
that initiates understanding, whether it be a student grasping their
potential or the professional voicing their displeasure on a newly
implemented regulation. A professional teacher desires to locate
effective communicative skills to achieve preferred educational
goals.
In conclusion, a completed definition of teacher
professionalism far exceeds the simple notion that a teacher be
prepared in a certain manner. A professional is trained to handle all
situations, as most episodes in the classroom require quick thinking.
Also, teacher professionalism extends beyond ones ability to
understand content; the educator must discover if the students are
being reached in an effective way. With the role of teacher
becoming more autonomous, an educator must be competent in their
studies, perform well under the eye of the administration and
parents, while maintaining good conduct to facilitate quality
communication.
1. What is Professionalism?
2. How can you develop Professionalism as a teacher educator?
310
10.A.5 DEVELOPING PROFESSIONAL ETHICS AND
PROFESSIONAL CODE OF ETHICS FOR
TEACHER EDUCATORS :
Every profession is expected to evolve a set of ethical
principles to guide the conduct and behaviour of its professional
members. The Ethical principle provides the base to differentiate
between desirable and undesirable conduct of behaviour.
Ethics are trends in away which has been established and
maintained over the years. It is time tested and socially accepted. It
deals with moral principles usually accepted voluntarily by an
individual or a group. The code of professional ethic may be defined
as a set of self imposed professional ideals and principles necessary
for the attainment of self satisfaction and professional excellence.
Professional ethics refers to the principles, guidelines or norms of
morality which a teacher has to follow in teaching profession while
dealing with students, parents, community and higher authorities.
Every profession has different work culture and work climate
and accordingly the professional ethics are decided. Professional
ethics are decided by the society and it is also the contribution of
great exponents of the same profession. It is mainly to provide a
guideline and also to judge any professional individual. The
definition and parameter of professional ethics varies from society to
society and from time to time, it is dynamic in nature. With change
in social set up, pattern and dimension of the society the ethics also
change. In fact at the same time professional ethics will differ from
place to place and hence there is no distinct line to distinguish ethic.
What govern any ethic are social benefit, moral correctness, truth,
value and progress of mankind.
Need of Professional Ethics :
For self correction : Man and his thinking keep changing. It is
human to tend towards comfortability, selfishness, laziness and
311
money. It is difficult to follow and abide by truth, hard work, simple
living, honesty etc. As a result individual turns towards the easier
ways of life without thinking what effect will it have on him, his
family, profession and society. Man slowly turns selfish and
unethical without realizing. In present time we all are affected by
such factors and feelings to some extent. Professional ethics correct
us if we are doing any wrong or intending.
For self satisfaction : Self satisfaction is more related to our inner
self, our feelings and thought process. When we follow the ethical
code of society and profession we are regarded as hard working,
honest, dutiful, righteous etc. All this makes us more respectable
and more prominent than others. Whenever anyone is
acknowledged for a right job, he starts governing respect and liking,
all this gives self satisfaction. Professional ethics enable a person to
judge himself and decide and not accept what others decide for him.
To guide the conduct and behaviour : The behaviour of students is
moulded by the teacher and the teachers behaviour by professional
ethics. Professional ethics in education is supported by philosophy
and psychology of teaching. By following professional ethics, the
teachers conduct and behaviour becomes respectable and socially
acceptable.
To shape the personality : Teacher keeps developing his
personality by adding to his knowledge and by refining his actions.
The professional ethics in teaching profession emphasize the teacher
to follow pre-established norms in his thought and in actions, even in
ones dressing up, speaking, etiquettes etc. By following similar
ethics, the personality of an individual is reshaped and he becomes a
teacher in real sense.
To set up Ideals for Students : Students come to school not just to
study the subjects and books but also to learn to behave and polish
their personality. Everyday students come in contact with different
teachers and are influenced by them. If a teacher is behaving in a
very positive and appropriate manner, the students follow him and
want to become like him. Hence by behaving in ethical manner
teacher becomes ideal for students.
Improvement of Human Relation : Professional ethics guide to
keep in mind the social betterment, respect for others, sense of
brotherhood, tolerance, co-operation etc. Individual guided by
professional ethics helps others to the maximum, by doing so there
312
develops positive feeling. Positive feelings improve human
relations.
When human relations improve the school becomes the best
place for teacher, students and parents to work and co-ordinate. All
this ultimately gives better result and improves over all standards.
Development of Society : School is the outcome of social
necessesity, the society makes the school then the school makes the
society. It is a cycle which grows bigger and bigger with time. If
the professional ethics are forgotten the individual as well as the
society starts moving in wrong direction. By following Professional
ethics teacher takes the society in right direction and make it a better
place to live in.
The Professional Excellence : Every profession has a unique work
culture and work climate. The work culture is strengthened when
the professionals of the profession act and interact in professionally
ethical manner i.e. so they do not cross each others way or contradict
bluntly instead cooperate and motivate. All this develops a smooth
co-ordination and effective functioning thereby bringing
professional excellence.
To improve the Professional Environment : Professional
environment includes the people, infrastructure, working conditions
and working hours. Professional ethics ensure that due place and
respect is given to the seniors, to the higher authorities,
responsibility and working hours. When we follow such ethical
codes of a profession the environment remains calm, congenial and
relaxed for effective working.
To follow norms and principles of the profession : Norms and
principles of a profession are nothing but rules and regulation
already framed in advance for effective functioning. These rules
change with time and situation. Professional ethics binds us to our
job and helps us to differentiate between professional development
and self interest. It also prepares us for extra responsibility which we
have to shoulder from time to time. Professional ethics are selfbinding
for better professional output.
Professional Obligations :
Obligation is a responsibility which an individual imposes on
himself. It is ethical and in the line of duty. A professional when
follows rules and regulation and correctly interprets it for the
313
progress of humanity. It creates a sense of brotherhood which
makes others respect that individual and his profession. All this is
done selflessly without any pressure. Teacher has obligation
towards :
I. Obligation towards Students :
Students and teachers are integral part of educational process.
Teacher teaches whereas student learns. Unless there is dedication
on the part of teacher and sincerity on the part of students the whole
educational process ca not be effective. It is expected that teacher of
today will go beyond limit for the betterment of child.
1. Sincerity in Teaching : It is obligatory on the part of the teacher
to teach effectively and to the fullest in the best possible way in
required time with the help of available resources. Teacher also
ensures that the students are gaining as desired.
2. Motivating the Students : Teacher should motivate the student
not only to study subject but also for life. Without motivation,
achievement decreases drastically. Motivation succeeds in
difficult times and hence, the teacher should encourage students
in all the possible ways.
3. Providing Emotional Stability : Students are highly emotional
by nature and very often situation comes where a normal student
may also get emotionally unstable. In such situations teacher has
to comfort the students in the best possible manner.
Professional
Obligations
Towards
Higher Authorities
Profession
Patents
Students
Society
314
For example : After closely missing or losing inter school / state
level football competition etc.
4. Psychological Handling of Students Impulses : In day-today
activities students may display very strange habits or actions. The
teacher should make an attempt to understand the motives and
feelings behind particular action and deal with it psychologically
so that the action of the student gets positive direction.
5. Conscious Workers : There are various works which a teacher
has to perform besides teaching. These works appear suddenly in
day to day affairs which is important for the school as well as the
student where as, no such work is mentioned in the duty book of
profession. When the teacher does all the required work for the
improvement and development of school and students he fulfills
his obligation towards the students and school.
6. Help the Students in taking decisions : Teachers educate and
inspire students for better life, development and progress. All this
is very much related to what students think and decide in day
today routine. The decisions which students take should have
logical base and aim in view. Teacher guides the student in
taking such decisions.
For Example : Opting for right subject after Xth keeping in view
the aim, aptitude and attitude of the students.
7. Development of Leadership Qualities : Every student when
prepared for life has to act as a leader in different situation.
Teachers provide such opportunity to the students by making
them participate in stage activities, morning assembly etc.
Teacher also demonstrates leadership qualities by exhibiting it
himself.
II. Obligation Towards Parents :
Parents send their children to school with a hope that their
children will do better, learn every required language and ability
along with the subjects. It is the teacher who helps the child in
achieving the desired goals of society as well as of parents. Hence, it
becomes obligatory on the part of the teacher to remain in touch with
the parents for the well being and educational growth of the child.
Some of the obligations towards parents are as follows:
315
1. Providing Regular Information about Childs Performance :
Parents usually do not come to know how their ward behaves and
performs in the class in routine manner. Teacher should inform
the parents about the general behavior and performance in
relation to, attention towards studies, paying respect to seniors
teachers etc. The teacher should discuss all this during parentteachers
meet so that if any problem is corrected it is corrected
in the very beginning.
2. Guiding Parents in Deciding the Childs Future : Patents
usually have knowledge of only a few fields / profession which
they have acquired personally or from friends of relatives.
Parents tend to decide the option for their children on the basis of
their limited personal experience and knowledge. The reality is
that professional arena is expanding every day. Hence, a teacher
should guide parents about the professional / educational options
available for better future of child keeping in mind the caliber of
student and current trend prevailing among the students of
present generation.
3. Informing about the Attitude and Aptitude of Child : In
present time parent are not able to judge the attitude and aptitude
of their child owing to busy schedule of lack of awareness.
Whereas, the teacher observes the children every day,
individually, as well as in group where child reveals all his
aptitude and attitude, which is of great importance in
understanding the personality of child. Teacher should share all
his findings with parents so that parents are able to understand
their children in a better manner.
4. Help Parents in Providing Conducive Home Environment :
At some point of time students face some of the other problem
which has its origin at home or which can be solved at home
only. Students find it difficult to share their problems with
parents due to various reasons. In such situations when a teacher
learns of such problems he / she should call the parents and share
the situations and suggest them various ways to improve the
home environment.
5. Counselling of Parents : Parents generally treat their children as
they were treated during their childhood or as per their own
assumptions. They impose their mind set on their wards without
considering the change of time and situation because of which
children start turning away from parents.
316
When a teacher does counselling of parents he discusses all such
matters keeping in mind the changing situation and mind bent of
present generation, so that parents, teachers and students are able
to make education more meaningful.
6. Giving Proper Direction to Hobbies and Interest : Parents find
hobbies and interests as wastage of time. Teacher gathers such
information of hobbies and interests of individual student and
shares it with parents. Teacher convinces the parents on the
pursual of different hobbies and interest as it is of great
importance and benefit for all round development of Childs
personality. Teacher suggests parents to give better dimension to
such outlet of feelings so that students become more creative and
talented.
7. Establishment of good relationship between School and
Parents : It is obligatory on the part of the teacher to keep
informing parents about the ways of working of school and also
about the achievements of school, new activities introduced in
the school etc. All this makes the parents feel closer to the school
and a better relationship is built.
III. Obligation Towards Society :
School is the outcome of the need of the society. It aims at
helping the younger generation in improving. The school is also said
to be the society in miniature. It is the teacher who as a craftsman
craves the future of society and nation.
Following are the obligations of teacher towards the community:
1. Providing good citizens : When a child is sent to school he
becomes a student who is taught various subjects and also the
ways of life. During his stay in school he learns how to become a
useful member of society by attending to his duties in an honest
manner. The teacher has to install all the desired qualities by
means of education which makes the students a good citizen.
2. Making a student responsible towards rights and duties :
While living in a society one has to interact regularly with the
members of the community. All the interactions should be based
on ethical norms which are guided by the legal rights and duties.
All such rights and duties ensure that no one interferes in the
personal sphere or liberty of other individual and performs ones
317
own duty in the best possible manner. The correct training of
practicing rights and duties have to be conducted by the teacher
for smooth functioning of the society.
3. To follow social norms : Every society is governed by social
norms which have been developing since the society originated.
These social norms are established for the smooth and effective
functioning of the society. Young children initially do not agree
to established norms of society and want to change the setting or
establish new norms.
Whenever the young generation is confused or influenced by
such feeling the teacher guides them by making the existing
norms very clear in all the ways. It develops respect for the
social norms and students become socially adjusted individuals.
4. Setting up of Ethical Standards : Ethical standard are the
standard which guides an individual and the society towards
betterment. Children of today are the citizens of tomorrow
unless they are ethically erect; we cannot assume the society of
tomorrow to be upright. Teacher can install ethical qualities in
the students by means of moral lecture, personal demonstration
and other related activities.
5. Development of Religious tolerance : India is multi religious
country with more than seven religions binding and dividing the
people. Unless the students understand and familiarize
themselves with the basics of all the religions they will not
understand it. This delicate task of unifying the community has
to be done by the teacher because people of all the religion trust
teachers. Teacher makes the students understand the similarity
of different religions by taking the students to worship places of
different religions and also by celebrating holly festivals of all
the religions in an appropriate manner.
6. Integration of National Feeling : A nation cannot progress
unless its people are integrated. In a country like India where
language and culture dominate the society along with other
differences. All these differences needs to be carefully
understood and tolerated or else the nation would disintegrate.
School is a society in miniature where teacher can develop the
feeling of National Integration by giving importance to all the
region, languages and religion by celebrating various national
festivals and National Integration Day in particular.
318
7. Balancing the community relationship : No individual or a
group of people can live in isolation. Despite being in majority
or at a socially, economically advantaged position.
When a teacher makes the students realize the importance and
contribution of every independent individual or a community and
its relationship with others a balance is created between all the
members of the society and students understand its importance
and try to balance the existing relationship.
8. Living in Harmony with nature : Every individual belongs to a
community and every community depends on natural
environment as a biological being. Hence, protecting the nature
and safe guarding it is the duty of every individual. Students are
taught about the advantages and the role of nature in leading a
healthy life by the teachers by means of education
(Environmental education) and activities like growing trees,
reducing pollution, spreading awareness etc.
IV.Obligation towards the Profession :
Teacher profession is considered as one of the noblest
professions. It is expected from a teacher to act, behave and display
excellent behaviour in the society so that the society gets new
dimensions and meaning in life. Since society considers teaching a
very noble profession therefore obligation on the part of the teacher
also increases to a great extent.
1. Safe-guarding and Enhancing the Professional Mechanism :
Teacher being the professional of the noblest profession has to
display a very noble behaviour in and outside the school. His
manners and appearance should always reflect simplicity and
wisdom. While interacting with students and individuals he
should display his concern for improvement of education and
overall progress of humanity.
2. Respecting the Profession : It is obligatory on the part of a
teacher to respect the profession even if he is in it by chance and
not by choice. By showing his respect for the profession he
makes others respect the teaching profession which ultimately
makes all the teachers respectable. The teacher should always
share the positive and bright side of the profession because
discussing negatives will only result in rejection and at the same
319
time one should not forget that every profession has negative as
well as positive.
3. To be open to professional growth : The teacher should always
make an effort towards the professional growth by attending in
service training, seminars, workshops etc. organized by
concerned educational board for educational enhancement.
Teacher can strengthen his growth by reading new books,
magazines, journals etc.
4. Contributing towards the growth of Profession : With
growing experience and knowledge the teacher realizes certain
facts concerning the students, education and educational process.
He should contribute his thoughts in the form of article and
research paper in various journals which will benefit all the
teachers, educators and policy makers through out the country.
There by resulting in growth of the profession.
5. Maintaining congenial atmosphere at work place : It is the
duty of every professional to maintain congenial atmosphere at
work place so that the profession is liked by each and everyone
involved in it. It can be done by being friend, guide and
philosopher to students, respectable and co-operative to
colleagues, obedient and courteous to seniors and also by
performing all the duties expected and delegated from time to
time.
6. Inspiring people to join the profession : Whenever a teacher
comes across an individual who is capable and interested in
joining the teaching profession. He should be guided to the
fullest and inspired, so that good people with required attitude
and aptitude join the profession. It is an indirect service rendered
to an individual and the profession.
7. Active Participation : Every teacher should become active
member of professional organization, consisting it as
professional obligation. At the same time he / she should
participate actively and contribute to the maximum in every
professional meeting and activity organized for the formulation
of policies and programmes. The teacher should also be keen to
strengthen the unity and solidarity of the professional
organization.
8. Maintaining Secrecy : Every profession deals with various
kinds of restricted information, it may be concerning policy
matters, students records, examination performance, setting up
320
of question paper, checking of answer sheets etc. All such
information should be guarded with maximum care. It should be
guarded with maximum care. It should not be discussed with any
unauthorized person except concerned authorities and neither be
disclosed before appropriate time. While maintaining ones own
secrecy teacher should not interfere in others affairs.
V. Obligation towards the Higher Authorities :
Higher Authorities is the section or the group of people
who have been entrusted with the task of formulating and managing
the rules, regulations and policies for the development of the
institution.
In a way if they are legislature than the teachers are the
executives who enforce or execute the programmes formulated by
the higher Authorities. For effective functioning and development
of any institutions, it is important that a teacher coordinates his
actions with the Higher Authorities as per the changing need and
situation.
1. Abiding by the rules and regulation : The teacher should abide
by the rules and regulations of an institution framed by the higher
authorities from time to time so that there is uniformity, even
growth and development throughout and discipline among the
staff, then only teachers will be able to enforce discipline among
the students. Without discipline progress is not possible.
2. Acting as a link between higher authorities and students :
From time to time higher authorities formulate educational as
well as non-educational policies for all round development of
students as well as institutions. These policies cannot bear fruits
until effectively communicated and administered. The
professional obligation of a teacher is to understand these
policies in true spirit and effectively propagate it for achieving
the desired result, for this the teacher has to act as an effective
link between higher authorities and students.
3. Providing strategic information : Higher authorities are not in
the direct contact with the students and the actual happenings.
Hence they depend greatly on the teachers to know about the
exact situation and information so that they are able to effectively
321
plan policies. Teacher should suggest and present a true picture,
whenever asked.
4. To effectively implement the policies and programmes :
Drawing or framing a programme or policy is a theoretical
aspect. The success of any policy depends completely on the coordination
of the policy makers, managers, evaluators and
teacher as executor. The teacher has a great role in it and has to
act as a helping hand in effective implementation of various
programmes and policies to the above mentioned authorities.
5. Being respectful (courteous) to higher authorities : It is often
observed that the teachers and the other staff members do not
show due respect to higher authorities when alone because they
implement changes which disturbs the existing equilibrium.
Staff members often discuss newly implemented policies or
programmes and criticize the higher authorities and sometime
even share it with students. The teacher should remember that
higher authorities bring in changes for betterment because it is
their duty. In any cases due respect should be maintained in and
out of the institution.
Apart from the above mentioned obligations there are
innumerable obligations which a teacher has to take care of. These
obligations change their face with time, situation and people.
A teacher can become a professional in real sense if he fulfills
all the obligations and remembers that a Profession is above the
professional and in no case he should allow his human instincts and
feelings to come in the way of his profession. So all over we can say
that a teacher has greater duties and responsibilities to perform for
the betterment of the society. Professional ethics and mannerism
should go hand in hand so that the teacher is able to move ahead as a
real professional in changing time.
1. Write short notes on
a) Professional ethics
b) Professional obligations
322
In this unit we have studied that :
Teaching is a profession. Teachers training is an important
component of teacher education. Profession is a vocation founded
upon specialized educational training. Some examples of
professionals are lawyers, Engineers, Professors, Military officers
and qualified teachers. Some of the important characteristics of
professions are :
Skill based on theoretical knowledge
Professional association
Work autonomy
Code of professional conduct or ethics
High status and rewards and
Mobility
Professionalism is the expertness characteristics of a
professional person. It has to do with how to handle ourselves in
situations. A professional teacher desires to locate effective
communicative skills to achieve preferred educational goals.
Like every profession, in teacher education also teacher
educators should develop professional ethics and code of ethics to
correct himself and get self satisfaction by developing his conduct,
behavior and personality. Teachers and teacher educators develop
professional ethics by imposing responsibility on himself by
showing obligation towards students, parents, society, higher
authority and profession.
1. What is Professional Obligation? Why it is necessary?
2. What is Professionalism? How can one develop it?
3. Differentiate between Profession, Professionalism and
Professional Ethics.
References :
1. www.google.com
323
2. University News
10B
TEACHER EFFECTIVENESS
Unit Structure :
10.B.0 Objectives
10.B.1 Introduction
10.B.2 Meaning and components of Teacher Effectiveness
10.B.3 Enhancing and evaluating Teacher Effectiveness through
Performance Appraisal of Teacher Educators
10.B.4 Let us Sum up
10.B.0 OBJECTIVES :
After reading this unit you will able to :
State components of teacher effectiveness.
educators.
This section explores those factors that make a teacher
effective. Recent research reveals that must variation in overall
school effectiveness is due to class-room level factors rather than
school level factors. For these reasons if is important to try to
identify what makes an effective teacher.
324
10.B.2 MEANING AND COMPONENTS OF TEACHER
EFFECTIVENESS :
Teacher effectiveness is the result of effective teaching.
Aspects of effective teaching include :
Having a positive attitude
The development of a pleasant social / psychological climate in
the classroom
Having high expectations of what pupils can achieve
Lesson clarity
Effective time management
Strong lesson structuring
The use of a variety of teaching methods
Using and incorporating pupil ideas
Using appropriate and varied questioning.
However, effective teaching methods are context specific. What is
needed for a teacher to be effective can vary depending upon factors
such as :
The type of activity in the lesson
The subject matter
The pupil backgrounds (such as age, ability, sex, socio-economic
status and ethnicity)
The pupils personal characteristics (such as personality, learning
style, motivation and self-esteem)
The culture / organization of the department, school.
From the above discussion we can conclude teacher
effectiveness as follows.
Teacher effectiveness is the impact that class-room factors,
such as teaching methods, teacher expectations, class-room
organizations and use of class-room resources, have on Students
performance.
Teacher effectiveness is the power to realize socially valued
objectives agreed for teachers, especially, but not exclusively, the
work concerned with enabling students to learn.
325
Teacher effectiveness is the attribute of a teacher who has
the capability or potential of having a positive impact on student
learning, behaviour and attitudes.
10.B.3 ENHANCING AND EVALUATING TEACHER
EFFECTIVENESS THROUGH PERFORMANCE
APPRAISAL FOR TEACHERS AND TEACHER
EDUCATORS :
Teachers become public figures when something goes wrong
with education systems or when they are needed to implement
reforms. They acquire public status also when they negotiate
salaries and working conditions or take a stand in relation to some
issue. Most of the times, teachers work in their classrooms and
schools ignorant of the discussions about their functions and
performance. Many policies on teachers are being framed to assess
their conceptual knowledge as well as their practicality in producing
expected results.
Today, a drastic change in education system leads to change
in performance of teachers. In present times, teachers build up an
invaluable armoury of long-term strategies and quick fixes that every
novice would give a right arm for. Present teachers are busier than
ever. Thus, the problem before us is to regulate the quality of
teaching through setting of standards and at the same time, evaluate
teachers performance. We all are working tooth and nail for setting
the standards, but we need less attention towards the appraisal or
evaluation of teachers performance.
Meaning of Performance Appraisal (P.A) :
P.A. is personnel evaluation method seeking the measurement
of employee work effectiveness using objective criteria. P.A.
systems hope to achieve higher productivity outcomes by delineating
how employees meet job specifications. A major challenge for
performance appraisal systems is to define performance standards
while maintaining objectivity.
P.A. is one of the important components in the rational and
systematic process of human resource management.
326
Appraisal may be defined as a structured formal interaction
between a subordinate and supervisor that usually takes the form of
a periodic interview. (Annual or Semi Annual)
Uses :
1) To identify the better performing employees who should get the
majority of available merit pay increases, bonuses and
promotions.
2) To manage performance.
3) To know how P.A. contributes to performance.
4) To review past behaviour and provide opportunity to reflect on
past performance.
From employee view point :
1) Tell me what you want me to do?
2) Tell me how well I have done it?
3) Help me improve my performance
4) Reward me for doing well.
Organizational view point :
1) To establish and uphold the principles of accountability.
Meaning of Teachers Performance Appraisal :
Teachers Performance Appraisal or Evaluation means a
systematic evaluation of the teacher with respect to his/her
performance on job and also, her potent development. Infact,
performance appraisal is formal, structured system of measuring,
assessing and evaluating a teachers job, her behaviour and judging
how he / she is presently performing the job. It also includes
forecasting how he / she can perform the job more effectively in
future.
Criteria for Teachers Performance Appraisal :
1) The evaluation of teacher should be linked to the mission of the
school.
2) The evaluation of teacher should be linked to the standards set up
by teacher for herself.
327
3) The evaluation of teacher should be viewed as a continuing
process. There should be alternative formative techniques used
as forms of evaluation and when one gets completed, implement
a new one.
4) The new evaluation system of teacher also emphasizes upon
summative evaluation, i.e. judgements of teachers made through
collaboration of students outcomes, opinions of peers,
administrators, parents.
Mission of the School :
Mission is a goal, an aim, a purpose or an objective. Every
school has its own mission. Infact, mission depends upon the vision
of the school. The effective teacher is expected to shoulder the
school in order to accomplish the mission of the school. The teacher
can be evaluated through the efforts he / she has made in
accomplishing the mission. For example The mission of Seventh
Day Adventist Higher Secondary School in Maninagar at
Ahmedabad is Committed to empower each student to achieve all
round development through Academic Excellence, Physical Fitness,
Mental and Spiritual Health and Social Consciousness.
Hence teacher can be evaluated not only on the basis of inclass
learning experiences that he / she provides, but also on the
basis of out-class and off-campus learning experiences. So, her
personality should not be like a veneer that can be applied to a
person by herself, nor something he / she can turn on and off like an
electric current, Rather, her personality needs to have its roots in
physical health, emotions, intelligence, knowledge, ideals,
spiritualism and sociability.
Standards set up :
The saying Teachers are born, not made is wrong. The
basic qualities of mind and personality that predispose an individual
to success in teaching are influenced greatly by the home and
community in which he is reared; also, such qualities can be
cultivated. The knowledge of desirable and undesirable qualities
help the teacher to set her goals for becoming an effective
professional person. The teacher can be evaluated through the
standards that he / she has set up for himself / herself.
In order to know what standards a teacher has set up for
himself / herself, a form known as Pre teaching Form can be filled
by teachers.
328
Pre-Teaching Form Sample :
1. What are the goals for your subject?
2. What are the goals for particular lessons?
3. What do you want students to learn?
4. How far do such goals accomplish the mission of the school?
5. How far do such goals support districts curriculum and
standards set-up by the state?
6. How far do such goals relate to broader curriculum goals?
7. How do you plan teaching work to accomplish those goals?
8. What instructional materials will you use?
9. What teaching-aids will you use?
10.How will you correlate theoretical knowledge to practical aspect
of your subject?
The responses in Pre Teaching Form can help to evaluate
the teachers performance in terms of her willingness to do hard
efforts, in preparing interesting hand-out materials, preparing
learning packages, organizing resource, managing time and making
learning process meaningful to students.
Formative Evaluation :
Teacher continuously steers the boat of education. He / she
constantly strives to help the students to recognize their vital
problems, to face their problems with confidence, skill and creative
imagination. He / she guides the students day and night to recognize
their desire and also nourish it in order to develop more adequate
understanding.
With a view of evaluate teachers constant efforts, formative
evaluation of teachers should be done. Formative evaluation can be
done through various techniques by bifurcating teachers
responsibilities into four main domains :
Domain 1 : Planning and Preparation
a) Demonstrate knowledge of content and pedagogy : This refers
to what planning has the teacher done to demonstrate her
knowledge of a particular subject by interrelating it with teaching
skills.
329
b) Select instructional goals : This refers what goals has the
teacher set for herself, her subject, her lessons and her students.
c) Manage Resources : This refers to how far has the teacher
planned her teaching-learning activities in limited available
resources.
d) Design Coherent Instructions : This refers to what has the
teacher planned in coordinating curriculum with extra activities.
This domain can be evaluated through
Sample Unit Plan made by teacher
Sample Lesson Plan made by teacher
Teaching Artifacts planned by teacher
Domain 2 : The Classroom Environment :
a) Create an environment of respect and rapport : This refers to
how far the teacher has been successful in creating environment
of respect and rapport. This can be evaluated on the basis of
Table 2.
Table 2 : Creating Environment on Respect and Rapport
Sr.
No.
Teachers Behaviour Students Reaction
1 Teacher interaction with
some students is negative,
demeaning, sarcastic or
inappropriate.
Students exhibit disrespect
for teacher.
2 Teacher student
interactions are generally
appropriate but may reflect
occasional inconsistencies,
favoritism or disregard for
students cultures.
Students exhibit only
minimal respect for
teacher.
3 Teacher student interaction
is friendly and
demonstrates general
warmth, caring and respect
Students exhibit respect for
teacher.
4 Teacher demonstrates
genuine caring and respect
for individuality of every
Students make such
teachers their role models.
330
student.
b) Establish a culture for learning : The culture for learning can
be established by
Becoming an effective tutor
Getting pupils to talk to you
Helping pupils who do not believe in themselves
Coping with emotional pupils
Providing personal and pastoral care
c) Manage classroom procedures : The teacher can be evaluated
on the basis of how far he / she has been successful in managing
classroom procedures
Preparing herself well for the lesson
Preparing children for the lesson
Providing practical activities
Keeping children on task
Involving children
Displaying work
Preparing for consolidatory activities like worksheets,
experiments etc.
d) Manage Students Behaviour : The teacher can be evaluated on
basis of how far he / she could manage student behaviour. This
includes :
Dealing with upset children by being gentle but firm giving
them, more time and space and becoming their friends.
Dealing with bad behaviour through knowledge of
psychology.
Making Children feel secure and comfortable by being
consistent, fair, judicious and not being too rigid.
Helping children to build self esteem by praising them,
managing stressful situations and supporting their proper
decisions.
e) Organize Physical Space : The teachers evaluation can also be
done on the basis of how far he / she has provided satisfactory
331
seating arrangement in available classroom, cares for hygien and
sanitation and providing sufficient lighting facilities playground
facilities etc.
This domain can evaluated through
Direct observation of teacher in classroom by an expert
principal or supervisor
Teacher student relationship table
Student surveys
Samples of student work
Teaching artifacts
Domain 3 : The Classroom Instruction
a) Communicate clearly and accurately : The effective teacher is
expected to have good command over the spoken language of
school, speak in raised voice, with clarity in speech, proper
speech-patterns and neither too fast nor too slow.
This is necessary part of classroom instruction. One of the factor
to evaluate the teachers performance can be her clear and
accurate speech and communication skills.
b) Use various techniques : The effective teacher should make use
of various techniques like questioning, discussion,
demonstration, etc. to stimulate students and bring variety in
teaching.
Use of suitable techniques will make the lesson easy and
interesting for students. The teachers performance can be
evaluated on basis of her selection and implementation of a
particular technique in particular lesson.
c) Engage students in learning : The effective teacher develops
broad outlines, formulates objectives to be attained, selects
materials and teaching aids suitable to age and level of student,
uses appropriate teaching methods, does demonstration,
experimentation illustrations, projects, fieldworks to give
practical view of the subjects, develops and maintains pupils
interest in learning process, develops suitable study-habits in
pupils, develops sense of appreciation for subject among pupils,
evaluates pupils progress using various evaluation techniques.
332
Thus the effective teacher constantly strives to engage students in
learning. The teachers performance can be evaluated by
assessing how far he / she has been successful in engaging
students in learning.
d) Provide feedback to students : The effective teacher needs to
be a minute observer and evaluator herself. He / she is expected
to do formal and informal observation of her students and give
them appropriate feedback and also judge their potentials.
Direct observation of teachers class by an expert, supervisor
or principal
Teaching artifact
Samples of students work
Assignment provided by teacher
Domain 4 : Professional Responsibilities :
It is sometimes said that degrees do make a teacher, but it is
professionalism which develops a teacher. Indeed there is great deal
more to being a teacher than just teaching. Every teacher will be
faced with an array of additional duties. The effective teacher needs
to fulfill these duties also. Hence the teacher can be evaluated on the
basis of professional responsibilities.
a) Competence in the subject : The effective teacher, at whatever
level, should be thoroughly competent in the subject he / she
teaches. He / she should acquire from advanced study a much
wider and deeper knowledge of the subject matter that is directly
needed in the class. One cannot teach what one does not know,
nor can one teach with enthusiasm unless one know, so much
about his field of learning that he is confident and enthusiastic
about his specific subject. Facts, ideas and inspiration flow from
a mind that is full.
The teacher can be evaluated on the basis of her subject
competency.
b) Attending clinics, workshops, seminars, conferences : Such
professional gatherings are held on special topic of discussion.
The procedures are informal and the groups are small enough
that problems of individual teacher can be sorted. The teachers
333
who attend these sessions have greater opportunities to learn,
better ways of helping their students.
The Teacher can be evaluated on the basis of her visits to such
sessions.
c) Conducting experimentation and research : Teachers may
initiate their own experiments, or participate in large projects
which aim at discovering new and different techniques for
effective teaching.
This can also be one of the factors to evaluate teachers
performance.
d) Keeping Intellectually alert : Teacher should have daily
association with magazines and books professional and
recreational, and in addition, should hold discussions with friends
and colleagues to enliven his intellectual interest and deepen his
thinking.
This becomes one of the factors to evaluate teachers
performance.
e) Working with Outside Agencies : Teacher is expected to show
professional while working with outside agencies. The teacher
should maintain individual student records up to date, keep a case
diary of relevant incidents or occurrences, keep accurate notes
about any communication carried on with outside agencies and
be prepared to express her opinions on the basis of records
maintained.
The teachers performance can be evaluated on the basis of what
proportion of professionalism does he / she show in relation to
working with outside agencies.
f) Summative Evaluation : One of the evaluation technique to
correct ineffective behaviour of the teachers is to do subjective
evaluation i.e. evaluation by all live elements surrounding
teacher. This evaluation needs to be doe at the end of the
semester or academic year. Simple evaluation scale including
space for comments on the particular strengths and weaknesses
of the teacher can be asked to be rated by :
a) Students
b) Peers or Colleagues
c) Administrators
334
a) Rating by Students : In order to secure objective ratings, a
teacher should give her students the opportunity to rate her
anonymously and with complete impunity. Any feeling on
the part of the student that there may be an attempt to
discover his identity as a rater will, of course, influence his
rating and thus defeat the entire purpose of the procedure. In
order to prevent the handwriting from revealing the individual
students the comments should be typed. Single, isolated
comments may reflect a students weakness, rather than the
teachers; but when the same comment turns up a number of
times, it is likely to be a good indication of teachers
behaviour. Many research studies have indicated that
students opinions for their teachers behaviour in the
classroom are competent. Even children in the lower grades
seem to know what they are talking about when they
comment on teachers.
Again the teacher should have full opportunity to study the
comments made for her. Also, it is very important that he /
she not be offended by unfavorable ratings and comments or
sensitive about learning that her teaching is not totally
effective. On the contrary he / she should regard it as an
opportunity to improve his / her professional skills.
b) Rating by Peers : Working in a school or college can be
really miserable if the people around you are not supportive
and helpful. It is very essential that colleagues around you
are helpful and supportive. Infact fellow teachers can better
help to evaluate the teacher. But here, the fellow teachers
who are raters should keep in mind that they are rating one
another for one anothers development. Hence, too much
friendship or animosity should not become the hurdle. Again,
all the peers should avoid to join together to rate one another
high. Further, the rating scale should not create conflicts
among them.
c) Rating by administrators : One of the important jobs of the
teachers is to comply with the rules made by administrators,
try to tackle them by working on his / her own terms and at
the same time by not offending them, acting as a bridge
between administrators and students and making sure that
protocols as defined are respected cordially. Also, the teacher
should exhibit co-operation in his / her behaviour with non
teaching personnels and peons. They being the helping hands
of the organization, the teacher should not take undue
335
advantage of his / her status. Besides, novel ideas, leadership
qualities, punctuality are additional qualities that
administrators expect from a teacher.
Hence a teacher can also be evaluated through administrators.
Problems of Rating :
Teachers Performance Appraisals are subject to a wide
variety of inaccuracies and, biases which can be termed as rating
errors occurs in the raters observation, judgement and can seriously
affect assessment results.
The most common occurring rating errors are :
a) Leniency or severity : Leniency or severity on the part of any
rater makes the assessment subjective. Subjective assessment
defeats the very purpose of performance appraisal.
b) Central Tendency : This occurs when teachers are incorrectly
rated by the raters near the average or middle of the scale. Here
the attitude of the rater is to play safe.
c) Halo Error : A halo error takes place when one aspect of an
individuals performance influences the evaluation of entire
performance of the individual. For a teacher, a halo error occurs
when a teacher who stays late at school to guide students might
be rated high on content and method of teaching. Similarly, an
attractive or popular teacher might be given a high overall rating.
d) Rater Effect : This includes favoritism, stereotyping and
hostility. Excessively high or low scores are given only to
certain individuals based on raters attitude towards the ratee, not
on actual outcomes.
e) Perceptual Set : This occurs when the raters assessment is
influenced by previously held beliefs. E.g. If the administrator
has a belief that teachers hailing from one particular region are
intelligent and hardworking his subsequent rating of the teacher
hailing from that region tends to be favourably high.
f) Performance Attributes Order : Two or more attributes on the
rating-scale follow or closely follow each other and both describe
or rotate to a similar quality. The rater rates the first dimension
accurately and then rates the second dimension similar to the first
336
because of the proximity. If the attributes had been arranged in a
significantly different order, the ratings might have been
different.
g) Spill over Effect : This refers to allowing past performance
appraisal ratings to unjustifiably influence current ratings. This
may happen in case of ratings done by Administrators or Peers.
If the above mentioned problems are overcomed while rating,
summative evaluation can give a clear picture of teachers present
performance and also can judge her potential development.
Teachers Performance Appraisals are never welcomed.
They can seem a bit daunting, but if teachers prepare for it.
(Trainees of B.Ed. colleges can be for this, too) they aim at
improving the performance. Now when affective teaching has
become prominent and that the role of individual is undermined,
there is necessity of teachers to reach not only intelligently but
affectionately and also, learn to work in attribution to system.
Hence it is a high time that as performance appraisals are
made compulsory in various other professions like Management,
Business, Medicine, Pharmacy. It should also be made compulsory
in the field of education also.
1) What is performance appraisal? What are its uses?
2) What is Teachers Performance Appraisal? Explain its criteria.
337
Teachers in the contemporary society need to be through
professionals fully equipped with both, high academic standards,
Pedagogical and practical skills and ethical and moral values.
However, it is unfortunate that teaching is still in a transitional stage
and is experiencing serious occupational identify crisis. The debate
on whether teaching can be called a profession dominates the
educational scene even at the fag end of twentieth century.
Teachers, often themselves are uncertain as to the nature of their
occupation and to which category they belong non-professional,
semi-professional or professional. There is a feeling among teaching
community that they have been accorded a second class status while
being given first class responsibilities.
Teacher educators as a world wide group also seem to lack
clarity on the professional identify of teaching and the preservice or
inservice levels. Such confusions may be damaging for the teachers
and their occupations. It may also create an obstacle in delineating
the professionalism expected from them for the emerging society.
Therefore, it is high time teaching is accorded the status which other
professions like medicine, law etc. enjoy.
Professionalism for a global society demands teachers to be
innovative in their attitude, flexible in their approach and inquisitive
and reflective in their mind always refreshing themselves with the
day today increase of knowledge in their subject area
Professionalism, therefore, implies professional preparation of
teachers and their professional development through the mechanism
of continuous inservice training programmes. The National Policy
on Education (NPE 1986) has rightly remarked that teacher
education is a continuous process and its preservice and inservice
components are inseparable. NPE also suggested complete
overhauling of the system of teacher education and establishment of
DIET and SCERT to bring qualitative improvement in both
preservice and inservice education of teachers. However, it is still a
distance drawn because of inadequate trained personnel and lack of
proper infrastructural facilities.
Teacher effectiveness depends on the Professional
accountability of the teachers. An individual teachers performance
is monitored by a principal or educational authorities of varying
levels of hierarchy. Teachers in the global world are considered as
338
moral agents of change and not merely technicians imparting
knowledge. The first accountability is the willingness to accept the
responsibility, second, the access and right of community to know
what is going on in school and third the teachers become the judge
of students improvement in teaching.
Teacher effectiveness can be enhanced and evaluated through
performance appraisal for teachers and teacher educators.
Therefore, performance appraisal in the field of education is the need
of the hour.
In sum, the dream of a learning society can become reality
only when the dream teachers are well equipped with moral,
professional intellectual, practical and communication skills to
convince the students through their efficient teaching. We can also
conclude with the quote: To be a good teacher, you have to have
heart for the kids, integrity to push for excellence and a lot of
creativity. And it takes stamina like you would not believe.
1) What is Profession?
2) Differentiate between Profession and Professionalism.
3) What is Professional Ethics? Why it is necessary?
4) Explain the meaning and components of teacher effectiveness?
5) What is P.A.? What are its uses?
6) What is P.A.? How can you enhance and evaluate P.A. for
teachers and teacher educators development?
P.A. Performance Appraisal
References :
Prasad, Himadri and Prasad Dharmedra, (2005) Towards
Professionalism in Education, University News, 43(18) May 02-
08.
www.google.com
339
Syllabus
Paper IV : Teacher Education
Course Objectives :
To develop an understanding of
Concept, development and agencies of Teacher Education.
Teacher Education programmes at Different Levels Their
Objectives, Structure, Curriculum, and Role and Competencies
of the Teacher
Need for Teacher Education at Tertiary Level
Issues, Problems and Innovative Practices in Teacher Education
Research and professionalism in Teacher Education
Module I: Teacher Education : Concept Development and
Agencies
1. Concept of Teacher Education
(a) Meaning and Nature of Teacher Education
(b) Need, Scope and Objectives of Teacher Education
(c) Changing Context of Teacher Education in the Indian
Scenario
(d) Changing Context of Teacher Education in the Global
Scenario
2. Development of Teacher Education in India
(a) Teacher Education in Pre Independence India
(b) Teacher Education in Post Independence India
(c) Teacher Education in U.K. and U.S.A.
(d) Teacher Education in China and
3. Agencies of Teacher Education
(a) Agencies of Teacher Education at the State Level and their
Role and Functions State Institute of Education (SIE),
SCERT, State Board of Teacher Education (GBTE),
University Departments of Education.
(b) Agencies of Teacher Education at the National Level and
Their Role and Functions UGC, NUEPA, NCTE, NCERT.
340
(c) Agencies of Teacher Education at the International Level and
Their Role and Functions UNESCO.
Module II : Teacher Education at Different Levels : Objectives,
Structure, Curriculum and Role and Functions.
4. Teacher Education at Pre Primary and Primary Levels
(a) Objectives of Teacher Education Programme at Pre Primary
and Primary Levels as Recommended by the NCTE.
(b) Structure of Teacher Education Programme at Pre Primary
(c) National Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education
Programme at Pre Primary and Primary Levels as
Recommended by the NCTE.
(d) Role and Competencies Required of the Teacher at the PrePrimary
and Primary Levels
5. Teacher Education at Secondary and Higher Secondary
Levels
(a) Objectives of Teacher Education Programme at Secondary
and Higher Secondary Levels as Recommended by the
NCTE.
(b) Structure of Teacher Education Programme at Secondary and
Higher Secondary Levels as Recommended by the NCTE.
Programme at Secondary and Higher Secondary Levels as
(d) Role and Competencies Required of the Teacher at the
6. Teacher Education at Tertiary Level
(a) Need for Teacher Education for Preparation of Teachers in
Higher Education
(b) Objectives of Teacher Education Programme at Tertiary
Level
(c) Structure of Teacher Education Programme and Institutions at
Tertiary Level
(d) Curriculum for Teacher Education Programme at Tertiary
Level
(e) Role and Competencies Required of the Teacher at the
Tertiary Level
341
Module III : Issues, Problems and Innovations in Teacher
Education
7. Major Issues and Problems of Teacher Education
(a) Maintaining Standards in Teacher Education Admission
Policies and Procedures, Recruitment of Teacher Educators
(b) Service Conditions of Teacher Educators
(c) Quality Management of Teacher Education
(d) Privatization, Globalization and Autonomy in Teacher
Education
8. Innovative Practice in Teacher Education
(a) Cooperative and Collaborative Teacher Education
(b) Constructivist and Reflective Teacher Education
(c) e-Teacher Education
(d) Methods of value oriented Teacher Education Value
Clarifying Discussions, Contrived Incidents.
Module IV : Research and Professionalism Teacher Education
9. Research in Teacher Education
(a) Nature and Scope of Research in Teacher Education
(b) Areas of Research in Teacher Education (Teaching, Teacher
Characteristics, Teacher Performance, Teacher Education,
Teacher Educators and Teacher Education Institutions)
(c) Trends in Research in Teacher Education
(d) Implications of Research for Teacher Education
10.Teacher Education as a Profession
(a) Concept of Profession and Professionalism
(b) Developing Professionalism, Professional Ethics and
Professional Code of Ethics for Teacher Educators
(c) Meaning and Components of Teacher Effectiveness
(d) Enhancing and Evaluating Teacher Effectiveness through
Performance Appraisal of Teachers and Teacher Educators
342
References :
1. Arora, G.L. (2002) Teachers and Their Teaching Delhi, Ravi
Books.
2. Chaurasia Gulab (2000) Teacher Education and Professional
Organizations Delhi, Authorspress.
3. Dillon Justin and Maguire Meg (1997) Becoming A Teacher :
Issues in Secondary Teaching Buckingham, Open University
Press.
4. Dunking, Michael, J. (1987) The International Encyclopaedia of
Teaching and Teacher Education Oxford, Pergamon Press.
5. Elahi, Nizam (1997) Teachers Education in India New Delhi,
APH Publishing Corporation
6. Kundu, C.L. (1998) Indian Year Book on Teacher Education
New Delhi, Sterling Publishers Privatization Ltd.
7. McNergney, Robert F. and Herbert, Joanne M. (2001)
Foundations of Education : The Challenge of Professional
Practice Boston Allyn and Bacon.
8. Misra, K.S. (1993) Teachers and Their Education Ambala Cantt.,
The Associated Publishers.
9. Mohanty Jagannath (2000) Teacher Education in India
10.Murray, Frank B. (Ed.) (1996) Teacher Educators Handbook;
Building A Base for Preparation of Teachers, San Francisco,
Jossey Bass Publishers.
11.National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) (1998) NCTE
Document New Delhi, Published by Member Secretary, NCTE.
343
1.3 Need, scope and objectives of teacher education
1.4 Changing context of teacher education in the Indian scenario
1.5 Changing context of teacher education in the global scenario
1.6 Let us sum up
1.0 OBJECTIVES :
Explain the meaning of teacher education.
Discuss the nature of teacher education.
Enumerate the objectives of teacher education.
Describe the scope of teacher education.
Explain the changing context of teacher education in the Indian
scenario.
Analyze the changing context of teacher education in the global
scenario.
1.1 INTRODUCTION :
An educational institution performs a significant function of
providing learning experiences to lead their students from the
darkness of ignorance to the light of knowledge. The key personnel
in the institutions who play an important role to bring about this
transformation are teachers. As stated by NCTE (1998) in Quality
Concerns in Secondary Teacher Education, The teacher is the most
important element in any educational program. It is the teacher who
is mainly responsible for implementation of the educational process
at any stage. This shows that it is imperative to invest in the
preparation of teachers, so that the future of a nation is secure. The
2
importance of competent teachers to the nations school system can
in no way be overemphasized. The National Curriculum Framework
2005 places demands and expectations on the teacher, which need to
be addressed by both initial and continuing teacher education.
1.2 MEANING AND NATURE OF TEACHER
EDUCATION :
Meaning of Teacher Education :
It is well known that the quality and extent of learner
achievement are determined primarily by teacher competence,
sensitivity and teacher motivation.
The National Council for Teacher Education has defined
teacher education as A programme of education, research and
training of persons to teach from pre-primary to higher education
level.
Teacher education is a programme that is related to the
development of teacher proficiency and competence that would
enable and empower the teacher to meet the requirements of the
profession and face the challenges therein.
According to Goods Dictionary of Education Teacher
education means, all the formal and non-formal activities and
experiences that help to qualify a person to assume responsibilities
of a member of the educational profession or to discharge his
responsibilities more effectively.
In 1906-1956, the program of teacher preparation was called
teacher training. It prepared teachers as mechanics or technicians. It
had narrower goals with its focus being only on skill training. The
perspective of teacher education was therefore very narrow and its
scope was limited. As W.H. Kilpatric put it, Training is given to
animals and circus performers, while education is to human beings.
Teacher education encompasses teaching skills, sound
pedagogical theory and professional skills.
Teacher Education = Teaching Skills + Pedagogical theory +
Professional skills.
Teaching skills would include providing training and practice in the
different techniques, approaches and strategies that would help the
3
teachers to plan and impart instruction, provide appropriate
reinforcement and conduct effective assessment. It includes effective
classroom management skills, preparation and use of instructional
materials and communication skills.
Pedagogical theory includes the philosophical, sociological and
psychological considerations that would enable the teachers to have
a sound basis for practicing the teaching skills in the classroom. The
theory is stage specific and is based on the needs and requirements
that are characteristic of that stage.
Professional skills include the techniques, strategies and approaches
that would help teachers to grow in the profession and also work
towards the growth of the profession. It includes soft skills,
counseling skills, interpersonal skills, computer skills, information
retrieving and management skills and above all life long learning
skills.
An amalgamation of teaching skills, pedagogical theory and
professional skills would serve to create the right knowledge,
attitude and skills in teachers, thus promoting holistic development.
Nature of Teacher Education :
1) Teacher education is a continuous process and its pre-service and
in-service components are complimentary to each other.
According to the International Encyclopedia of Teaching and
Teacher education (1987), Teacher education can be considered
in three phases : Pre-service, Induction and In-service. The three
phases are considered as parts of a continuous process.
2) Teacher education is based on the theory that Teachers are
made, not born in contrary to the assumption, Teachers are
born, not made. Since teaching is considered an art and a
science, the teacher has to acquire not only knowledge, but also
skills that are called tricks of the trade.
3) Teacher education is broad and comprehensive. Besides preservice
and in-service programmes for teachers, it is meant to be
involved in various community programmes and extension
activities, viz adult education and non-formal education
programmes, literacy and development activities of the society.
4) It is ever-evolving and dynamic. In order to prepare teachers who
are competent to face the challenges of the dynamic society,
Teacher education has to keep abreast of recent developments
and trends.
4
5) The crux of the entire process of teacher education lies in its
curriculum, design, structure, organization and transaction
modes, as well as the extent of its appropriateness.
6) As in other professional education programmes the teacher
education curriculum has a knowledge base which is sensitive to
the needs of field applications and comprises meaningful,
conceptual blending of theoretical understanding available in
several cognate disciplines. However the knowledge base in
teacher education does not comprise only an admixture of
concepts and principles from other disciplines, but a distinct
gestalt emerging from the conceptual blending, making it
sufficiently specified.
7) Teacher education has become differentiated into stage-specific
programmes. This suggests that the knowledge base is adequately
specialized and diversified across stages, which should be
utilized for developing effective processes of preparing entrant
teachers for the functions which a teacher is expected to perform
at each stage.
8) It is a system that involves an interdependence of its Inputs,
Processes and Outputs.
1. Explain the meaning of Teacher Education.
2. Describe the nature of Teacher Education.
5
1.3 NEED, SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES OF TEACHER
EDUCATION :
Need of teacher education :
The American Commission on Teacher Education rightly observes,
The quality of a nation depends upon the quality of its citizens.
The quality of its citizens depends not exclusively, but in critical
measure upon the quality of their education, the quality of their
education depends more than upon any single factor, upon the
quality of their teacher.
In his Call for Action for American Education in the 21st
Century in 1996, Clinton indicated that :
Every community should have a talented and dedicated teacher
in every classroom. We have enormous opportunity for ensuring
teacher quality well into the 21st century if we recruit promising
people into teaching and give them the highest quality
preparation and training.
The need for teacher education is felt due to the following reasons;
1) It is common knowledge that the academic and professional
standards of teachers constitute a critical component of the
essential learning conditions for achieving the educational goals
of a nation. The focus of teacher preparation had to shift from
training to education if it had to make a positive influence on the
quality of curriculum transaction in classrooms and thereby pupil
learning and the larger social transformation. The aspects that
need greater emphasis are;
the length of academic preparation,
the level and quality of subject matter knowledge,
the repertoire of pedagogical skills that teachers possess to
meet the needs of diverse learning situations,
the degree of commitment to the profession,
sensitivity to contemporary issues and problems and
the level of motivation.
This is not possible if teacher preparation focused only on
training. Holistic teacher building is necessary and therefore
teacher education needed more emphasis than mere training.
6
2) Educating all children well depends not only on ensuring that
teachers have the necessary knowledge and skills to carry out
their work, but also that they take responsibility for seeing that
all children reach high levels of learning and that they act
accordingly.
3) People come to teacher education with beliefs, values,
commitments, personalities and moral codes from their
upbringing and schooling which affect who they are as teachers
and what they are able to learn in teacher education and in
teaching. Helping teacher candidates examine critically their
beliefs and values as they relate to teaching, learning and subject
matter and form a vision of good teaching to guide and inspire
their learning and their work is a central task of teacher education
(Fieman-Nemser, 2001).
4) The National Academy of Education Committees Report
(Darling-Hammond and Bransford, 2005) wrote that :
On a daily basis, teachers confront complex decisions that rely
on many different kinds of knowledge and judgement and that
can involve high stakes outcomes for students future. To make
good decisions, teachers must be aware of the many ways in
which student learning can unfold in the context of development,
learning differences, language and cultural influences, and
individual temperaments, interests and approaches to learning.
In addition to foundational knowledge about the areas of learning
and performance listed in the above quotation, teachers need to
know how to take the steps necessary to gather additional
information that will allow them to make more grounded
judgements about what is going on and what strategies may be
helpful. More importantly, teachers need to keep what is best for
the student at the centre of their decision making.
5) Teacher education like any other educational intervention, can
only work on those professional commitments or dispositions
that are susceptible to modification. While we cant remake
someones personality, we can reshape attitudes towards the
other and develop a professional rather than a personal role
orientation towards teaching as a practice.
6) The Ministry of Education document Challenge of Education :
A Policy Perspective (1985) has mentioned, Teacher
performance is the most crucial input in the field of education.
7
Whatever policies may be laid down, in the ultimate analysis
these have to be implemented by teachers as much through their
personal example as through teaching learning processes. India
has reached the threshold of the development of new
technologies which are likely to revolutionise the classroom
teaching. Unless capable and committed are teachers in service,
the education system cannot become a suitable and potential
instrument of national development.
The teacher is required to acquire adequate knowledge, skills,
interests and attitudes towards the teaching profession. The teachers
work has become more complicated and technical in view of the new
theories of psychology, philosophy, sociology, modern media and
materials. The teacher can be made proficient with well planned,
imaginative pre-service and in-service training programmes.
Scope of Teacher Education :
The scope of teacher education can be understood in the following
ways;
Teacher education at different levels of education
Triangular basis of teacher education
Aspects of teacher education
Teacher Education at different levels of Education : Teacher
education reaches teachers at all levels of education, namely Preprimary,
Primary, Elementary, Secondary, Higher Secondary and the
Tertiary. The needs and requirements of students and education vary
at each level. Hence level and stage-specific teacher preparation is
essential. Teacher education also helps in the development of
teaching skills in teachers of professional institutions. The teachers
in professional institutions have only the theoretical and practical
knowledge of their respective subjects. They require specialized
teacher training inputs to deal with students entering their
professions. Teacher education also reaches special education and
physical education. Thus where there are teachers, there would be
teacher education.
The knowledge base is adequately specialized and diversified
across stages, in order to develop effective processes of preparing
entrant teachers for the functions which a teacher is expected to
perform at each stage.
8
Triangular Basis of Teacher education : Construction of the
relevant knowledge base for each stage of education requires a high
degree of academic and intellectual understanding of matter related
to teacher education at each stage. This involves selection of
theoretical knowledge from disciplines cognate to education,
namely, psychology, sociology and philosophy, and converting it
into forms suitable for teacher education. Teacher education derives
its content from the disciplines of Philosophy, Sociology and
Psychology. These disciplines provide the base for better
understanding and application of Teacher education. The
Philosophical basis provides insights to the student teachers about
the implications of- the various schools of philosophy, ancient and
modern philosophical thoughts, educational thoughts of
philosophical thinkers on education and its various aspects such as
curriculum construction and discipline. The Sociological basis helps
the student teachers to understand the role of society and its
dynamics in the educational system of a nation and the world at
large. It encompasses the ideals that influence national and
international scenes. The Psychological basis helps the student
teachers develop insights into students psychological make-up. This
enables the student teachers to understand their self, their students
and the learning situations such that they are able to provide
meaningful and relevant learning experiences to their students.
Aspects of Teacher Education : Teacher education is concerned
with the aspects such as, who (Teacher Educator), whom (Student
teacher), what (Content) and how (Teaching Strategy). Teacher
education is dependent upon the quality of teacher educators. The
quality of pedagogical inputs in teacher education programmes and
their effective utilization for the purpose of preparing prospective
teachers depend largely on the professional competence of teacher
educators and the ways in which it is utilized for strengthening the
teacher education programme. Teacher education, thus, first deals
with the preparation of effective teacher educators.
Teacher education reaches out to the student teachers by
providing the relevant knowledge, attitude and skills to function
effectively in their teaching profession. It serves to equip the student
teachers with the conceptual and theoretical framework within which
they can understand the intricacies of the profession. It aims at
creating the necessary attitude in student teachers towards the
stakeholders of the profession, so that they approach the challenges
posed by the environment in a very positive manner. It empowers
the student teachers with the skills (teaching and soft skills) that
would enable them to carry on the functions in the most efficient and
9
effective manner. Teacher education therefore pays attention to its
content matter.
Objectives :
Vision of teacher education :
Teacher education has to become more sensitive to the
emerging demands from the school system. For this, it has to prepare
teachers for a dual role of;
Encouraging, supportive and humane facilitator in teaching
learning situations who enables learners (students) to discover
their talents, to realize their physical and intellectual
potentialities to the fullest, to develop character and desirable
social and human values to function as responsible citizens; and,
An active member of the group of persons who make conscious
effort to contribute towards the process of renewal of school
curriculum to maintain its relevance to the changing societal
needs and personal needs of learners, keeping in view the
experiences gained in the past and the concerns and imperatives
that have emerged in the light of changing national development
goals and educational priorities.
These expectations suggest that teacher operates in a larger
context and its dynamics as well as concerns impinge upon her
functioning. That is to say, teacher has to be responsive and sensitive
to the social contexts of education, the various disparities in the
background of learners as well as in the macro national and global
contexts, national concerns for achieving the goals of equity, parity,
social justice as also excellence.
To be able to realize such expectations, TE has to comprise such
features as would enable the student teachers to
Care for children, and who love to be with them;
Understand children within social, cultural and political contexts;
experience;
Understand the way learning occurs, possible ways of creating
conductive conditions for learning, differences among students in
respect of the kind, pace and styles of learning.
10
View knowledge generation as a continuously evolving process
of reflective learning.
Be receptive and constantly learning.
experience, and knowledge generation as a continuously
evolving process of reflective learning.
View knowledge not as an external reality embedded in
textbooks, but as constructed in the shared context of teachinglearning
and personal experience.
Own responsibility towards society, and work to build a better
world.
Appreciate the potential of productive work and hands-on
experience as a pedagogic medium both inside and outside the
classroom.
Analyze the curricular framework, policy implications and texts.
Have a sound knowledge base and basic proficiency in language.
The objectives of teacher education would therefore be to,
Provide opportunities to observe and engage with children,
communicate with and relate to children
Provide opportunities for self-learning, reflection, assimilation
and articulation of new ideas; developing capacities for self
directed learning and the ability to think, be self-critical and to
work in groups.
Provide opportunities for understanding self and others
(including ones beliefs, assumptions and emotions); developing
the ability for self analysis, self-evaluation, adaptability,
flexibility, creativity and innovation.
Provide opportunities to enhance understanding, knowledge and
examine disciplinary knowledge and social realities, relate
subject matter with the social milieu and develop critical
thinking.
Provide opportunities to develop professional skills in pedagogy,
observation, documentation, analysis, drama, craft, story-telling
and reflective inquiry.
11
1. Explain the need for Teacher Education.
2. Describe the scope of Teacher Education.
3. Enumerate the objectives of Teacher Education.
EDUCATION IN THE INDIAN SCENARIO :
The well-established tradition of teaching and learning in
India has retained its inherent strength even under adverse
circumstances. The post-independence period was characterized by
major efforts being made to nurture and transform teacher education.
The system of teacher preparation has come under considerable
pressure as a result of the expansion and growth of school education,
through efforts to universalize elementary education. Having
inherited a foreign model of teacher preparation at the time of
independence from Britain in 1946, major efforts have been made to
adapt and up-date the teacher education curriculum to local needs, to
make it more context based, responsive and dynamic with regard to
best meeting the particular needs of India. The current system of
teacher education is supported by a network of national, provincial
12
and district level resource institutions working together to enhance
the quality and effectiveness of teacher preparation programs at the
pre-service level and also through in-service programs for serving
teachers throughout the country.
Impact of National Policies :
India has made considerable progress in school education
since independence with reference to overall literacy, infrastructure
and universal access and enrolment in schools. Two major
developments in the recent years form the background to the present
reform in teacher educationThe
political recognition of Universalization of Elementary
Education that led to the Right to Education Bill, 2008 and
The National Curriculum Framework for school education, 2005.
The Bill has been passed by the Parliament and the Right to
Education Act has come into being making it mandatory for the state
to provide free and compulsory education to almost 20 crore
children in the 6-14 age group till class 8. The Act mandates a
schedule for the functioning of schools which includes a teacherstudent
ratio of 1:30 till a student population of 200 students at the
primary stage. This would increase the demand for qualified
elementary school teachers many times. The country has to address
the need of supplying well qualified and professionally trained
teachers in large numbers in the coming years. The lunch of the
massive Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan in 2002 and the recent financial
commitment and education cess to augment the Universal
Elementary Education mission have underscored the need to
adequately prepare teachers to address the growing demand for
quality education.
Developments in School education :
School education has seen significant development over the
decades since independence. According to Government estimates
(Selected Educational Statistics- 2004-2005 Ministry of Human
Resource Development, New Delhi) while 82% of the 20 crore
children of the 5-14 age group were in school as per enrolment
figures, it is equally true that 50% of these children are dropping out
before completing class 8 (MHRD Annual Report 2007-08). The
situation on the ground is still ridden with difficulties. Regional,
social, economic and gender disparities are posing new challenges.
This reality increases the challenge that the prospective teacher will
face in implementing the Right to Education Act.
13
The continued fragmentation of the school system poses the
severest challenge to the national declaration of catering to the basic
needs of all children in the 6-14 age group through the elementary
education in an inclusive setting. However increasing privatization
and differentiation of the schooling system have vitiated drastically
the right to quality education for all children.
Changing Role of the Teacher :
The current system of schooling poses tremendous burden on
children. Educationists are of the view that the burden arises from
treating knowledge as a given, an external reality existing outside
the learner and embedded in textbooks. Knowledge is essentially a
human construct, a continuously evolving process of reflective
learning. The NCF 2005, requires a teacher to be a facilitator of
childrens learning in a manner that the child is helped to construct
his/her knowledge. Education is not a mechanical activity of
information transmission and teachers are not information
dispensers. Teachers have to increasingly play the role of crucial
mediating agents through whom curriculum is transacted.
Challenges in Teacher Education :
Unprecedented expansion of teacher education institutions
and programmes during the past few years characterizes the teacher
education scenario of today. With increasing school enrolments and
the launch of pan-Indian primary education development
programmes like Operation Blackboard, District Primary Education
Programme, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan and Universalization of
Elementary Education, there was a natural increase in the demand
for teachers. Added to this, the backlog of untrained teachers in the
system and the essential requirement of pre-service teacher
certification for appointment as a teacher led to mounting pressure
on existing institutional capacity. The demand far exceeding supply,
market forces have taken over unprecedented rise in the number of
teacher education institutions in most parts of the country.
From 3489 courses in 3199 institutions and an intake of
2,74,072 in 2004, the numbers in December, 2008 swelled to 14,523
courses in 12,200 institutions with an intake of 10,73,661 at different
levels. This expansion has taken a heavy toll on quality parameters
like infrastructure, faculty learning resources and student profile.
Teacher education as a whole needs urgent and
comprehensive reform. There is a need to bring greater convergence
14
between professional preparation and continuing professional
development of teachers at all stages of schooling in terms of level,
duration and structure. Considering the complexity and significance
of teaching as a professional practice, it is imperative that the entire
enterprise of teacher education should be raised to a university level
and that the duration and rigour of programmes should be
appropriately enhanced.
Research and Innovation :
There is a need to increase research that documents practices
reflectively and analytically- whether it is of programs or of
individual classrooms so that it can be included in the body of
knowledge available for study to student teachers. University
departments and research institutions need to undertake such
research. In addition there is a need to innovate with different
models of teacher education. Institutional capacity and capability to
innovate and create are a pre-requisite for the pursuit of excellence.
Hence in the present scenario a lot of impetus has been given to
research. Many teacher educators are encouraged to take up either
major or minor research projects.
Inclusive Education :
There are two kinds of exclusion prevalent in schools; one is
the exclusion of the child with disabilities and the second is the
social exclusion of children who come from socially and
economically deprived backgrounds. There is a dire need to equip
teachers to overcome their biases in these regards and positively
handle these challenges.
The Persons with Disabilities (PWD) Act of 2005 provides
for free and compulsory education up to the age of 18 years for all
children with disabilities. The education of socially and
economically disadvantaged groups, especially the SCs, STs and
minorities has remained a primary national concern of education for
several years. The enrolment and retention of girls and therefore
their participation has also remained behind those of boys. Teachers
will have to be specially equipped if the social deprivation has to be
overcome through education.
Perspectives for equitable and sustainable development :
In order to develop future citizens who promote equitable and
sustainable development for all sections of society and respect for
all, it is necessary that they be educated through perspectives of
15
gender equity, perspectives that develop values for peace, respect the
rights of all, and that respect and value work. In the present
ecological crisis promoted by extremely commercialized and
competitive lifestyles, children need to be educated to change their
consumption patterns and the way they look at natural resources.
There is also a increasing violence and polarization both
within children and between them, that is being caused by increasing
stress in society. Education has a crucial role to play in promoting
values of peace based on equal respect of self and others. The NCF
2005 and subsequent development of syllabi and materials is
attempting to do this as well.
Role of Community knowledge in education :
It is important for the development of concepts in children as
well as the application of school knowledge in real life that the
formal knowledge is linked with community knowledge. The NCF
2005 promotes the inclusion of locally relevant content in the
curriculum as well as pedagogy.
ICT in Schools and e-learning :
With the onset and proliferation of Information and
Communication Technology (ICT), there is a growing demand that it
be included in school education. Teacher education has been
structured to orient and sensitize the teacher to distinguish between
developmentally appropriate and detrimental uses of ICT. It needs to
also equip teachers with competence to use ICT for their own
In view of the above discussion the newly visualized Teacher
education program as put forth by NCERT is as follows;
Newly visualized Teacher Education ProgramEmphasizes
learning as a self-learning participatory process
taking place in social context of learners as well as wider social
context of the community to nation as a whole.
Puts full faith in self learning capacity of school children and
student teacher and evolving proper educative programme for
education.
Views the learner as an active participative person in learning.
His/her capabilities or potentials are seen not as fixed but capable
of development through experiences.
16
Views the teacher as a facilitator, supporting, encouraging
learners learning.
Does not treat knowledge as fixed, static or confined in books but
as something being constructed through various types of
experiences. It is created through discussion, evaluate, explain,
compare and contrasts i.e., through interaction.
Emphasizes that appraisal in such an educative process will be
continuous, will be self-appraisal, will be peer appraisal, will be
done by teacher educators, and formal type too.
Hence there would be a major shift;
From To
Teacher centric, stable designs Learner centric, flexible process
Teacher direction and
decisions
Learner autonomy
Teacher guidance and
monitoring
Facilitates, support and encourages
learning
Passive reception in learning Active participation in learning
Learning within the four walls
of the classroom
Learning in the wider social
context the class room
Knowledge as "given" and
fixed
Knowledge as it evolves and
created
Disciplinary focus Multidisciplinary, educational
focus
Linear exposure Multiple and divergent exposure
Appraisal, short, few Multifarious, continuous
EDUCATION IN THE GLOBAL SCENARIO :
Teacher education is a global profession that needs to be
understood properly. It is essential to grasp a global perspective of
the profession as it is today, to make assumptions about it in the near
future and to utilize the best thinking and instructional models
available in the present times.
17
Professionally, powerful teaching is very important and
increasing in our contemporary society as a result of the steam of
dynamic initiatives of human development and evolution. Due to
these developments and evolution, standards of learning would be
higher in the 21st century than it has been in the 20th century. As a
result teachers would need to acquire additional knowledge and
skills, both general and specific, to be able to survive and be
successful in the 21st century school environment.
Education has increasingly become important to success of
both individuals and nations. Growing evidence demonstrates that,
among all educational resources, teachers abilities are especially
critical contributors to students learning and consequently the
success of a nation to advance in its economic, social and political
spheres (Darling-Hammond, 2006).
1. Dynamic teacher education and training in the 21st century
globalised world.
For dynamic teacher education and training in the 21st century
globalised world, teacher education and training institutions must
design programmes that would help prospective teachers to know
and understand deeply; a wide array of things about teaching and
learning and in their social and cultural contexts. Further more,
they must be able to enact these understandings in complex
classroom situation serving increasingly diverse students. If the
21st century teacher is to succeed at this task, teacher education
and training institutions must further design programmes that
transform the kinds of settings in which both the novices and the
experienced teachers teach and become competent teachers. This
signifies that the enterprise of teacher education and training
must venture out further and further and engage even more
closely with schools in a mutual transformation agenda with all
the struggles involved. Importantly, the teacher education and
training institutions must take up the charge of educating policy
makers and the general public about what it actually takes to
teach effectively both in terms of knowledge and skills that are
needed and in terms of the school contexts that must be created
to allow teachers to develop and use what they know on behalf of
their students (Fullan, 1993).
2. Structure of a globalised teacher education and training curricula.
Throughout the world, reform and innovation initiatives by
nations have triggered much discussion about the structures of
18
teacher education and training programmes (Hbert, 2001) and
certification categories into which programmes presumably fit.
Building stronger models of teacher preparation in the 21st
century would require adequate and progressive knowledge
content for teaching as well as knowledge content for the
subjects that the teacher would be required to teach. In this
respect, the what of teacher education and training should be
the focus of the curriculum.
The what of globalised teacher education and training
curricula
There are many ways to configure the knowledge content that
teachers may need to render their services professionally
(Darling-Hammond, 2006). In articulating the core concepts and
skills that should be represented in a common-core curriculum
for teacher education and training, there is need for a frame work
to guide decisions and practice. In the United States, the National
Academy of Education Committee on Teacher Education
adopted a framework that is organised on three intersecting areas
of knowledge found in many statements of standards for teaching
which would be applicable for consideration in the 21st century
teacher education and training curricula. The list below is
represented in figure 1 diagrammatically
Knowledge of learners and how they learn and develop within
social contexts, including knowledge of language
development.
Understanding of curriculum content and goals, including the
subject matter and skills to be taught in the light of
disciplinary demands, student needs and the social purposes
of education; and
Understanding of and skills for teaching, including content
knowledge of specific subject, content pedagogical
knowledge for teaching diverse learners, as these are
informed by an understanding of assessment and of how to
construct and manage a productive classroom.
19
Figure 1 : Preparing Teachers for the 21st century
The curricula should take cognisance of the ever-changing
needs of society, the globalisation scenario, the advancement and
proliferation of technology and the way traditional classroom
teaching is loosing grounds for distance-virtual learning (Allen and
Thomas, 2000; Kantrowitz et al, 1987).
The content of the curricula should take account of the 21st
century classroom. Teachers should be trained on the state-of-the-art
hard and soft ware that will become common in the 21st century
classroom. Training in technology should encompass
telecommunications, satellite access, networking, the internet, videoconferencing
and digital components as well as optical technology.
These technologies will permit the 21st century teacher in the 21st
century classroom feel comfortable and teach effectively and
efficiently.
Another scenario is the changing pattern of world
employment. There are so many professions in our modern world
and this will multiply in the 21st century. The new directions in
teacher education and training should take cognisance of this so that
teachers are prepared to play multiple roles and take their rightful
positions in the teaching-learning environment to face these
challenges confidently. We can only improve the quality of
education worldwide for our students if we provide our teachers with
the required skills, knowledge and experiences. One which deserves
TEACHING AS A
PROFESSION
A VISION OF
PROFESSIONAL
PRACTICE IN THE
21ST CENTURY
LEARNING IN A DEMOCRACY
Knowledge of Learners and their
Development in Social Context
* Learning and Language
* Human Development
Knowledge of subject matter and
Curriculum goals
* Educational goals and purposes
for skills
* Content, subject matter
Knowledge of Teaching of subject
* Content knowledge
* Content and practice pedagogy
* Teaching diverse learners (Inclusive Teaching)
* Assessment and evaluation
* Clasoom management
20
mention is the ability of the 21st century teacher to control disruptive
behaviour of students in the classroom which makes it impossible
for the teacher to work efficiently and effectively and even in some
instances puts the security of both students and teachers at risk.
Problems of such nature may multiply in magnitude in schools in the
21st century and for this reason, teacher education and training
institutions should equip teachers with knowledge and skills in
management to be able to address such problems effectively and
efficiently.
Teacher education curricula should be inclusive and
emphasize on life long learning, development in technology and its
applications and strategies for planning viable alternatives to benefit
students. Emphasis should be on democratic principles and practices.
The institutionalization of democracy will make teachers see the role
of schools and their contribution to the development of democratic
values, skills and behaviour from the global perspective.
The how of globalised teacher education and training
curricula :
The programme designs and pedagogies should attend
specifically to the how of teacher education and training. It is
important to have well-chosen courses that include core content
knowledge for teaching and advanced research background. It is
equally important to organize prospective teachers experiences so
that they are able to integrate and use their acquired knowledge in a
skilful manner in the classroom, especially incorporating research in
whatever is taught so that the 21st century teacher becomes teacherresearcher
at heart. Often times, this becomes the most difficult
aspect of constructing a teacher education and training programme.
The onus of the issue is that teacher education and training should
attend to both the what and how so that knowledge for teaching, in
reality, shapes the teachers practice and enables them to become
adaptive experts who are versatile and capable of operating
effectively and efficiently in a variety of teaching and learning
environments using the tools that have been provided to them during
their training.
Lortie (1975) is of the view that accomplishing what has been
indicated above requires addressing special challenges in learning to
teach. Three interrelated issues are mentioned that learning to teach
requires that the 21st century teachers
Come to understand teaching in ways quite different from their
own experiences as students. This, Lortie refers to as the
21
apprenticeship of observation which refers to the learning that
takes place by virtue of being a student in traditional classroom
setting.
Learn not only to think like a teacher but also to act as a
teacher. This is termed by Kennedy (1999) as the problem of
enactment. Professionally, teachers need to understand and be
able to do a wide variety of things simultaneously.
Be able to understand and respond to the dense and multifaceted
nature of the classroom environment, juggling multiple academic
and social goals requiring trade-offs from time to time and day to
day (Jackson, 1974). In short, the 21st century teacher should
learn to deal with the problem of complexity that is made more
intense by the changing nature of teaching and learning in the
teaching-learning environment.
A question that needs explicit answers in relation to the topic
under discussion is How can programmes of teacher education
and training prepare the 21st century teacher to confront the
identified problems of learning to teach and others
unanticipated?
Studies (Oberg, 2001; Hbert, 2001; Glickman, 2001,
Weiner, 2001; McCall, 2001) examining seven exemplary teacher
education and training programmes find that despite outward
differences, the programmes had seven things in common namely :
A common clear vision of good teaching that permeates all
course work and clinical experiences, creating a coherent set of
learning experiences.
Well-defined standards of professional practice and performance
that are used to guide and evaluate course and clinical works.
A strong core curriculum taught in the context of practice and
grounded in knowledge of the child and adolescent development
and learning, an understanding of social and cultural contexts,
curriculum design, reform, and innovation, evaluation and
assessment and subject matter content and pedagogy knowledge
and skills.
Extended clinical experience, at least 24 to 36 weeks of
supervised practicum and student teaching opportunities in each
programme are carefully chosen to support the ideas presented in
simultaneous, closely monitored and interwoven course work.
22
Extensive use of a variety of case methods, teacher research,
performance assessment and portfolio evaluation that apply
learning to real problems of practice.
Explicit strategies to help students to confront their own deepseated
beliefs and assumptions about learning and students and to
learn about the experiences of people different from themselves.
Strong relationship, common knowledge and shared belief
among school-based and university-based faculty jointly engaged
in transforming teaching, schooling and teacher education and
training. (Darling-Hammond in Press).
Models of teacher education and training for the 21st century :
The new directions will have to grapple with models of
teacher education. The current models need reform and innovation
and new models would have to be developed that would enable
teachers to adapt comfortably to the changing times (Avalos, 1991;
Monnathoko, 1995; Popkewitz, 1987, Ginsberg, 1988; Nagel, 1992;
Al-Salmi, 1994; Shaeffer, 1990). The new models should emphasize
learning to do and learning to think so that we do not produce
learned monsters but learned thinkers.
1. There is absolute need for participatory teacher education. In
this model, teachers in training should play active role in the
training process. They should become participants in decisions
regarding the needs to which their training must respond; what
problems must be resolved in the day-to-day work environment
and what specific knowledge and skills must be transmitted to
them. In the participatory model teachers must be self-directed
and self-taught. Every aspect of the training must be based on
reflection and introspection. The needs, problems, statuses and
roles must be clearly defined, examined and analysed by them.
The actual concrete experiences of working with students should
be emphasized. Teachers must be able to collectively examine
and analyse their consequences, assisted by the trainers in
solving problems (Akinpelu, 1998; Akyeampong, 2003).
In the new directions, there should be what I would like to
term as better teaching model. Teachers should be able to :
Author and publish experiences and researches conducted.
Be central and key participants of curriculum reform and
innovation.
23
Encourage learners to work together in a cooperative spirit,
help each other with their work as well as be able to evaluate
themselves.
Help learners publish their own work online portfolios.
Write a bank of learning activities for learners to access at
their own pace.
Give learners a wider choice of learning activities according
to their own interests and capabilities.
Build up a personal portfolio of their best teaching plans so as
to share among other teachers.
Create exciting learning environment of active knowledge
creation and sharing.
2. The new teacher education and training should not lose site of the
power of technology for both teachers and students learning.
The real power of technology will come when teachers have been
trained well in them and have captured the potential of
technology themselves. In this way, teachers would be able to
contribute to model the behaviour that the students are expected
to learn thereby making them to grow up not to be learned
monsters but more human, creative and productive (Burke, 2000;
Holmes Group, 1986).
3. Need for in-depth content and practical knowledge of
research for teachers
Research must be a major priority in teacher education and
preparation in the 21st
century. Professional teachers naturally
seek answers to questions and solutions to problems that enable
them to help their students to learn. They are decision makers,
make thousands of choices on hourly basis regarding the choice
of texts, literature, appropriate and relevant technology
integration, curriculum pedagogy, assessment and measurement.
They are highly reflective and sensitive to the needs of their
students. They encounter failures and successes. However, much
of what teachers have to offer remains a secret. Their key to
success is a mystery. Teachers seek multiple means of looking at
their world of teaching and learning and that of their students by
unlocking the secrets within the classrooms. Research is one of
such potent keys to help unlock these secrets.
24
The concept research and its significance to teacher education
and training :
There is need to look at the concept research and how it
applies to the teaching-learning environment, especially in the 21st
century school environment. This will make the professional teacher
to identify with the fact that research is a major part of the
professional practice. For this reason, research in this discussion will
be taken to mean :
systematic study of a phenomenon with the aim of finding
explanations or solutions or understanding and finding patterns
among what is studied so that action could be taken to arrest or
improve the situation (Boaduo, 2001:4).
Problems of different kinds and magnitudes abound in the
teaching-learning environment and these would quadruple in the 21st
century school environment. Whenever such problems surface and
pose threat to the survival of the students and their progress, a
critical study would have to be conducted to find solutions to resolve
the threat and improve the situation.
Need to provide 21st century teachers with solid foundation in
research methods :
If the 21st century teachers are to consider themselves as
researchers and use research to improve their practice, then the
following conditions would need to be fulfilled in their entirety by
teacher education and training institutions (Boaduo and Babitseng,
2006).
All categories of teachers pre-school, primary, secondary and
tertiary should have as part of their training a concise detailed
course in research methods that would conceptualise and
concentrate on the work that teachers do in their day to day
practice and not just as a course to fulfil a condition for a degree
or diploma certificate.
When equipped with the required content and practical
knowledge and skills in research, teachers must be the first
people to initiate research in the teaching-learning environment
that has significant bearing on their professional practice because
they have the knowledge, skills and experiences about the needs
of their students and situations that confront them as well as the
25
lives of the education institutions that they are located and
operate daily.
Decisions taken about research in their operative environment
which affect their condition and progress of their practice as
professionals in the educative sphere must be theirs to make and
implement.
Educational researches that are related to teaching be it in the
classroom or for the general improvement of the overall school
environment (physical infrastructure, institutional materials or
methods, strategies and approaches) can be effective with the
agreement of teachers (UNESCO, 1979). This can only be
successfully accomplished if they are given in-depth training by
the institutions.
3. Globalising the teaching profession through a globalised
teachers council.
Currently, every country has its own teaching council with
specific objective to register professionally qualified teachers before
they can practice. Every country has its own requirements that
professional teachers should meet in order to be registered and
certificated to teach. Even in the same country, like the USA,
Australia and United Kingdom getting registered as a teacher entails
delaying. In the USA every state has its own teaching council that
registers professionally qualified teachers and certificated with a
license to practice. A critical look at this scenario reveals that
teacher transfer from one state to another in the same country
becomes a burden if not delays while teacher-shortages abound in
these countries.
In order to make teaching to become a mobile profession
world wide, there is need for 21st century globalised teaching
council. The mandate of this council should be to collaborate with
institutions and organizations responsible for teacher education and
training to develop a common-core teacher education and training
curricula as well as the establishment of teacher professional
registration council which would be mandated to issue professional
teaching licenses for practitioners that would be recognised
worldwide to make teacher mobility from region to region and
country to country easy and fulfilling.
1) The need for teacher-tracer studies and further professional
development by teacher training institutions after training.
26
2) Need for greater involvement of parents and communities in the
governance of the globalised schools.
1. Explain the changing context of Teacher Education in the Indian
scenario.
2. Explain the changing context of Teacher Education in the Global
scenario.
1.6 LET US SUM UP :
No nation develops beyond the quality of its education
system, which is highly dependent on the quality of its teachers.
Teachers should be given the most appropriate tools during and after
their training, including content knowledge and skills as well as
teaching methodology to be able to do their work professionally. The
globalisation concept, if taken into account, would require that
teachers and teaching should be recognised like all other professions
and should require stringent training and acquisition of knowledge
and skills and professional registration under a global council of
unified teacher registration body to allow for easy mobility of
teachers across national boundaries.
1. What is teacher education? Explain its nature and scope.
2. Explain the changing scenario of teacher education in global
context and its impact on India.
27
3. Write Short Notes :
a) Triangular basis of teacher education
b) Vision of teacher education
References :
1. Martin, R.J. (1994) Multicultural Social reconstructionist
education : Design for diversity in teacher education. Teacher
Education Quarterly 21(3)77-89, EJ 492(4).
2. OLoughlin, M. (1995) Daring the imagination, unlocking voices
of dissent and possibility in teaching. Theory into Practice
24(2)170-116, EJ 512860.
28
2A
TEACHER EDUCATION IN PRE
INDEPENDENCE INDIA
Unit structure:
2.A.0 Objectives
2.A.1 Introduction
2.A.2 Teacher Education in Pre-independence India
2.A.2.1 The Upanishadic period
2.A.2.2 The Buddhist period
2.A.2.3 The Medieval period
2.A.2.4 The Modern Period
2.A.3 Let us sum up
2.A.0 OBJECTIVES :
preparation during the pre independence period.
Explain the relevance of recommendations made by the various
committees.
Teaching has been one of the oldest and respected professions
in the world. The role, functions, competence and preparation of
teachers have undergone a dramatic change from time to time but the
need for teachers has been imperative for all times. The changing
times as well as the requirements of the society have necessitated
changes in the ways of teacher preparation. The development of
teacher education is discussed in the following pages.
2.A.2 TEACHER EDUCATION IN
PRE INDEPENDENCE INDIA :
2.A.2.1 THE UPANISHADIC PERIOD :
In the Vedic India, the teacher enjoyed a special status and
position. He was held in high esteem by the society and this was due
29
not only to learning and scholarship, but also to qualities of head,
heart and hand. The Guru or the teacher was an embodiment of good
qualities, a fountain of knowledge and an abode of spirituality. The
selection and preparation of a teacher was done with much rigour.
educated or trained effectively. The teacher must have passed
through the recognized curriculum and have fulfilled all the duties of
a Brahmachari before he was allowed to become a teacher. Teachers
must sought knowledge for realization and were well-received and
well respected. The scholarly class of teachers, which later became a
caste (Brahmans) became stratified with the passage of time and lost
its original grandeur. Later on teachers came from this caste of
Brahmins and it became a hereditary profession.
Manu remarked that the son of the teacher sometimes helped
his father, by teaching in his father's place. The teacher was
sometimes assisted in his work by some of the older and abler pupils
who acted as monitors. This monitorial system, which was a method
of inducting pupils to the position of teachers, was the contribution
of the ancient education system.
Teaching in the Upanishadic period was known for the
personal attention paid to the student. As the word Upanishad (sit
close) connotes there was an intimate relationship between the
teacher and the disciple. The freedom to accept a disciple rested with
the teacher, but once he accepted a disciple it became his moral duty
to see that the disciple grew. Similarly, a disciple or student had the
freedom to choose his teacher. Knowledge was transmitted orally
(since writing developed later) and explanation was one of the
important method of teaching. The methods used by teachers were
emulated and adopted by the disciples and handed over from one
generation of teachers to another. The transmission of methods
through initiation and repetition continued. Good teachers devised
their own methods and made the matter interesting and meaningful
to students by day-to-day examples. Listening to the spoken words,
comprehension of meaning, reasoning leading to generalization,
confirmation by a friend or a teacher and application were the five
steps to realize the meaning of a religious truth practiced in ancient
India.
30
1. What are the chief features of teacher preparation during the
Upanishadic period?
2.A.2.2 THE BUDDHIST PERIOD :
The monastic system which was an important feature of
Buddhism required that every novice on his admission, should place
himself under the supervision and guidance of a preceptor
(Upajjhaya). The disciple would 'choose an upajjhaya with much
care and showed him the utmost respect. The upajjhaya, on his part,
had much responsibility to the novice, the Saddhiviharika.
He was to offer spiritual help and promote learning through
religion among the disciples by teaching, by putting question to him,
by exhortation, by instruction. The teacher was to look after the
disciple fully. The teachers employed other methods besides oral
recitation such as exposition, debate, discussion, question-answer,
use of stories and parables. In vihars and monastic schools, HetuVidya
or the inductive method was adopted and the intellect of the
disciple was trained through it. The introduction of logic as one of
the subjects helped in sharpening the intellect and oratory which
was emphasized.
1. Which were the methods adopted for development of the
intellect of the disciple during the Buddhist period?
31
2.A.2.3. THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD :
In the holy Koran, Education is urged as a duty and in
Muslim countries, education was held in high esteem. Though it was
not widespread amongst the people teachers and instructors were
given great respect. The Mohammedan rulers in India founded
schools (Maktabs), Colleges (Madrassahs) and libraries in their
dominions. In the maktab, often attached to a mosque, the students
received instruction in the Koran which they had to recite, and
reading, writing and simple arithmetic was also taught. The medium
of "instruction was Persian but the study of Arabic was compulsory.
In madrassahs the course included grammar, rhetoric, logic,
theology, metaphysics, literature, jurisprudence and sciences.
The teachers teaching in the maktabs were mostly moulvis,
but in the madrassahs scholarly persons were employed. The method
of teacher preparation was mostly initiation of what the old teachers
practiced. Good and experienced teachers with a discerning eye
identified able students and appointed them tutors to look after and
teach the junior students in their absence. Thus the monitorial
system was in vogue during the medieval times too and was the
method of preparing the future teachers. The teachers were held in
high esteem and were respected by the society and their students.
Cramming and memorising were prevalent during this period.
The method of teaching was oral. The teachers adopted the lecture
method. Students were encouraged to consult books. Practicals were
also conducted in practical subjects like medicine. Analytical and
inductive methods were also used to each subject like religion, logic,
philosophy and politics. Although a specialized teacher training
programme did not exist, the teachers had a clear idea of their role
and functions and the methods to be pursued in teaching.
1. What was the system of higher education prevailing during the
medieval period?
32
2.A.2.4. MODERN PERIOD :
Before the arrival of the Britishers in India the European
Missionaries first started scholars and later initiated teacher training
institutions. The Danish Missionaries established a normal school
for the training of teachers at Serampur near Calcutta. In Madras Dr.
Andrew Bell started the experiment of Monitorial System which
formed the basis of teacher training programme for the time being. It
was used in England and known as Bell-Lancaster system. Mr.
Campbell, Collector of Bellary, in his Minute dated 17th August
1823, commended this system by which the more advanced scholars
are asked to teach the less advanced and this was well received in
England.
Sir Munro, in his Minute dated 13 December 1823, gave
same ideas for the improvement of the education of teachers. He
suggested an increase in their allowance and different types of
syllabi for Hindu and Muslim teachers.
In June 1826, the first normal school was started under the
management and with the finances of the British government in
Madras. Initially, it' prepared teachers for the district schools. Later,
this normal school developed into the Presidency College. In 1847,
Bombay started a normal school in the Elphinstone Institution and in
1849, Calcutta too had a normal school.
Wood's Despatch, 1854
The Wood's Dispatch, an important educational document
was released on 19 July, 1854. It was rightly been called the most
important document on English education in India. It gave some
very valuable suggestions for the improvement of the education of
teachers. It suggested that allowances be given to persons who
possess and aptness for teaching and who are willing to devote
themselves to the profession of school master.
In suggesting a change in the education of teachers, the
Dispatch referred to the system prevalent in England. It urged the
establishment of training schools in each presidency in India. The
Dispatch suggested the introduction of pupil teacher system (as
prevailed in England) in India and an award/ stipend to the pupil
teachers and a small payment to the masters of the school to which
they were attached. On successful completion of the training
programme they were to be gjven certificates and employment. So
the Dispatch introduced sufficient incentive for the would-be
33
teachers. Although apprehensive, Lord Dalhousie, Governor-General
of India suggested implementation of Wood's Dispatch which
brought into existence a number of normal schools.
Lord Stanley's Dispatch, 1859
In 1959, Lord Stanley, Secretary of State for India, in his
Dispatch set forth an examination of the operation of the 1854
Dispatch. The Dispatch very emphatically stated that the
administration should desist from procuring teachers from England
and that teachers for vernacular schools should be made available
locally.
The Indian Education Commission 1882
The Indian Education Commission 1882 (The Hunter
Commission) recommended that an examination in the principles
and practice of teaching be instituted, success in which should
hereafter be a condition of permanent employment as a teacher in
any Secondary School, Government or Aided. For graduates it
suggested a shorter course of training than for others. Pedagogical
courses became more prominent. This also led to the opening of new
teacher training institutions and by 1882 there were 116 training
institutions for men and 15 for women.
Thus by the close of the 19th century some essential things in
teacher training had been established. Pedagogical courses had
replaced general education, examinations and certificates in teacher
training had been instituted and practical aspects in planning and
teaching were emphasized.
Government of India Resolution on Education Policy, 1904
This is one of the most important educational documents
which laid down the policies for the future educational system. It
made some very vital suggestions for the improvement of the
teacher-training Programme. These were:
(a) Training Colleges:
The Resolution enunciated that if Secondary Education was
to be improved then the teachers should be trained in the art of
teaching. There were five teacher training colleges in all at places
like Madras, Kurseong, Allahabad, Lahore and Jubbulpur.
Intermediates or Graduates could seek admission to these Colleges.
34
The general principles upon which the training institutions were to
be developed, were,
(i) To enlist more men of ability and experience in the work of
higher training,
(ii) To equip the training colleges well,
(iii) To make the duration of the training programmes two years
and for graduates, one year. The course would comprise
knowledge of the principles which underlie the art of teaching
and some degree of technical skill in the practice of the art,
(iv)The course would culminate in a university degree or diploma,
(v) There should be a close link between theory and practice and
practicing schools should be attached to each college. These
schools should be fully equipped with well trained teachers
whose examples the students should emulate. They should have
good Library and Museum. There should be a close link between
the training colleges and the school, so that the students do not
neglect the methods learnt in the college. The students should be
occasionally brought together again and the inspecting staff and
the training college authorities should try that the influence of the
college is felt in the schools.
(b) Training Schools:
The Resolution recommended opening of more training
schools, particularly in Bengal. The normal schools were mostly
boarding schools where students with vernacular education came for
training and were given stipends. They received general education
combined with the instruction in the methods of teaching and
practice in teaching. The Resolution recommended a minimum
course of two years. It mentioned courses of training specially suited
for teachers of rural schools.
Thus, it can be observed that the recommendations and
suggestions of the Resolution were of far reaching importance.
Some of the suggestions of the Resolution were not implemented
and several recommendations were implemented, some changes
took place in the field of teacher training. Universities instituted
B.T. degree for-graduate teachers. Rethinking on the syllabus
improvements in facilities etc. were the outcomes of the
Resolution.
The Government of India Resolution on Education Policy, 1913
The second resolution on educational policy pinpointed the
35
weakness of the system and suggested many useful measures with
regard to improvement of Primary education. The Resolution
suggested that teachers should be drawn from the class of the boys
whom they will teach and they should have passed the middle
vernacular examination and undergone a year's training. It suggested
periodical repetition and improvement courses for teachers. The
resolution emphasized that no teacher should be allowed to teach
without a certificate and that there should be a constant exchange of
ideas amongst the training college staff members and that they
should visit different colleges.
Calcutta University Commission, 1917
This Commission, known as the Sadler Commission, studied
all aspects of the University education and presented its voluminous
report in 1919. It also touched upon the teacher education
programme and made some valuable recommendations. It pointed
out the painful inadequacy of training institutions and the poor
quality of training provided in them. It suggested that the training
programme should not only make the trainee a competent classroom
teacher but also a good administrator. The commission
suggested opening of post graduate department of education in
Universities, equips each department with a Professor, a Reader and
a number of assistants and institute a post-graduate degree in
Education. It recommended the introduction of Education as an
optional subject at the Graduation and P.G. level.
The recommendations of the Sadler Commission had salutary
effect on the teacher training Programme in India. Mysore
University started a faculty of Education in 1925.
The Hartog Committee, 1929
The work initiated by the Sadler Commission was further
carried on by the Hartog Committee. The Committee was primarily
concerned with primary education but it made far-reaching
recommendations for teacher training as well. It rightly observed
that the success of education depended on the quality of the training,
the status and the pay of teachers. It suggested that teachers for rural
areas should be inducted from persons who were close to rural
society. It also added that the period of training was too short, the
curriculum too narrow and the teaching staff inadequately qualified.
It suggested that journals for teacher in the vernacular,
refresher courses, conferences and meetings of teacher associations
36
can do much to brighten the lives of the teachers and improve their
work. For the secondary school teachers too, the committee had the
same suggestions.
Working on the recommendations of the Sadler Commission
13 out of 18 universities set-up faculties of education. The Lady
Irwin College was setup in New Delhi. Andhra University started a
new degree the B.Ed. in 1932. Bombay launched a post-graduate
degree the M.Ed. in 1936.
Some other important changes in the field of education also
took place in the thirties. The Central Advisory Board of Education
was revived. Basic Education was started by Mahatma Gandhi in
1937, leading to the training of teachers for basic schools. In 1938, a
Basic Training College was set-up at Allahabad and the
Vidyamandir Training School was started at Wardha in 1938.
The Abbott-Wood Report
This report submitted in 1937 is again a landmark in the field
of education. It primarily analyzed the position of vocational
education but also made valuable suggestions about teacher
education. According to the report the duration of training should be
3 years to enable the pupil to continue with general education along
with professional training. It further suggested a refresher course for
the teacher so that he could get a wider experience.
Although there was improvement in the percentage of trained
teachers from 56.8% in 1937 to 61.3% in 1942. Yet there was much
still to be done for achieving qualitative improvement. In 1941, there
were 612 normal schools out of which 376 were for men and 236 for
women. These schools provided one or two years' training. There
were 25 training colleges for graduates which were inadequate to
meet the needs of the time. In -1941, the Vidya Bhawan teacher's
College was started in Rajasthan and the Tilak College of Education
in Poona. Bombay took the lead in starting a doctorate degree in
education the same year.
The Sergeant Report, 1944
In 1944, the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE)
presented a scheme of education "Post-war Educational
Development in India", popularly known as the "Sergeant Plan". The
scheme was a broad-based educational plan. It made some practical
suggestions for teacher's training programme.
37
It recommended that suitable boys and girls should be
inducted into the teaching profession after High School; Practical
training should be provided, refresher courses be planned and
research facilities be provided.
It suggested a two-year course for pre-primary and junior
Basic schools (after high school) and a three year course for the
senior basic schools. The non-graduate teachers in high schools were
to go for two year training and the graduates for one-year training.
The first year of the two years training should be devoted to the
study of the general and professional subjects. It should be supported
by school visits, discussions and other experiences to kindle the
trainee's interest in education. It proposed revised pay scales for all
categories of teachers, to attract better teachers.
1. Why the Woods Dispatch is considered an important
educational document?
2. What were the recommendations of the Woods Dispatch with
respect to teacher education?
3. Government of Indias Resolution on Education Policy of 1904
still holds good. Justify.
38
4. What was the impact of the Saddler and Hartog Committee
reports?
educated or trained effectively. Teaching in the Upanishadic period
was known for the personal attention paid to the student. The
freedom to accept a disciple rested with the teacher, and a disciple or
student had the freedom to choose his teacher. Oral explanation was
one of the important method of teaching. The methods used by
teachers were emulated and adopted by the disciples and handed
over from one generation of teachers to another.
The monastic system was an important feature of Buddhism
and required that every novice the Saddhiviharika on his admission,
should place himself under the supervision and guidance of a
preceptor (Upajjhaya). The monitorial system was in vogue during
the medieval times too and was the method of preparing the future
teachers. The teachers were held in high esteem and were respected
by the society and their students.
Modern period was characterized by the Britishers in India.
Various committees were instituted who looked in to the system of
teacher education and training. Of them Woods Dispatch,
Government of Indias Resolution on Education Policy of 1904 and
Saddler and Hartog Committees made substantive recommendations
which hold good for the present times too.
1. Trace the development of teacher education during the Vedic
period and examine its relevance today.
2. Trace the development of teacher education during the medieval
period.
3. How the development of teacher education has unfolded during
39
the modern period? Critically examine.
4. Explain the relevance of some of the recommendations made
during the pre independence period for teacher education.
Suggested Reading :
Book, Delhi, NCERT.
2. Mohanty, J. (2003) Teacher Education New Delhi, Deep and
Deep Publications Pvt. Ltd.
40
2B
TEACHER EDUCATION IN POST
INDEPENDENCE INDIA
Unit structure :
2.B.0 Objectives
2.B.1 Introduction
2.B.2 Teacher Education in Post Independence India
2.B.2.1 The University Education Commission
2.B.2.2 The Plan period in Fifties
2.B.2.3 The Secondary Education Commission
2.B.2.4 The Plan period in Sixties
2.B.2.5 The Kothari Commission
2.B.2.6 The Plan period in Seventies
2.B.2.7 The Plan period in Eighties
2.B.2.8 Challenges for the Education Policy
2.B.2.9 The Nineties
2.B.2.10 The Two Thousands
2.B.3 Let us Sum up
2.B.0. OBJECTIVES :
preparation during the post independence period.
Understand the relevance of recommendations made during the
Plan Periods.
2.B.1. INTRODUCTION :
After Independence the emerging socioeconomic and
political situations influenced the national scenario of Teacher
Education. The Government of India set-up different Committees
and Commissions for addressing to the specific issues of education
in general and Teacher Education (TE) in particular. A large number
of teachers were found untrained and attempt was made to clear the
backlog. The main concerns of teacher education were pertaining to
41
both quality and quantity. In 1948, the Central Institute of Education
was established in Delhi and the Government Training College at
Allahabad was developed into the Central Pedagogical Institute.
2.B.2 TEACHER EDUCATION IN POST
INDEPENDENCE INDIA :
2.B.2.1. THE UNIVERSITY EDUCATION COMMISSION (1948-49)
Just after Independence the University Education
Commission was appointed under the chairmanship of Dr. S.
Radhakrishnan. The Commission submitted its report in 1949. The
Commission observed that obviously there was no difference in the
theory papers offered in the various teacher-training colleges. But
there was much difference in practice followed by them. The
number of supervised lessons varied from ten to sixty and the type
of practice teaching and student teaching varies from one to another.
The Commission observed-that the training colleges had no
basic orientation in the essentials. For improvement of teacher
training, it suggested that the teacher educators must look at the
whole course from a different angle, that the theory and practice
should support each other; that the intelligent following of rule of
thumb methods should be made; trainees be recruited from people
having a first hand experience of school teaching; that courses in the
theory of education must be flexible and adaptable to local
circumstances; that original work by professors and lecturers in
education should not suffer from isolation and lack of interuniversity
planning.
2.B.2.2. THE PLAN PERIOD IN FIFTIES
In 1950 the first conference of Training Colleges in India was
held at Baroda and exchange of ideas took place. The conference
discussed programmes and functions of the training colleges.
In the following year, i.e. 1951, the second All India
Conference was held at Mysore. It discussed the teacher training
programme in a broader perspective and suggested substituting the
term "Education" for "Training" and widened its scope. In the same
year, a six-week summer course in education was organized for
college teachers at Mysore. The syllabi in teacher education were
revised, new areas of specialization added, and practical work
improved. There was a spurt of work-shops, seminars and
conference on teacher education.
2.B.2.3. THE SECONDARY EDUCATION COMMISSION,
42
(1952 -53)
One of the important events of the plan decade was the
Report of the Secondary Education Commission. It analyzed the
problems of teachers and the training programme in great depth. It
emphasized that the most important factor in educational
reconstruction is the teacher, his personal qualities, his educational
qualifications, his professional training and the place he occupies in
the school as well as in the community. So the Commission made
recommendations on all these aspects and found three types of
teacher training institutions viz., (a) Primary (Basic) Teacher
Training, (b) Secondary Teacher Training Institution and Training
Colleges.
It suggested two types of institutions: (i) for those who have
taken the school leaving certificate, for whom the period of training
be two years, (ii) for graduates, presently of one academic year but
extended as a long-term programme to two academic years. The
graduate training institutions should be recognized and officiated to
the universities which should grant the degree, while the secondary
grade training institutions should be under the control of a separate
Board. It recommended training in co-curricular activities, refresher
courses and research work for the M.Ed. degree. It recommended
three years' teaching experience for M.Ed. Admission, after
graduation in education.
The enthusiasm for seminars, work-shops, etc., led to the
establishment of Extension Centres. In 1995 the All India Council
for Secondary Education was established. The Council through its
Extension Centres imparted in service education. In 1957, the All
India Council for Elementary Education was formed.
The Second Five Year Plan was launched in 1955-56 and it was
contemplated that 68 per cent of teachers would be trained by 1960.
An amount of Rs. 17 crore was apportioned for increasing training
facilities.
All India Council of Secondary Education Established an
Examination Reform Unit in 1951. The Directorate of Extension
Programme for secondary education was set-up in 1959 to coordinate
and run the extension programmes. In the same year the
Central Institute of English was established at Hyderabad to train
teachers in English and to conduct research in the field.
43
1. What are the recommendations of the University Education
Commission (1948) and the Secondary Education Commissions
with regard to Teacher Education?
2.B.2.4. THE SIXTIES
The first National Seminar on the Education of Primary
Teachers was held in October 1969. The findings of the seminar
were presented in the Report of the Study Group on the training for
Elementary Education. The findings reflected a sad state of affairs.
The institutions were poorly staffed and equipped and that every
teacher should be trained and the State Government should plan a
phased programme to attain the targets. It recommended selection of
some training institutions as models for developing primary teacher
education on the right lines. Optimum size of training institutions
should be 200 trainees. It recommended that Primary school teachers
should also be included in the extension programmes. It advocated
the setting up of State Institutes of Education. During 1962-63
Extension Training Centres in Primary Teacher Education
Institutions started functioning. The State Institutes of Education
were established by 1964 and a Department of Teacher Education
was established at the National Institute of Education.
During this period National Council of Educational Research
and Training (NCERT) was establishment in 1961. It was intended
to improve school education to training, research, publication and
co-ordination. The NCERT established four Regional Colleges of
Education, one each at Ajmer, Bhubaneswar, Bhopal and Mysore.
The Committee on Plan Projects (COPP) set-up a study team
for selected educational schemes in 1961 which submitted its report
on Teacher Training in 1964. The findings of the Committed were
that teacher training institutions contributed only marginally to
educational thinking, the training colleges had inadequate laboratory
facilities and teaching equipment; there was practically no room for
experimentation and innovation in the teacher education programme.
These were shocking but correct observations.
44
A Centre for Advanced Studies in Education was set-up by
the UGC in the Faculty of Education and Psychology in the M.S.
University of Baroda. In 1964, at the Seventh Conference of All
India Association of Teachers' Colleges, it was proposed that
comprehensive colleges be set-up to bridge the gulf between
Primary and Secondary teacher training institutions. The Conference
recommended the setting-up-of a State Council of Teacher
Education.
2.B.2.5. THE KOTHARI COMMISSION, (1964-66)
In 1964 an Education Commission was set-up by the
Government of India under the Chairmanship of Dr. D.S. Kothari to
advise on the educational set-up. The Commission observed that a
sound programme of professional Education for teachers was
essential for the qualitative improvement of education. The
Commission pointed out the weakness of the existing system and
suggested ways to improve it. It recommended that isolation of
teachers' colleges with the universities, schools and the teachers'
colleges themselves should be removed. It spelt out the ways and
means to do so. For qualitative improvement, it recommended
subject orientation and introduction of integrated courses of general
and professional education. It suggested ways to improve the quality
of teacher educators. It advised the State Governments to prepare a
plan for the expansion of training facilities.
The Commission very correctly diagnosed the ills in teacher
education and suggested practical remedies. As a result of the
suggestions of the Education Commission, 1964-66, some changes
were introduced in teacher education. An M.A. degree in Education
was introduced in some universities, such as Aligarh, Kurukshetra,
Kanpur and some others. Some Universities introduced summer
schools and correspondence courses to meet the backlog of
untrained teachers and some States set-up. State Boards .of Teacher
Education. These changes were welcome steps in the field of teacher
education and were expected to meet the needs in this field.
The Planning Commission in the Fourth Five Year Plan
(1969-74) laid emphasis on Teacher Education for improving its
quality, training more women teachers and teachers from tribal
communities, training science and mathematics teachers for the
middle classes and organizing in-services training. It suggested
correspondence courses for the training of teachers already in
service. It recommended greater co-ordination between the NCERT
45
and the SIEs for qualitative improvement in school education. It also
suggested training Programmes for teacher educators.
1. Why were the National Council of Educational Research and
Training (NCERT) and Center for Advanced Studies in
Education (CASE) established?
(1964-66) with respect to Teacher Education?
2.B.2.6. THE SEVENTIES
During the seventies there was much emphasis on
implementation of the new pattern of education, i.e. 10+2+3 pattern.
This called for rethinking and reforms in teacher education. In 1973,
a bold and imaginative step was taken by the Government 'of India.
It set-up the National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) which
was to work as a national advisory body for teacher education. The
NCTE drafted a curriculum for preparing' teachers for the new 10+2
pattern. The new curriculum was a task-oriented. The framework
envisaged that the teacher should play the role of the leader' inside
and outside the classroom, initiate action for the transformation of
society as an agent of social change and thereby help achieve the
goal of national development. The framework defined the objectives
of teacher education in very clear terms, developed the relationship
with the community, emphasized and worked out the Socially
Useful Productive Work (SUPW), and defined the role and functions
of the teacher in the emerging Indian Society.
46
A Joint session of the members of the NCTE and UGC panel
on teacher education met in 1976 and drafted an approach paper on
teacher education. The NCERT developed programmes for training
teachers already in service through a number of centres of
continuing Education.
In 1975 through the 42nd Amendment of the Constitution,
Education was brought to the Concurrent list. Due to change of
Government at the Centre, this brought a commitment to education
and some important changes were witnessed in the eighties.
1. Why was the National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE)
established?
2.B.2.7. THE EIGHTIES:
National Policy on education (NPE) and Programme of action
(POA)
The Government of India in 1983 set-up two National
Commissions on Teachers. One was to deal with the issues relating
to teachers at the school stage and the other to teachers at the higher
education level. Both Commissions had very wide terms and
reference right from the objectives for teaching profession to the
National Foundation for Teacher's Welfare. These Commissions met
the cross-section of the society and elicited their views with regard
to the improvement of teaching community.
2.B.2.8 CHALLENGES FOR THE EDUCATION POLICY
In August 1985, the Government of India brought out a
document "The Challenge of Education: A Policy Perspective." This
envisaged an educational system which would prepare the youth for
the 21st century. The document acknowledged teacher performance
as the most crucial input in the field of education, but lamented that
47
much of teacher education was irrelevant, that selection procedures
and recruitment systems were inappropriate and the teaching was
still the last choice in the job market. It laid emphasis on aptitude for
teaching in the entrants on reorganization of the teacher education
programme and on in-service education.
The document was debated and discussed widely in the
country and the recommendations of the educationists, thinkers and
workers were submitted to the Government of India for inclusion in
the Education Policy, 1986. According to National Policy on
Education (NPE) 1986, stress was given to the teacher education
programme. Training schools were upgraded to District Institutes of
Education and Training (DIETS) and training colleges were
upgraded into Colleges of Teacher Education (CTEs) and Institutes
of Advanced Studies in Education (IASEs). There was provisions
for research and innovation in IASEs.
The revised National Policy on Education, 1992 also
emphasized the functioning of teacher education institutions.
There has been development in terms of both infrastructure
and curriculum transaction as per the NPE and POA, 1986 and 1992.
A lot of money is being spent on infrastructural improvement and
organization of various in service programmes. By the year 1998-99
there were 45 DIETs, 76 CTEs and 34 lASEs. But the impact of all
these on teacher education for quality improvement is found very
marginal. The NCTE has also tried to impose the norms and
conditions for recognition of these training institutions. During the
year 1998-99 the NCTE received 2426 applications from the
existing training institutions for recognition and conducting teacher
training courses. Recognition was subsequently granted to 408
institutions in addition to 1294 institutions accorded provisional
recognition. Similarly, 1349 applications were received for starting
new institutions and courses. Recognition was accorded only to 277
new institutions/courses. Besides, provisional recognition was
accorded to 1035 institutions.
1. What did the "The Challenge of Education: A Policy
Perspective (1985) document envisage for teacher education?
48
2. Why is National Policy on Education (NPE) 1986 considered an
important document with respect to teacher education?
2.B.2.9 THE NINETIES
During 1990s the NPE was revised by Acharya Ramamurthy
Committee and it gave a humane approach to education emphasizing
more on value oriented education. It also saw the emergence of
NCTE as a statutory body of the Govt. of India when NCTE Act of
1993 was passed by parliament. NCTE came into effect on 17th
August 1995 for planned and coordinated development of teacher
education system across the country. Policy of Liberalisation,
Privatization and Globalisation (LPG) stated during this period when
Indian market was opened to foreigners and free trade and
commerce was encouraged.
2.B.2.10 THE TWO THOUSANDS
The first decade of the twenty first century had the privilege
of the liberalization policy introduced in early nineties. The
education sector was opened up for private sector participation and
there was Public Private Partnership (PPP). Foreign Universities are
encouraged to set up their campaign in Indian soil and spread
education, Many Private Universities came into being during this
period so also the deemed universities becoming full fledged
universities by UGC under section 3 of UGC Act 1956. National
knowledge commission has been set up which recommends to
achieve Gross Enrolment Ratio of 15% by 2015 in higher education.
After universalisation of education and flagship programme
of Sarva Shiksha Abhiya, now efforts are made to universalize
secondary education through Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiya
(RMSA). The 11th plan in therefore called education plan as it gives
more emphasis to education especially higher education. During this
period a number of central Universities has came up and 11Ts and
11Ms have set up their new campaign to spread quality engineering
and management education across the country.
49
As reported by the MHRD, Government of India (Annual
Report, 1999- 2000, p. 8) "One of the major achievements of NCTE
during the short period of its existence has been the publication of
monographs, reports and self learning modules for teacher educators
and teachers during 1998-99. The publications brought out by NCTE
provide a comprehensive view on several important aspects of
teacher education". To be specific, NCTE has brought out 66
publications and 6 CD ROMs by 2000-2001. Besides, many
seminars, conferences and workshops are being organized by NCTE
in different parts of the country for improving the teachers
competency, up gradation of syllabi and development of materials
on teacher education.
.
Besides academic activities, the NCTE has achieved some
success in its regulatory functions by bringing a vast majority of
teacher training institutions under its purview. Particularly,
commercialization of Teacher Education has been controlled to a
great extent at the cost of a large number of cases pending in the
courts and a huge expenditure on account of this. A so called
landmark decision taken by NCTE was "to make Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) literacy a compulsory part of
B.Ed. course, mainly to create general awareness amongst the
teacher trainees about ICT and its use in teaching-learning." (NCTE
Annual Report, 2000-2001 p.3). Unless qualified and competent
teachers/teacher educators are in a position to utilize properly the
hardware facilities supplied by various agencies, the purpose for
doing the same may not be realized.
A landmark achievement was the establishment of the
National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) by the
UGC for quality assurance and enhancement of higher education.
The development of teacher education has been traced in the
post independent period. Important suggestions and
recommendations have been made from the time of independence.
From the University Education Commission (1948) to the decade of
the 2000 importance has been given to teacher education, its
development and enhancement. The establishment of UGC,
NCERT, NCTE and NAAC have had substantial impact on teacher
education.
50
1964-66 for Teacher Education?
2. State the role and functions of UGC and NCTE.
3. Explain the relevance of some of the recommendations made in
the NPE 1986 for teacher education.
4. What were the achievements of the NCTE in the decade of
2000s.
Suggested Reading :
1. Mohanty, J. (2003) Teacher Education. Deep and Deep
Publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
Book, Delhi, NCERT.
3. Sharma, Shashi Prabha (2004) Teacher Education in India. Vikas
Publications New Delhi.
51
2C
TEACHER EDUCATION IN THE U.K.
AND U.S.A.
Unit structure:
2.C.0 Objectives
2.C.1 Introduction
2.C.2 Objectives of Teacher-Education in U.K.
2.C.3 Historical Perspective
2.C.4 Types of Training Colleges
2.C.5 Curricula and Courses for Teacher Education
2.C.6 Classification of Teachers and their qualifications
2.C.7 Selection for Training
2.C.8 Service Conditions of Teachers
2.C.9 Teacher-Education in U.S.A.
2.C.10 Objectives of Teacher-Education in U.S.A.
2.C.11 Types of Teacher Training Institutions
2.C.12 Curriculum and Courses of Study
2.C.13 Training of Higher Education Teachers
2.C.14 Let us sum up
2.C.0 OBJECTIVES :
preparation in the United Kingdom.
Understand the features of the system.
Gain knowledge of the system of education & teacher
preparation in the U.S.A.
2C.1. INTRODUCTION :
52
The prevailing system of education in India was modelled on
the lines of the system of education functioning in England and
Wales. Therefore, our system of teacher education follows the
English lines. In England the standard of school education is
sufficiently high, but the teacher educators want to further raise their
standard. Robbins Committee Report and the James Report reflect
the same.
The teacher educators in U.K. as well as other countries are
concerned with the integration of content and methodology in their
programmes for teacher education. The study of the programme of
teacher education in various developed countries of the world will
help understand their systems and incorporate in India whatever is
possible.
The system of Teacher Education in England has not been the
outcome of any upheaval or revolution, but the product of long
evolutionary process out of customs or traditions. According to
Ward, There is no such thing as a general license to teach, there is
nothing in legislation, public or local, to prevent anyone from
opening a school. The standard of staffing, and the qualifications of
teachers are either determined by tradition, emphasized by public
opinion and official pressure, or are left undetermined.
2.C.2. OBJECTIVES OF TEACHER-EDUCATION IN
U.K. :
1) To provide the theoretical awareness of teaching- philosophical,
sociological, psychological and economic foundation of
education.
2) To develop skills and competencies for using teaching methods,
techniques and teaching aids in the classroom.
3) To develop the abilities to deal with the problems of classroom
teaching by using action research.
4) To develop the right type attitudes and feelings for National
Integration and International understanding.
5) To provide separate objectives of Teacher-Education for pre
primary, primary, school and college teachers.
53
1. State the objectives of Teacher Education in UK.
2.C.3. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE :
The Early Period
Monitorial System - In the beginning of nineteenth century there
was no formal system of teacher training in U.K. The first crude
attempt was made to produce teachers through the Monitorial
System. Under the system, a number of senior pupils, called
monitors, were first taught a number of elementary facts or words
to be spelt by heart. Each of these then assembled in the great hall
with a group of other children to whom he taught what he had just
learnt. As the system suffered from a number of defects, it was
abandoned and replaced by pupil-teacher system.
The Pupil-Teacher System - Criticizing the Monitorial System Mr.
Kay Shuttleward advocated a new arrangement, called pupil-teacher
system. According to this arrangement Pupil-teachers were chosen
at the age of thirteen from among the most promising pupils in an
elementary school. They were formally apprenticed to the
headmaster for a term of five years, and were examined on a
prescribed graded syllabus at the end of each year. If they acquitted
themselves creditably, the Government paid the headmaster a grant
of 5 pounds for one pupil-teacher, 9 pounds for two, and 3 pounds
for each additional one. At the end of the apprenticeship i.e., at the
age of eighteen, the pupil-teacher could appear for departmental
examination. The successful candidates were awarded the Queens
Scholarship, which entitled them for a three-year course at a training
college. At the end of it, they qualified as certificated teachers.
The Bursar and Student-Teacher System - According to this
system the pupil in a secondary school was allowed to remain there
54
up to the age of seventeen or eighteen as a bursar and then proceed
direct to a training college or alternatively he could become a
student-teacher spending half of his time in actual practice in an
elementary school and continue his studies in the secondary school
during the other. This system of preliminary training of teachers has
been continuing even these days with some modifications.
The Modern Period
Report of the McNair, Committee (1944)
In their report titled Teachers and Youth Leaders (1944)
recommended the following regarding the system of teacher
training;
(i) Central Training Council - A Central Training Council for
England and Wales be formed Charged with the duty of
advising the Board of Education about bringing into being that
form of area, training service, recommended in this Report
which the Board may decide to adopt.
(ii) Alternatives - One of the following two alternative schemes of
the new pattern of teacher training be adopted
(a) A type Scheme - According to it each University should
be a sort of organic federation of approved training
institutions. The school should look after the training
arrangements as well as the examinations of the students
seeking to be certificated qualified teachers.
(b) B type Scheme - It aimed at the continuation of the Joint
Board System with closer representation of the University
on it. The University Department of Education and the
constituent colleges should maintain identity to be linked
together through the joint board of Education and the
Central Training Council.
(iii) The Area Training Organization - It should be responsible
for the approval of syllabus of all levels of training.
(iv) The Board of Education - It should approve certificate on the
basis of recommendations and assessment by the Area
Training Authority.
(v) The Area Training Authority - It should also function as
inspectorial body for all training institutions within its
jurisdiction.
(vi) Declaration - The students should not be required to sign
declarations committing them to teach in publicly run or aided
55
schools for minimum specified period of time, to compensate
for the money spent on them.
(vii) Duration - The duration of training course should be. extended
to three years.
(viii) Basic Scale - A basic scale should be introduced for qualified
teachers in primary and secondary schools with additions for
special qualification or experience.
The Follow-up Action As a follow-up of the recommendations of
McNair Committee, the following set-up of teacher was established:
(1) Area Training Organizations - These were formed in
collaboration with different Universities. Most of these training
Centres were Institutes of Education while the remaining were
known as, School of Education. While the institutes of Education
were under the direct control of their respective Universities the
Schools of Education functioned under Ministry of Education. As
there was rapid increase in the number of training institutions, the
Area Training Organizations had to undertake greater
responsibilities, and the functions performed by them, were as
follows:
(i) Supervision of the courses of training in their constituent
colleges, including the University Department of Education.
(ii) Maintenance of Standards
(iii) Conducting of examinations and assessment of students work.
(iv) Recommendation of successful students for the award of
qualified Teachers Certificate.
(v) Planning for the development of training facilities at various
levels in their areas.
(vi) Provision of opportunities for further study and encouragement
of research in professional studies.
(vii)Arrangement of educational centers for in-service education of
teachers already working in schools.
(2) National Advisory Council on the Training and Supply of
Teachers - It consisted of representatives of the Area Training
Organizations, Local Education Authorities and National
Association of Teachers.
Robbins Committee Report (1963)
It made the following recommendations regarding teacher training :
56
(i) Scheme A System of McNair Committee It should be
implemented but proposed that the logical next step should be
taken, first, by uniting the Departments of Education of the
colleges and the Institutes into Schools of Education, and
secondly by instituting a block grant for all the Colleges in each
school, to be administered by the University, which would thus
undertake not only academic supervision of the Colleges but
also financial responsibility for their maintenance.
(ii) The Council for National Academic Awards It should be
established though this was not the best route for the Colleges.
(iii) Academic and financial authority for the Colleges of
Education They should go together and that the Colleges.
should become an integral part of a University School of
Education, being financed through the University Grants
Committee. Some of the bigger Colleges might become
individually constituent parts of a University or to become part
of one.
(iv) The Teacher-training Colleges They should be known in
future as Colleges of Education.
Most of these recommendations were implemented. The
Colleges were renamed as Colleges of Education. The degree of
bachelor of Education was instituted.
Central Advisory. Council Report (1967)
Titled Children and their Primary Schools the report of the
Central Advisory Council was published in 1967. It, recommended
the following:
(i) The newly established B. Ed. degree ought to be, a major,
source of supply of graduates for Primary Schools;
(ii) There should be full enquiry into the system of teacher training,
an enquiry which is long overdue;
(iii) All primary schools teachers needed to be numerate as well as
literate and efforts should be made to improve their
qualifications.
(iv) There should be an extension of network of day Colleges and
outposts in which mature students, with adopted hours and
modified tables, had proved their value; an increase in the
number of graduates in Primary Schools and more facilities for
their training; professional training for any graduate who
57
proposed to teach in Primary Schools; and the encouragement of
closer contact and partnership between the Colleges and the
Schools;
(v) The Schools should play a bigger part in supervision of student
teaching;
(vi) There should be more joint appointments, to College and School
staffs to aid the general co-operation between Schools and
Colleges.
The James Report (1972)
It made following recommendation for the training of teachers for an
emerging scheme of universal secondary education.
(i) Teacher Education should become part of higher education and
entrance requirements should be the same as for Universities.
(ii) The general education of all teachers should be broadened and
extended.
(iii) The present three year certificate programme should become a
four-year - programme of education and training leading to a
degree. The present four-year course should become a five year
course. In each pattern an internship of one year should. be an
integral part.
(iv) The teachers professional education should continue
throughout his life.
(v) Teacher Education should be divided into following three
cycles:
(a) The First Cycle It would be provided by a University
or Council for National Academic Awards Committee.
(b) The Second Cycle It would be a common course of
professional training extending Over two years. The first
year would be within the Colleges or Department of
Education and the emphasis would be on preparation for
work appropriate to a teacher at the beginning of his
career rather than, on formal courses in educational
theory. The second year would put the student as a
licensed teacher and he will begin to receive a salary.
(c) The third Cycle It will start with registration for
training and cover a wide spectrum of training, education
and activities. There will be long courses leading to
advanced qualifications and requiring the release of
teachers for full-time attendance in schools.
58
(vi) The report also suggested the abolition of the Area Training
Organization system and substituting it by the Regional Council
for Colleges and Departments of Education at local level and
the National Council for Teacher Educational and Training at
the national level.
1. Differentiate between the monitorial system, the pupil teacher
system and the Bursar and Student-Teacher system.
2. What is the importance of the Report of the McNair, Committee
of 1944?
3. Why is the Robbins Committee Report (1963) considered as
having made considerable contribution to Teacher Education?
4. Current system of Teacher Education is modeled according to
The James Report (1972). Justify.
59
2.C.4. TYPES OF TRAINING COLLEGES :
In England the training Colleges are of two categories
(1) Old training Colleges These were originally opened and
financed by private bodies to a denominational character, but are
now almost wholly maintained by public money.
(2) Those started by Local Education Authorities These were
from the early years of the 20th century and wholly financed by
local authorities.
The Ministry of Education financially assists both the above
categories of training colleges. The Ministry bears about fifty
percent of expenditure of Private Colleges particularly for purpose of
improvement, extension and or replacement of their buildings; the
rest is borne by the voluntary agencies themselves.
2.C.5. CURRICULA AND COURSES FOR TEACHER
EDUCATION :
The majority of training colleges provide a two-year course.
though there is a general trend to extend the course to a total period
of three years as a sequel to the McNair Committee
recommendations. The curricula of these training colleges. is
approved by the Board of Studies of their Institutes of Education.
Curricula are fairly wide and comprehensive, covering all the
aspects of teachers work. Of course, the Boards of Studies prescribe
only the general outline of the curriculum; the details are worked out
by the training colleges themselves. Today, the curricula of training
colleges in England, generally., include the following kinds of
studies and practical work :
(1) Academic Studies This part of the curriculum aim to impart a
sound general education to the students. It is, therefore, devoted
to an advanced study of selected school subjects.
(2) Professional Studies As these are intended to give the
students a thorough grounding in the principles and practice of
teaching were include the study of (i) Principles and practice of
Teaching, (ii) Health Education, (iii) History of Education and
(iv) Educational psychology. Opportunities for specialization are
also provided in one of the following two branches: (a) teaching
60
of young children in infant schools and (b) teaching of pupils in
the age-group 7-11 in Junior High Schools.
(3) Practice-teaching It constitutes the practical part of the
course. Though no uniform programme has been evolved for it,
student are normally required to teach for a total period of twelve
weeks under the supervision of all the faculty member.
Theory of education, educational psychology, childpsychology,
teaching methods and techniques problems and
remedies of education, school organization and administration
courses have been included of teacher education. Under the
curriculum Theoretical aspect has been given more weight age than
practical aspect of teaching-learning. The curriculum has been
developed according to following stages:
(1) Teachers of Primary Schools.
(2) Teachers of Secondary Schools.
(3) Special teachers and teachers of Arts and Vocational institutions,
and
(4) Teachers imparting further education.
The training course in physical education and home science is
of 3 years duration while in art and music it is of 4 years duration.
The pupil teachers whether male or female are free to take admission
in any of them. General qualifications for admission is general
certificate of Education.
2.C.6. CLASSIFICATION OF TEACHERS AND THEIR
QUALIFICATIONS :
(1) Teachers of Primary Schools General certificate of
education and 18 years of age. is necessary. Two years teachertraining
in training school is available.
(2) Teachers of Secondary Schools One year training course in
University Teacher Training Department.
(3) Teachers of Special Subjects Separate training for art, music,
physical education etc. it Acquire Certificates of Royal Arts
College.
(4) Further Education For them experience is their training.
61
2.C.7. SELECTION FOR TRAINING :
Selection is made through Teachers Associations and
through direct selection from schools. Lady-teachers are one third in
number of those selected. They are selected from those girls who
have completed their education and have an experience of 1 or 2
years in some industrial or commercial institution. The demand of
lady teachers is increasing day by day. For training in technical
subjects. the students are selected, from industrial training, they have
to work on one year probation, after which the appointment becomes
permanent.
The associations of the teachers colleges and Teacher Taining
Departments extend cooperation to students willing to get training.
They give valuable advice to Education Ministry and students
regarding teacher training. They also help the young boys and girls
in getting admission. The willing candidate applies to the Teachers
Association for admission after considering his application the
association tries to get him admitted in some training institution.
2.C.8. SERVICE CONDITIONS OF TEACHERS :
Ordinarily, the teachers are appointed on the basis of service
agreement between the teacher and management. In the aided
schools, the manager alone appoints the teachers while at the school
run by voluntary organizations, the entire managing committee
appoints the teachers. The teachers associations help in determining
the service conditions. According to the suggestion of the Burnham
Committee incorporated in the Education Act of 1944. The
Teachers Association and L.E.A. jointly determine the service
conditions of teachers.
1. Briefly describe the curricula and courses for teacher education.
62
2.C.9 TEACHER EDUCATION IN U.S.A.
Historical background :
Teacher Education in U.S.A., started in the beginning of
nineteenth century, developed through private Academies. Normal
Schools, Colleges of Education etc. This development can be
discussed under three specific stages:
(1) The Normal School Movement (1823-1860) In the early
years of 19th century, private Academies had started training
teachers. Samuel R. Hall set up first Normal School for teachers in
1823 at Concord, Vermont. His efforts got support from Horace
Mann, Edmund Dwight, Cyprus Pierce, Charles Brookes and others,
who got inspiration from European system of teacher education. In
1834 James Carter, founded a private teachers Seminar at
Lancaster, Massachusetts. The Normal School movement gained a
lot of momentum support owing to public. The State Government
also entered the field of teacher education. The first state-owned
Public Normal School in USA was set up at Lexington,
Massachusetts in July, 1839. This was followed by many other
States and County School Authorities. By 1860, 170 Public Normal
Schools had been established.
The duration of training in Normal Schools was about one
year. However, some intelligent students were allowed to pass
through this course earlier. Candidates, who completed the one year
course, were awarded a certificate to teach in the district elementary
schools of Massachusetts. Any one who had passed through
elementary school course was allowed admission. The curriculum of
the training included following six areas:
(1) A thorough review of the common subjects spelling,
reading, writing, geography and arithmetic.
(2) Some secondary school academic subjects geometry,
algebra, philosophy etc, but no ancient languages.
(3) The physical, mental and moral, development of children.
(4) The principles and methods of teaching the common subjects.
(5) The art of school government.
(6) Practice teaching.
(2) The Teacher Training (1860-1910) During the years
following the Civil War there was a vast expansion of every phase of
American education. There were over 18 million children enrolled in
63
Kindergarten and elementary, schools, a number quite close to the
total population between the ages of 5 and 13. During the 1870s and
1880s the enrolment in secondary schools began to rise
significantly. After 1890 the number practically doubled every
decade. By 1910, the figure had crossed 1,000,000. Now people
began to feel, Quality of the teacher is the quality of school. The
educationists felt dissatisfied with the products of these Normal
Schools. The need for improvement was strongly felt in two
directions: (1) To enhance the period of training. (2) To revitalise the
curriculum of teacher training and to broad base its programme.
The establishment of the Illinois Normal University in 1857
was the first concrete step to improve teacher training in the desired
direction. It was designed to prepare teachers for all branches of the
common schools, including high schools. Its graduates were
supposed to become educational leaders as well, as elementary
school teachers.
After civil war the movement of teacher training gained new
momentum. A number of Universities opened Departments of
Education. A Chair of Education was set up in the University of
Iowa in 1873. University of Michigan created a Chair of Art and
Science of Teaching in 1879. By the end of 19th century the number
of Colleges and Universities offering teacher training went up to 24
due to the support of top educationists including John Dewey,
Stanley Hall, Thorndike and Charles Judd.
(3) The Teacher Education (1910 onwards) The beginning of
twentieth century marked a turning point in the history of teacher
education in U.S.A. Since 1910, there has been the rise of preeminence
of graduate faculties of education making vigorous efforts
for raising the professional standard of teachers. The leading
educationists and psychologists, G.Stanley Hall, J. Mckeen CatteIl,
Edward Tichener, Hugo Munsterberg, Edward L. Thorndike and
Charles H. Judd showed the way.
In the early years of the Century there were following three closely
related movements in U.S.A.
(i) The Educational Psychology Movement.
(ii) The Child Study Movement
(iii) The Educational Measurement Movement
The combination of these three movements gave rise to
Scientific approach to the educational process. The natural
64
outcome of this new thinking was the gradual replacement of
Normal School by 4-year Teachers Colleges. By the end of 1920
there were 45 such colleges in different parts of the country. During
the year 1948-49 as many as 218 teachers colleges were existing,
with only a sprinkling of Normal Schools. Teacher training was
replaced by Teacher Education, while the former meant only the
imparting of certain teaching skills the later implied the
understanding of basic principles. Teachers colleges undertook the
preparation of elementary as well as secondary school teachers.
They provided general education along with professional training.
Following results were significantly visible.
(i) Teacher training Institutions had gained in status. They were
then placed on equal footing with the Liberal Arts Colleges.
(ii) The period of training had been increased from one year to four
years, thereby preparing better oriented and more skilled
teachers.
(iii) Teacher training had been replaced by Teacher Education, thus
providing more broad-based education, comprising general as
well as professional education.
1. Explain the teacher training system from 1833 to 1910.
2. Why is the beginning of twentieth century considered as a
turning point in the history of teacher education in U.S.A.
65
2.C.10 OBJECTIVES OF TEACHER-EDUCATION IN
USA :
(1) To develop the teacher-education programme in accordance with
the democratic way of life.
(2) To provide an open-environment to the pupil-teachers, so that an
appropriate development of their personalities can be made.
(3) To provide the theoretical and practical awareness about the
teaching-learning process.
(4) To develop the skills and competencies of teaching, methods,
techniques. and teaching aids.
(5) To prepare separate teacher-education programme for distanceeducation
teachers.
(6) To develop the feelings among pupil-teachers but it should be in
accordance with democratic form government.
(7) To base the teacher-education programme on the local needs.
Every university of U.S.A has its own model of teachereducation
programme.
SPECIAL FEATURES
(1) No National System There is no national system of teacher
education in America as there is lot of variety and flexibility.
Numerous kinds of institutions, from High Schools and County
Normal Schools to Education Departments of Universities, are
having their own programmes of teacher training with hardly any
uniformity in their curricula or system: According to an
American educationist, There is no One way to educate teachers
and no one type of institution is best suited to the job.
(2) Equality of Opportunity In the. American system of teacher
education, there is equality of opportunity and men and women
front all sections of society, high and low, rich and poor, have an
easy access to institutions preparing teachers.
(3) Cooperative Enterprise The system of teacher education is a
cooperative enterprise and not the monopoly of one single
authority or agency. It is a partnership between state agencies,
local organizations, teachers training colleges, Universities and
Liberal Arts Colleges.
66
(4) Education as Total Development The Americans consider
Education as the total development of the physical, mental,
moral, social and intellectual aspects of personality. Therefore
the programme of teacher training is broad-based aimed at
producing a right type of person as well as a right type of teacher.
Due to this emphasis on new and broad concept of education the
term teacher training has been replaced by teacher education.
(5) Integrated courses of general and professional education
The aim of these integrated courses is to provide complete or
total education of teachers, both as good human being and as an
efficient teacher. The duration of such courses is four or five
years, which amalgamate B.A. or B.S.C. with degree or diploma
in education.
(6) Pre-service and in-service teacher education are
complementary Like two sides of a coin, both are equally
important. Therefore the training of the teachers is not limited to
the period spent in teacher training institutions but a continuous
process which goes on throughout the professional career of
teachers.
1. State the objectives of Teacher Education in the USA.
2. What are special features the Teacher Education system in the
USA?
2.C.11 TYPES OF TEACHER TRAINING
INSTITUTIONS :
Teacher Training schools or colleges in America may be
divided into two categories (i) Public and (ii) Private. The Public
67
institutions are financed and controlled by the Government while the
Private institutions are run and managed by private organizations.
Most of the institutions are Public since because of heavy cost of
such institutions a large number of private bodies have withdrawn
from this activity.
From the point of view of management and organization,
there are following four distinct types of teacher education
institutions.
(1) Normal Schools Normal School movement gained a lot of
momentums during the 19th century. These were mainly concerned
for the training of elementary school teachers. the duration of the
training was about one year. Their curriculum was narrow and
limited to the following
(i) The review of common school subjects like languages, Geometry,
Algebra, Arithmetic, Geography etc.
(ii) Mental and moral development of children, and
(iii) Principles and methods of Teaching.
Recently the Normal Schools have undergone much change.
They have become more progressive, Now the duration of training to
prepare teachers for elementary schools is three years. The course
contents are more comprehensive and. integrated. The curriculum
includes subject-matter orientation as well as professional training.
Presently most of the Normal Schools have been replaced by
Teacher colleges.
(2) Teachers Colleges During the second quarter of 20
th
century, some Normal Schools were replaced by Teachers Colleges
with more progressive and modern teacher training institutions. As it
had the support of the teachers, teacher educators and numerous
public organizations, including that of National Educational
Association the movement gained momentum. These Colleges are
Exclusively devoted to the training of teachers, offering 4 or 5 years
integrated courses, both for elementary and secondary school. They
function as degree granting institutions. A number of these colleges
offer courses for Masters Degree in Education, while a few of them
even offer Ph.D.s in teacher education. Some of them also
undertake training of specialist teachers and offer courses for
Colleges and University teachers. The integration of general and
professional courses to provide sufficient grounding in the subjectmatter
as well as the art of teaching is the main feature of these
Colleges.
68
(3) Departments of Education Departments of Education were
created as a part of bigger liberal Arts Colleges and Universities.
The Iowa University was the first to create a separate department,
named, Department of Pedagogy, for training teachers in the art of
teaching. Its success inspired many other universities and liberal
Arts Colleges to follow suit. The movement gained nation-wide
momentum and practically all institutions created Departments of
Education. The main function of these departments had been to
impart all round comprehensive education for the prospective
teachers and provide facilities for further education and research in
pedagogy and methodology of teaching.
(4) Schools or Colleges of Education The establishment of
university Departments of Education and liberal arts colleges started
a new movement of creating autonomous Schools of Education in
different universities and Colleges of Education. The University of
Michigan gave a lead by setting up Chairs of Education.
Following the example of Michigan University many more
universities established their own Schools of Education for the
purpose of conducting research in the theory and practice of
pedagogy and for the intensive study of the problems of Teacher
Education.
The Schools and Colleges of Education became popular
because of their internal autonomy, independent administration and
financial management. They controlled their budget and granted
their own degrees to the successful candidates. They developed more
intensive programme of teacher education and gave a new dimension
to the professional training of the would be teachers. They produced
the most relevant literature in the science of education that had been
lacking in the nineteenth century.
1. What are different types of Teacher Education systems prevailing
in the USA?
69
2.C.12 CURRICULUM AND COURSES OF STUDY :
The aim of the curriculum of teachers Colleges as well as
Colleges of Education is to impart all round comprehensive
education for the prospective teachers. Their function is to integrate
general and professional courses with a view to provide sufficient
grounding in the subject-matter as well as the art of teaching. In
most of the institutions the duration of teacher training courses is
three to five years. Every teacher training programme in America
includes following three basic constituents;
(i) General Education.
(ii) Professional Education, and
(iii) Specialization in a particular field.
(I) General Education Most of the institutions teach General
Education to the prospective teachers for at least two years to
help them to take a suitable place in contemporary society. In the
words of the Committee on Teacher Education of the American
Council of Education. In the case of prospective teachers, such
education should seek to further the development of knowledge,
skills, attitudes and interests that are fundamentally related to the
needs and responsibilities shared with contemporaries destined
for other vocations. The objective of this type of education is to
impart cultural, social and academic background to the persons
of other vocations in a complex society. Its content consists of
orientation courses - in humanities, social studies and sciences.
Sometimes they provide introductory courses in separate
subjects, and emphasis upon developing communication skills.
(II) Professional Education It aims at imparting professional
skills and techniques to the teachers under training. It is divided
into two parts: Theory and practice teaching.
(a) Theory The theoretical aspect of pedagogy is introduced
in the first or second year of the 4 - year course and is
continued till the last year. The subjects included in this
portion of the curriculum and time allotment (in terms of
semester hours) are as follows
70
Courses Hours
Observation and Reading 2
Educational Psychology 3
American Public Education 3
Methods of Teaching 3
School and Community Relations 2
Introduction to Philosophy of Education 3
Student teaching and Special Methods 10
Electives in Education and Psychology 2 to 4
Total 28 to 30
(b) Practice teaching Also known as student teaching,
practice teaching is generally introduced in the later part of
the professional courses, undertaken by the student teachers,
either in the Laboratory School of the University Campus or
in the regular Public Schools. It includes observation of
lessons, participation in criticism or discussion lessons and
finally the actual class room teaching under the skilful
guidance of the supervisors, who are members of the College
of University faculty.
On the pattern of internship of Medical Colleges, practice
teaching is also known as internship in teaching. It envisages
the student teachers working continuously for eight or nine
weeks under the supervision, of one or. more senior teachers of
the cooperating school. The entire work of internship is planned
and executed by the college lecturer (known as supervisor) in
consultation with the senior school teacher (known as a critic
teacher) and the pupils teachers.
(III) Subject Specialization Americans strongly feel that the
mastery of the subject which the pupils teacher has to teach, is
of paramount importance. One can not impart correct and
complete knowledge to his students without this mastery.
Therefore the pupil teachers have to acquire proficiency in the
subject or subjects of their choice. In many institutions the latest
trend is towards specialization in integrated fields or subjects
like social sciences, languages, general science. etc., in
consonance with the curriculum of the schools.
71
2.C.13 TRAINING OF HIGHER EDUCATION
TEACHERS :
State law varies regarding the requirements for faculty in
public postsecondary education, but public faculty are not
considered civil servants and the responsibility for determining the
academic and professional standards and requirements for faculty
positions and for recruitment and promotion rest with the individual
institution and its faculty, department, or school. State law, even for
public institutions, is confined to ensuring that institutions do not
discriminate in hiring or violate other employment or labour laws.
Requirements that institutions set may vary depending on the level at
which the faculty are expected to teach, the subject or field to be
taught, whether research is to be conducted, whether a professional
license or qualification is required, and whether the position is fullor
part-time and tenure-track. Accredited institutions also follow any
faculty standards set by the regional accrediting association to which
they belong and any standards set by the association that accredits
1. Explain the important features of the Teacher Education curricula
in the USA?
2. What are the training requirements for Higher Education teachers
in the USA?
72
2.C.14 LET US SUM UP :
Training of Pre-Primary and Primary/Basic School Teachers:
Requirements for education and certification (licensure) of early
childhood (nursery, kindergarten, preschool) and elementary
(primary) teachers are set by state governments which require
multiple exams (subject matter, etc.) prior to entering teacher
education and again following completion of teacher education but
prior to certification. While state regulations vary, there is a growing
uniformity inspired in part by the federal No Child Left Behind law's
requirements for having a highly qualified teaching staff. The basic
requirement is completion of a prescribed programme of studies at
the undergraduate (bachelor's) level in order to qualify for entrylevel
certification, plus satisfactory completion of a supervised
practicum and the passing of qualifying examinations. Preprofessional
undergraduate studies must be completed at an
accredited institution in nearly all states. While the initial
certification may be achieved with a bachelor's degree, most states
offer higher levels of certification based on experience and
additional education, and many teachers at this level already possess,
or soon earn, a master's degree. Continuing professional education is
required in order to maintain certification.
Training of Secondary School Teachers : The basic precertification
requirements for secondary teachers are the same as for
elementary school teachers. A major difference is that secondary
school teachers are certified as competent in one or more academic
or vocational subjects and spend their careers concentrating on these
subjects, whereas elementary school teachers - especially for the
lower grades - may be comprehensively certified to teach the full
primary course or may specialize, particularly if teaching in the more
differentiated upper elementary/middle school grades. All States
certify teachers according to subject specializations as well as grade
levels/ranges. Special education teachers are trained in most States
in specialized programmes at both the undergraduate and graduate
levels and are also separately certified. Special education teachers
are also certified according to specialty, e.g. education of the deaf,
education of the visually impaired, etc. as well as the degree of
severity of the handicap with which they are trained to work. While
the minimum academic requirement is a Bachelor's degree in special
education or a related field (such as developmental psychology),
most teachers possess a Master's degree and many earn a higher
qualification called an Education Specialist degree. Specialized noninstructional
personnel must also be certified in most U.S. States;
they include school administrators, school counselors, school health
73
personnel (psychologists, nurses), school librarians, supervisory
teachers and curriculum specialists.
Training of Higher Education Teachers : State law varies
regarding the requirements for faculty in public postsecondary
education, but public faculty are not considered civil servants and
the responsibility for determining the academic and professional
standards and requirements for faculty positions and for recruitment
and promotion rest with the individual institution and its faculty,
department, or school. State law, even for public institutions, is
confined to ensuring that institutions do not discriminate in hiring or
violate other employment or labour laws. Requirements that
institutions set may vary depending on the level at which the faculty
are expected to teach, the subject or field to be taught, whether
research is to be conducted, whether a professional license or
qualification is required, and whether the position is full- or parttime
and tenure-track. Accredited institutions also follow any faculty
standards set by the regional accrediting association to which they
belong and any standards set by the association that accredits
1. What are the objectives of Teacher Education in UK?
2. What was the method of teacher preparation in the earlier times?
3. Trace the historical development of Teacher Education in the
modern period.
4. Briefly describe the method of selection of students for a
teaching programme.
5. Explain the curricula and courses for teacher education.
6. What was the method of teacher preparation in the period
between 1823 to 1910 in USA?
7. Explain the system of teacher preparation 1910 onwards?
8. What are the objectives of Teacher Education in USA?
9. Explain the basic constituents of teacher training programme in
America.
74
References :
1. Clyde Chitty (2002). The Right to a Comprehensive Education.
Second Caroline Benn Memorial Lecture.
http://www.socialisteducation.org.uk/CB2.htm.
2. Newsam, Peter. "Diversity and Admissions to English Secondary
Schools", Secondary Heads Association, 28 June 2002, revised
and reprinted in Forum 45:1 (2003) pp17-18.
3. Brighouse, Tim. "Comprehensive Schools Then, Now and in the
Future: is it time to draw a line in the sand and create a new
ideal?", Forum 45:1 (2003) pp3-11.
4. Wikipedia.
75
2D
TEACHER EDUCATION IN CHINA AND
SOUTH AFRICA
Unit Structure :
2.D.0 Objectives
2.D.1 Introduction
2.D.2 Teacher Education in China
2.D.2.1 Pre-service Teacher Education
2.D.2.2 Pre-service training of Primary and Secondary
School Teachers
2.D.2.3 In-service Education
2.D.3 Teacher in Higher Education
2.D.4 Teacher Education in South Africa
2.D.4.1 Initial Professional Education of Teachers
2.D.4.2 Continuing Professional Training and Development
2.D.5 Agencies for management of Teacher Education System
2.D.6 Let us sum up
2.D.0 OBJECTIVES :
Know the system of teacher education in China.
Know the system of teacher education in South Africa
Compare the system of teacher education of China with South
Africa.
2.D.1 INTRODUCTION :
Teacher education is an important part of Chinese socialist
education system. In the last 50 years' of development since the
founding of the People's Republic of China, the governments at
different levels have given priorities and great care to teacher
education. China has established a teacher education system that
meets the needs of basic education of different types and at different
levels. This system fits the specific Chinese situation and consists of
independent teacher training institutions.
76
In 1985, the government designated September 10 as
Teachers' Day, the first festival day for any profession and indicative
of government efforts to raise the social status and living standards
of teachers.
The government has started the Nationwide Program of
Network for Education of Teachers to improve the quality of
teaching. It aims to modernize teachers' education through
educational information, providing support and services for lifelong
learning through the teachers' education network, TV satellite
network, and the Internet and to greatly improve the teaching quality
of elementary and high school faculty through large-scale, highquality
and high-efficiency training and continuous education.
2.D.2 TEACHER EDUCATION IN CHINA :
Teacher education in China is composed of two parts: preservice
education and in-service training.
2.D.2.1 Pre-Service Teacher Education:
4 year Teacher Training Institutions including normal
universities and colleges (Teachers for Senior and Junior
Secondary Schools).
3 years Teacher Training Colleges (Teachers for Primary
Schools).
Secondary Teacher Training Schools (Teachers for
Kindergartens and Special Education Institutions).
In-Service Education (Teachers of Primary and Secondary
Schools).
Correspondence Education Programs, Evening Schools, Satellite
TV Education and examinations for self-directed learners.
Basic Statistics of Specialized Teacher Training Schools in 1998
Schools Enrollments Freshmen Graduates Teachers
Normal
universities and
colleges
229 693600 251100 196800 76600
Secondary
teacher training
schools
875 921100 319300 3058000 6340
Educational
institutes
190 212000 82200 66200 18700
77
In-service
teacher training
schools
2087 371000 121600 168200 46300
The State Council promulgated Regulations on Teachers
Qualification on December 12 1995, in which the standards for
recruiting teachers were strictly regulated and certification of
teachers became a must have before taking up jobs. Competent
persons in the society and graduates of other specialties could be
recruited to teach.
2.D.2.2 Pre-service training of Primary and Secondary School
Teachers:
General Higher Teacher Education
General higher teacher education in China aims mainly at the
training of secondary school teachers. In 1998, there were 229
general higher education institutions in China with an enrollment of
690,000.
Training of Secondary School Teachers
Normal Universities, Teacher Training Institutes and Teacher
Training Colleges enroll graduates from Senior Secondary
Schools.
4year Programs: Senior Secondary School Teachers.
2/3 year Programs: Junior Secondary Schools.
Specialties: Pedagogy, Pre-School Education, Special
Education, Psychology, ET, Chinese Language, Literature,
Ideology and Political Education, History, English, Russian,
Japanese, Mathematics and Applied Mathematics, Computer
Science, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Geography, Music,
Fine Arts and Physical Education.
Post Graduate Programs and In-Service Training for
Regular Secondary Teacher Education
Training Teachers for Primary Schools, Kindergartens and
Special Education.
78
Compulsory courses.
Optional courses.
Compulsory courses: Ideology and Political Education,
Chinese (including Methodology of Chinese Teaching in Primary
Schools), Mathematics (including Methodology), Physics,
Chemistry, Biology, History, Geography, Psychology, Pedagogy for
Primary School, Basic Audio- Visual Education, Physical Education,
Music, Fine Arts, Laboring Skills, Basics of Computer Education.
Optional Courses:
Vocational and Technical Subjects.
Teaching Practice:
Visits to primary schools.
Educational survey.
Teaching probation.
Experimental Teaching.
conducting Social Surveys to educate students in disciplines, science
Secondary Special Teacher Training Schools
To educate special education teachers for primary schools.
3 specialist teachers: for the deaf, for the blind and for the
mentally retarded.
Compulsory courses.
Optional courses.
Compulsory courses:
79
Classified into public and specialized compulsory courses.
Public Compulsory Courses: Ideology and Political
Education, Chinese, Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Biology,
History, Geography, Basic Psychology, Physical Education, Music,
Fine Arts , Basic Pedagogy, Introduction to Special Education and
Laboring Skills.
Specialized Compulsory Courses:
Psychology,
Pedagogy.
Methodology and
Other courses for prevention and examination of deformity.
Optional Courses:
Designed to broaden the students knowledge and develop
their interests and special skills.
Teaching Practice:
Visiting.
Probating.
Assisting special education teachers to organize activities.
Educational Surveys.
Students teaching themselves.
conducting Social Surveys to educate students in science
1) Where does the pre service training of secondary school teachers
take place, and what are the specialties offered?
2.D.2.3 In-service Education :
80
As required by state law, local governments are implementing
teacher qualification systems and promoting in-service training for
large numbers of school principals, so as to further improve school
management standards.
To cope with the shortage of qualified teachers, the State
Education Commission decreed in 1985 that senior-middle-school
teachers should be graduates with two years' training in professional
institutes and that primary-school teachers should be graduates of
secondary schools. To improve teacher quality, the commission
established full-time and part-time (the latter preferred because it
was less costly) in-service training programs. Primary-school and
preschool in-service teacher training programs devoted 84 percent of
the time to subject teaching, 6 percent to pedagogy and psychology,
and 10 percent to teaching methods. In-service training for primaryschool
teachers was designed to raise them to a level of
approximately two years' postsecondary study, with the goal of
qualifying most primary-school teachers by 1990. Secondary-school
in-service teacher training was based on a unified model, tailored to
meet local conditions, and offered on a spare-time basis. Ninety-five
percent of its curricula was devoted to subject teaching, 2 to 3
percent to pedagogy and psychology, and 2 to 3 percent to teaching
methods. There was no similar large-scale in-service effort for
technical and vocational teachers, most of whom worked for
enterprises and local authorities.
In service Teacher Education is Classified into Degree and Non
Degree Education
Degree education includes not only the make up education
for in-service teachers without qualified certificates but also
upgaradation for in service teachers with qualified
certificates.
Non Degree education: Continuing education of primary and
It is divided into 2 parts:
Probation Period Training of New Teachers and
Post Training of existing teachers.
Probation Training: Formation of ardent love for education
and students, familiarization with education regulations and
teaching outlines, common rules on textbooks, professional
ethics.
81
Post Training: According to present job responsibility,
qualifications and parts of post requirements at higher level.
In service education helps teachers to accomplish their tasks
and create conditions for promotion.
1) What are the types of in service teacher education programmes
and what is their importance?
2.D.3 TEACHERS IN HIGHER EDUCATION :
Currently, in schools of higher learning, professors and
assistant professors account for 9.5 percent and 30 percent
respectively. Young and middle-aged teachers predominate; teachers
under age 45 account for 79 percent of total faculty, and under age
35 for 46 percent. Teachers in higher education constitute a vital
contingent in scientific research, knowledge innovation and sci-tech.
Of all academicians in the Chinese Academy of Sciences, 40.7
percent (280) are in the higher education sector; for the Chinese
Academy of Engineering the corresponding figure is 35.3 percent
(234).
What is the status of teacher education for teachers in higher
education?
82
2.D.4 TEACHER EDUCATION IN SOUTH AFRICA :
Introduction :
The Ministerial Committee on Teacher Education, which was
appointed in 2003, and reported to the Minister during 2005,
conducted a wide-ranging study. The Committee consulted
extensively with key stakeholders, including the South African
Council for Educators, the South African Qualifications Authority
(SAQA); the Education, Training and Development Practices Sector
Education and Training Authority (ETDP-SETA); national Teacher
Unions; the Higher Education South Africa (HESA) Education
Deans Forum; and NGOs working in teacher education. It was then
that policy for teacher education in South Africa is arrived at.
The policy for teacher education in South Africa is designed
to develop a teaching profession ready and able to meet the needs of
a democratic South Africa in the 21st century. The aim of the policy
is to properly equip teachers to undertake their essential and
demanding tasks, to enable them to continually enhance their
professional competence and performance, and to raise the esteem in
which they are held by the people of South Africa.
According to this policy teacher education consists of two
complementary sub-systems:
Initial Professional Education of Teachers (IPET), and
Continuing Professional Teacher Development (CPTD).
2.D.4.1 Initial Professional Education of Teachers (IPET)
Qualification Routes :
Higher Education Qualifications Framework
Since all initial teacher education is the responsibility of
Higher Education, the qualifications structure for teacher education
is subject to the Ministers policy on qualifications in terms of the
Higher Education Act, 1997. This policy is expressed in the Higher
Education Qualifications Framework (HEQF), which provides the
basis for integrating all higher education qualifications into the
National Qualifications Framework (NQF).
Recognized Teaching Qualifications
The Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) degree A four-year
B.Ed. degree, which includes one year full-time of supervised
83
practical teaching experience in schools, is the standard qualification
for students wishing to teach in any learning area, subject and phase.
The justification for a single main entry qualification is that the
academic and pedagogical demands are essentially equivalent for all
teachers regardless of learning area, subject or phase. B.Ed. is the
standard Initial Professional Education of Teachers (IPET)
qualification and there will be several routes to achieve it.
The Advanced Diploma in Education (ADE) An Advanced
Diploma is offered to graduates with an appropriate first degree who
wish to teach.
The Diploma option A new three-year teaching Diploma has
been introduced. Within a context of institutional differentiation,
universities may be allowed to offer this qualification, although
students would be required to complete a fourth year before
qualifying as a teacher. This could be offered in both contact and
distance modes. This will attract student teachers who might not
meet degree entrance requirements, as well as assist those who need
to start earning earlier.
The Ministry recognizes the need to provide other routes to a
teaching qualification, and the Diploma option may be considered if,
the recruitment campaign based on entrance to the B.Ed. degree fails
to close the teacher supply gap.
The Norms and Standards for Educators include the
following standards that encourage imaginative and flexible
programme design:
Providers develop programmes and an institutional ethos which
develops educators as extended professionals and lifelong
learners;
Programmes are increasingly offered in modes of delivery that
allow practicing educators to attend;
Learning materials are developed and used to create spatial
flexibility in courses; and
Assignments are designed to encourage problem solving within
authentic contexts.
Distance education enables the students to learn while
working and is also cost effective to large numbers of students.
Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs), wisely used,
offer immense promise of widening access to teacher education
84
programmes, improving learners motivation, speeding
communication and enriching the resources available for learning.
While all Universities will be invited to offer distance programmes,
only those that are professionally and administratively equipped to
design and manage them are permitted to do so.
The B. Ed degree is therefore offered through full or part-time
study at contact Universities or part-time study through distance
learning.
The Ministry of Education has thus determined the following
qualification routes for teacher education in South African
universities:
The four-year B.Ed. degree is the preferred standard IPET
qualification to be offered by Universities;
A one year Post-Graduate Diploma following an approved first
degree;
The possible introduction of a new three-year Diploma by an
institution accredited to do so;
Conversion programmes, with funding support, to enable eligible
serving teachers to move into scarce learning areas, subjects or
phases;
The future of the National Professional Diploma in Education
(NPDE) and the Advanced Certificate in Education (ACE) will
be reviewed, based on an assessment of need and value.
1) What are the teaching qualifications prevalent in South Africa?
2.D.4.11 Continuing Professional Training and Development :
Conceptual and Pedagogical Needs
85
knowledge are necessary for effective teaching, together with the
teachers willingness and ability to reflect on practice and learn from
the learners own experience of being taught.
All teachers need to enhance their skills, not necessarily
qualifications, for the delivery of the new curriculum. A large
majority need to strengthen their subject knowledge base,
pedagogical content knowledge and teaching skills. A sizeable
proportion need to develop specialist skills in areas such as health
and physical education, HIV and AIDS support, diversity
management, classroom management and discipline, and so on.
Many need to renew their enthusiasm and commitment to their
calling.
So far in-service education, in many instances, though there
were considerable rewards in terms of salary increases, such
qualifications had little or no impact on classroom practice.
In service education remains fragmented and un-coordinated and
therefore makes a rather limited impact.
Continuing Professional Teacher Development (CPTD) System
The Continuing Professional Teacher Development (CPTD) system
will:
Ensure that current initiatives devoted to the professional
development of teachers contribute more effectively and directly
to the improvement of the quality of teaching;
Emphasize and reinforce the professional status of teaching;
Provide teachers with clear guidance about which Professional
Development (PD) activities will contribute to their professional
growth;
Protect teachers from fraudulent providers; and
Expand the range of activities that contribute to the professional
development of teachers.
In this system it is intended that the South African Council for
Educators, as the statutory body for professional educators, will have
overall responsibility for the implementation and management of the
Continuing Professional Teacher Development (CPTD). The
Professional Development (PD) points method is an internationally
recognized technique used by professional bodies in many fields to
86
acknowledge their members continuing professional development.
Each teacher will be expected to earn Professional Development
(PD) points by choosing professional development activities that suit
their own requirements and that have been endorsed by South
African Council for Educators (SACE).
The guiding purpose will be to enable teachers to become less
dependent on outside agencies and more able to become responsible
for their own professional development.
Professional Development (PD) activities are classified into four
types:
School driven programmes;
Employer driven programmes;
Qualification driven programmes; and
Other programmes, offered by NGOs, teacher unions,
community-based and faith-based organizations, or private
companies.
Some Continuing Professional Teacher Development (CPTD)
activities are compulsory and others self-selected. The relevant
education department pays for compulsory activities, which may be
at national, provincial, district, or school level. Teachers themselves
pay for self-selected activities though provincial bursaries will be
available in priority fields of study.
Teachers who study successfully in order to upgrade their
qualifications will earn Professional Development (PD) points.
Two risks must be avoided:
(a) teachers should not neglect their main responsibilities in order to
earn Professional Development (PD) points; and
(b) the administrative burden on already overloaded teachers must
not be increased.
Rewards and Sanctions
South African educators are required to earn PD points and be
registered with SACE as a condition for them to practice.
Registration is their license to teach. With the introduction of the
Continuing Professional Teacher Development (CPTD) system in
87
the teaching profession it will be necessary to apply rewards and
sanctions. Teachers who do not achieve the minimum number of PD
points over two successive cycles of three years will be required to
apply to South African Council for Educators (SACE) for reregistration.
Managing the CPTD system
As the national body for the education profession it is
intended that South African Council for Educators (SACE) is
responsible for managing the system, but it is essentially a
collaborative undertaking linking a number of sub-systems.
Provincial Departments of Educations, district offices, school
management teams and teachers unions will play an indispensable
role in encouraging teachers participation in Continuing
Professional Teacher Development (CPTD) activities. Providers in
all categories are responsible for designing and delivering focused,
appropriate and high quality activities in line with South African
Council for Educators (SACE) criteria and guidelines. The quality
assurers appointed by South African Council for Educators (SACE)
protect teachers interests by ensuring that providers and their
programmes meet the requisite standards. The Department of
Education will engage with SACE to address the resources and
structures needed to take forward the Continuing Professional
Teacher Development (CPTD) system.
1) What is the responsibility of the continuing professional teacher
development (CPTD) system?
2.D.5 AGENCIES FOR MANAGEMENT OF TEACHER
EDUCATION SYSTEM :
education. The Ministry recognizes that each has its own
responsibilities in the system, and it also recognizes the need for
88
improving co-ordination among them, since many of these may
intersect or be dependent on each other.
South African Council for Educators (SACE)
The South African Council for Educators (SACE) is a
professional council that aims to enhance the status of the teaching
profession and promote the development of educators and their
professional conduct. The SACE was established in terms of the
SACE Act, 2000 (Act 31 of 2000) [PDF].
The councils functions are to:
register educators
promote the professional development of educators
set, maintain and protect ethical and professional standards.
Educators are required to register with SACE before they are
employed by any authority. The council has strengthened entry
requirements by checking the professional standing of applicants.
The council has a number of programmes that promote the
development of educators and enhance the status and image of the
teaching profession. These include, among other things, the
Professional Development Portfolio Project that aims to encourage
educators to reflect on their practice and to take responsibility for
their own professional development; teacher education and
development research activities; setting up the Continuing
Professional Teacher Development (CPTD) system; and celebrating
World Teachers Day to acknowledge the work of educators.
The ethics function ensures that educators adhere to the
SACE Code of Professional Ethics.
The Department of Education and South African Council
for Educators (SACE) share exceptional responsibilities in the
system of teacher education. Their roles deserve special mention.
Between them they carry the statutory responsibility for the teacher
education system. Their working relationship is therefore of the
utmost importance and requires a high degree of mutual
understanding and collegial engagement. This is especially the case
in the coming period as South African Council for Educators
(SACE) builds its capacity to manage its enlarged responsibilities in
terms of its founding Act and this policy.
The Department of Education has the policy responsibility for
all matters relating to Education, including teacher education. In the
89
context of a developmental state, the Department of Education is
required to promote transformation through education. The
Department of Education has the lead responsibility for teacher
education policy, planning, monitoring and funding. The objective of
pursuing quality education for all requires the Department of
Education to provide opportunities to advance the continuing
professional development of teachers. In this regard, the Department
continues to work collaboratively with statutory and non-statutory
bodies as well as stakeholders with in the education system.
The Department of Education, as the principal employer of
teachers, is responsible for ensuring that teachers conditions of
service, working conditions and career prospects meet appropriate
standards, and that the teaching profession becomes a desirable
occupation for an increasing number of South Africans.
National Education Evaluation and Development Unit
Finally, the Department of Education is responsible for
monitoring the performance of schools and teachers. For this
purpose, a National Education Evaluation and Development (NEED)
Unit will be established, at arms length from the Department, in
order to provide the necessary moderation processes in regard to
both the Whole School Evaluation Policy and the agreement on an
Integrated Quality Management System for the appraisal of teachers.
The Minister, after consultation with the respective sectors,
may determine different professional education and qualifications
requirements for teachers in Early Childhood Development, Adult
Basic Education and Training, Special Needs Education, and for
Further Education and Training College lecturers.
1) Which are the agencies involved in the continuing professional
teacher development (CPTD)?
2.D.6 LET US SUM UP :
90
The policy for teacher education in South Africa consists of
two complementary sub-systems are the Initial Professional
Education of Teachers (IPET), and the Continuing Professional
Teacher Development (CPTD). Recognized teaching qualifications
are the Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) degree, the Advanced
Diploma in Education (ADE) and the Diploma option. The Norms
and Standards for Educators include the following standards that
encourage imaginative and flexible programme design.
knowledge are necessary for effective teaching, All teachers need to
enhance their skills, not necessarily qualifications, for the delivery of
the new curriculum. Hence there is the need for Continuing
Professional Teacher Development (CPTD) System. Each teacher
will be expected to earn Professional Development (PD) points by
choosing professional development activities that suit their own
requirements and that have been endorsed by South African Council
for Educators (SACE).
education. The Ministry recognizes South African Council for
Educators (SACE) and the Department of Education. Between them
they carry the statutory responsibility for the teacher education
system.
1. Why does the Government of China gives importance to teacher
education?
2. Describe the types of teacher education in China.
3. Explain the relevance of pre-service and in-service education.
4. What are the teaching qualifications prevalent in South Africa?
5. Explain the importance of Continuing Professional Teacher
Development (CPTD) system?
6. What is the role and functions of South African Council for
Educators (SACE) and the Department of Education?
Suggested Reading :
91
1. Embassy of The People's Republic of China in the Federal
Democratic Republic of Nepal All Rights Reserved
http://www.chinaembassy.org.np
2. Nan-zhao, Zhou (Editor-in-chief): An International Perspective
on Teacher Education: Teacher Education Reform, Teacher
Professional Standard and School-based Teacher Development,
Shanghai: East China Normal University Press (in Publishing,
2006).
3. Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the Library of
Congress Country Studies
4. "China : Country Studies - Federal Research Division, Library of
Congress".Lcweb2.loc.gov.2009-05-07.
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cntoc.html. Retrieved 2009-06-15.
5. This article incorporates public domain material from websites or
documents of the Library of Congress Country Studies. Retrieved
from
wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_the_People%27s_Republic_of_
China"
6. Categories: Education in China | Science and technology in
China | Education in the People's Republic of China
7. Department of Education (2006): The National Policy
Framework for Teacher Education in South Africa More
teachers; Better teachers Pretoria, pp 14-26.
8. D. Burger (Editor) (2009) South Africa Yearbook 2008/09,
Government Communication and Information System.
92
3
AGENCIES OF TEACHER EDUCATION
Unit Structure :
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Agencies of Teacher Education at State Level
3.2.1 State Institute of Education (SIE)
(SCERT)
3.2.3 State Board of Teacher Education (SBTE)
3.2.4 University Departments of Education (UDTE)
3.3 Agencies of Teacher Education at National Level
3.3.1 University Grant Commission (UGC)
3.3.2 National University of Educational Planning and
Administration (NUEPA)
3.3.3 National Council of Teacher Education (NCTE)
3.3.4 National Council of Educational Research and
Training (NCERT)
3.4 Agencies of Teacher Education at International Level
3.4.1 United Nations Educational Scientific, Cultural
Organisation (UNESCO)
3.5 Let us Sum up
3.0 OBJECTIVES :
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
State various agencies of Teacher Education Programme at State,
National and International Level
Explain the role of functions of various agencies of Teacher
Education Programme at State, National and International Level.
3.1 INTRODUCTION :
Due to explosion of knowledge, there is a spread of education
not only in India, but all over the world. Due to this change, social
93
needs are changed accordingly. A teacher is expected to face the
education. Such training needs are satisfied by different agencies at
different levels.
In this unit we will discuss the role of different agencies and
their functions towards teacher education at state, national and
international level.
3.2 AGENCIES OF TEACHER EDUCATION AT
STATE LEVEL :
To enhance quality of education and quality of educational
institutions, to update educational methodology and to offer
publicity to educational innovations by conducting various types of
educational research every state establishes some institutes, council
and associations. In this unit, we will discuss the role and functions
of the following state agencies :
State Institute of Education (SIE)
State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT)
State Board of Teacher Education (SBTE)
3.2.1 State Institute of Education (SIE) :
Training, preparation of teaching aids and evaluation needs
continuity to achieve quality education. Considering this aspect,
Maharashtra state has established State Institute of Education
(SIE). Initially, SIE looked after primary education only. Later on,
its scope is widened to pre-primary, secondary and higher secondary
education. In 1984, it secured constitutional status like NCERT and
is renamed as Maharashtra State Council of Education Research
and Training (MSCERT).
(SCERT):
State council is the apex institute of the state. In Maharashtra,
it was established in 1964 65 as a state institute of Education
(SIE). It was upgrade and renamed as Maharashtra State Council of
Education Research and Training in 1984. For quality improvement
of school education it (MSCERT) carries the responsibility of
teacher education, research and evaluation.
94
Objectives :
Its objectives are :
To enhance quality of education by conducting various types of
educational research.
To improve teacher education
To enhance quality of educational institutions
To upgrade educational methodology
To offer publicity to educational innovations.
Structure :
Main office of MSCERT is at Pune. It is an academic wing
of education. It is headed by Director of education. Its various
departments are looked after by second class gazzeted officer. It has
an advisory Board presided by Education Minister of the State.
Role and Functions :
The Role and functions are primarily concerned with ensuring
quality in respect of :
Planning
Management
Research
Evaluation and
Training
Its functions are as under:
To improve school - education, continuing education, non-formal
education and special education.
To impart in service - training to the inspectors of preprimary to
higher secondary education.
To impart in service - training to the teachers from pre-primary to
higher secondary schools.
To make available extension - services to teacher - education -
institutions and co-ordinate the same.
To prepare teaching aids for educational institutions.
95
To motivate teachers to undertake /investigative research
regarding content cum methodology.
MSCERT functions through following departments -
Teacher - education department.
Extension services department.
Research department
Evaluation department
curriculum development department
Population Education department.
Publicity Department.
3.2.3 State Board of Teacher Education (SBTE) :
Kothari Commission for the first time in 1966 recommended for
establishing SBTE, whose main function was to develop teacher
education in the state to be administered by the state board. State
boards were established in M.P in 1967, and Maharashtra,
Jammu and Kashmir and Tamil Nadu in 1973. Ministry of
education forced states to have SBTE suggestions NCERT such
boards almost all states established.
Functions :
Determine the standards of TE Institutions.
Modifying and improving the curriculum, text books and the
system of TE of the state.
Developing the criterion for the recognition of the TE
institutions.
Organizing the guidance facility of TE institutions.
Developing the criteria for admission in TE and evaluating the
teacher efficiency of pupil teachers.
Preparing the plan for the qualitative and quantitative
development of teacher education.
Providing guidance to the Universities and State institutes for
improving and modifying curriculum, textbooks and examination
system of teacher-education.
Determining the educational and physical conditions of the
teacher education institutions for affiliations.
96
Developing the sense of cooperation among university
departments and other training institutions
Providing financial assistance different facilities for TE at
different levels.
Provide suggestions for the development of state teachereducators.
3.2.4 University Departments of Education (UDE) :
Education is now considered an independent field of study;
UGC provides the grants to the University Department of education.
Higher level training is essential for teachers for their development.
Department of Education (DOE) provide training for educational
administrators and curriculum specialists to improve evaluation
procedures as well examination system. University DOE organize
the M.Ed, B.Ed, and M.Phil classes as well as research work for
Ph.D and D.Litt degree in education. In 1917, first education
department was started at Calcutta University. At present there are
departments of education in all the Indian Universities for M.Ed and
Ph.D Degrees.
Functions :
Develop the post graduate studies and research work.
Organize training for school teachers.
Provide solid programmes for teacher education and developing
research work.
Starting and organize some programmes for post graduate
teachers which are not organized at other centers.
Developing language laboratory, preparing instructional material
and use new innovations and practices in TE.
Encouraging the interdisciplinary courses and interdisciplinary
research studies so that the requirements of other departments
can be fulfilled.
Organize extension lectures and programmes to encourage the
teachers and research workers to contribute in the discipline of
education.
Providing awareness of new methodology and technology to
upgrade the standard of TE.
Developing the effective procedure of evaluation of theory and
practicals in education.
97
A very strong academic and administrative machinery at the
state level should further aim at economy and integration of
divergent elements, avoid duplication of efforts, consider and
examine the needs of different types of institutions, give a proper
turn to arising ideologies and tendencies and eliminate corruption
and exploitation.
There should be a University of teacher education in every
state on its own. It should be unitary as well as affiliating for all the
teachers, colleges at graduate and post graduate levels within the
state.
1) Explain the functions of State agencies of teacher education.
3.3 NATIONAL LEVEL AGENCIES OF TEACHER
EDUCATION PROGRAMME :
3.3.1 University Grants Commission (UGC) :
Established on 28th December, 1953, at New Delhi. UGC was given
autonomy by govt. of India in 1956.
Functions :
It provides financial assistance to universities and colleges to
meet their requirement.
It extends the financial aid for the development of Universities
and maintenance.
It provides a guide-line to Center and State Govt. for giving grant
to a University.
It provides the grants for five years to establish as new University
in the state.
98
It provides the grants for five years to start new department or
any academic programme in the University but now state
concurrence is essential.
It encourages higher level research work and teaching activities
by providing financial assistance.
It provides the grants for higher education and new programmes
in the Universities and colleges.
It provides the fellowship for teachers and project work for
University and college teachers.
Teacher Education Committees :
To upgrade the standard of education Teacher-education
committees were formed consisting of seven members for two
years duration.
It provides awareness of new innovations and research in
teacher-education.
The national fellowship and teacher fellowship are granted for
encouraging research and teaching work.
UGC provides travel grants to the university lecturers for
attending international conferences and seminars.
Visiting professors are appointed from among the University
professors for inter change programmes and delivering lectures.
Residential facilities for university and college teachers are also
provided.
Research associates are appointed for post doctor work.
Research :
UGC is giving substantial grants to University teachers for
conducting their own researches. In 1953-54, Ministry of
Education initiated a scheme providing grants to teachers,
colleges and departments of education in the Universities in order
to enable them to carry out research on educational problems
selected by them and approved by the central ministry.
The main purpose of the scheme is to provide facilities for
research which, in many instances, has been held up owing to
dearth of funds. It is to be carried on by the staff of the training
colleges assisted by some research fellows assigned to them and
some financial facilities. Equipment is provided to facilitate the
completion of the projects.
99
Centre for Advanced Studies (CASE) :
For the improvement of standards of teaching and research in
India.UGC has set up CASE in different branches of knowledge.
It selected the faculty of Education and Psychology, Baroda as
the CASE in Education which functions on an all India basis and
aims at raising standards of teaching and research in education. It
has built up its programme in collaboration with research
workers from outside
3.3.2 National Institute of Educational Planning and
Administration: (NUEPA/ NIEPA) :
Functions :
As the highest organization of educational planning and
Administration- has the following functions to perform:
Providing training of educational planning and administration to
develop the abilities and competencies in the educational
administration as the in-service program.
Providing training facilities in educational planning and
administration at state level and regional level to develop
efficiency at their level.
Integrating educational studies and researches under the area of
educational planning and administration and make co ordinations
in these activities.
Encouraging the teachers to solve the problems of educational
planning and administration by organizing seminars and
workshops.
Arranging extension programs for new developments and
innovations in the area of planning and administration.
Establishing contact with other countries to understand the
developments and innovations of the developed countries.
Providing guidance at National and State levels in the area of
planning and administration.
Multi dimensional activities- under extension programs journal
on educational planning and administration and other books are
published.
Review of educational planning and administration of other
countries- used to develop our educational system and solve
educational problems.
100
Orientation programs for educational administrators- provide
awareness of new developments in this area.
Educational research reports are published. The publication unit
established the coordination between theory and practice.
Seminars and workshops are organized and their discussions and
results are published.
Training Institutions for special fields for school and collegesthese
provide elementary in special fields like- computers,
educational technology and fine arts.
Language Institutions :
Kendriya Hindi Sanasthan.
Central Institute of English, Hyderabad,
Central Institute of Indian Languages, Mysore.
Language training is given.
3.3.3 National Council of Teacher Education (NCTE) :
Kothari commission Report (1964-66) criticized Teacher
Education Programme being conventional, rigid and away from
reality. Therefore it expressed the need of establishing National
council of Teacher Education in order to improve the standard of
Teacher Education. In September 1972, Central Advisory Board in
Education accepted the said proposal which was supported by fifth
National plan. Thereafter by law, Indian Education Ministry
established NCTE on 21st May 1973. NCTE has got independent
constitutional status since 1993.
Objectives :
To work especially towards planned and coordinated
development of teacher-education.
To improve the standard and functioning of teacher-educators.
Functions :
According to the Act 1993, NCTE performs the following
functions :
Undertake survey and studies relating to various aspects of
teacher-education and publish the results.
101
Making recommendations to the center and State government
Universities, the U.G.C and other institutions in the preparation
of plans and programmmes in the field of teacher education.
Coordinating and monitoring teacher education and its
development in the country.
Preparing a guideline with regard to minimum qualifications for
the candidates to be employed as teachereducators at different
levels.
Developing norms for any specified category of courses or
training in teacher-education, including minimum eligibility
criterion for admission.
Preparing a guideline and specified requirements for starting new
courses and programmes under teacher education.
Developing a guideline for general teacher-education
programme.
To advise central government on matters like teacher - education
(in building pre-service / in-service training), evaluation of the
curricula for teacher -- education and periodical review with
respect to revision of curricula.
To advise state governments on any matter of their concern.
To review the progress of plan of teacher- education, submitted
by central / state governments.
To advise the government on ensuring adequate standards in
teacher - education.
To give approval to teacher - education institutions.
To lay down norms for maintaining standards of teachers -
education.
Promoting innovations and research studies and organize them
periodically or annually.
Supervising the teacher education programmes and providing
financial assistance.
Enforcing accountability of teacher development programmes in
the country.
Preparing a programme for in-service teacher education for
orienting teachers for latest development.
102
NCTE functions through the following standing committees :
Pre Primary, primary teachers education committee.
Secondary college - teacher education committee.
Special education - teacher education committee.
In-service - teacher - education committee.
Activities of NCTE are with respect to :
Research - Extension services.
Development programmes.
Training.
Evaluations.
3.3.4 NCERT - National Council of Educational Research and
Training :
Introduction :
Due to knowledge explosion, there is a spread of education not
only in India, but all over the world. Due to this change, social
needs have changed accordingly.A teacher is expected to face the
education. Such training - needs are satisfied by following
National level agencies of Teacher Education programme
NCERTandNCTE.
National Council of Educational Research and Training
(NCERT) :
Establishment :
Ministry of Education of Indian Government established
NCERT in 1961. NCERT is an autonomous - organization, working
as an academic wing of the Ministry of Education. It assists the said
ministry in the formulation and implementation of its policies and
programmes in the field of Education. It is expected to encourage
student teachers and teacher educators to conduct educational
research. In order to fulfill these main objectives, it has established
National Institute of Education (NIE) at Delhi and 4 regional
colleges of education at Ajmer, Bhopal, Bhubaneswar and Mysore.
It also works in collaboration with the departments in the states, the
universities and institutes, following objectives of school education.
It also maintains close-contact with similar national and international
103
institutions throughout the world. It communicates results of its
researches to a common man by publishing books and journals.
Objectives :
To launch, organize and strengthen research works in various
aspects of education.
To arrange for pre-service and in-service training at the higher
level.
To publish necessary textbooks, journals and other literature for
achieving the objectives.
To organize extension centers in training institutes with the
cooperation of state governments and extend facilities pertaining
to new methods and technologies among them.
To establish a National Institute of Education and manage for the
development of research and higher training for educational
administrators and teachers.
To provide guidance and counselling services on a large scale.
a) Major function of NCERT are as under/ Role of NCERT :
To monitor the administration of NIE /Regional colleges of
Education.
To undertake aid, promote and co-ordinate research in all
branches of education for improving school-education.
To organize pre-service and in-service education programmes
for teachers
To prepare and publish study material for students and related
teachers handbooks.
To search talented students for the award of scholarship in
science, Technology and social sciences.
To undertake functions assigned by the Ministry of education
(Now HRD) for improving school education
It is quite interesting to know how following constituent
institutes works.
National Institute of Education (NIE)
In order to fulfill the objectives of NCERT, NIE Functions
through 9 departments, 7 units and 2 cells as Under :
104
Departments of NIE :
Academic Depts.
Production Department.
Dept of Maths Education
Dept. of textbooks
Dept of Teacher education
Dept of Teaching Aids
Dept of Educational Psychology Publication Department.
Dept of Educational Psychology Workshop Department
Dept of Text - books.
Units of NIE Cells of NIE
National Talent Search unit Primary Curriculum
Survey and Data processing Unit Journals cell
Policy, planning and Evaluation Unit
Library and Documentation Unit
Vocationalisation of Education Unit
Examination Reform unit
Examination Research unit
b) Central institute of Educational Technology (CIET) :
Functions of CIET are as under
To encourage the use of Educational technology in the spread of
education.
To organize training programmes in connection with schoolbroadcasting
and Educational Television.
To develop learning aids based on Educational technology.
C) Regional Institutes of Education (RIE) :
NCERT established Institutes of Education as model institutes in
different regions of the country.
Besides Teacher Education programme (4 years integrated B.Ed
Course), these college conduct programme with respect to inservice
- training, extension services and Research.
105
They run 4 years B.Ed. course with a view that Education is a
professional subject like engineering, medicine and B.Ed. student
should be trained in the content and methodology
simultaneously.
This course offers B.Sc. B.Ed. (Science) and BA, B.Ed
(languages) degree.
These colleges conduct one-year B.Ed. course especially in
science, agriculture, commerce and languages.
They also run M.Ed course.
These. Colleges are situated at Ajmer, Bhopal, Bhubaneswar and
Mysore as centers of excellence for the four regions of India.
The role of NCERT in Indian Education :
NCERT organizes / conducts various programmes with respect to
Research, Development, Training, Extension-services, publishing
study - material, and evaluation.
It aims at qualitative improvement of school - education.
It aims at qualitative improvement of school - education rather
than quantitative expansion.
It wants to make our education relevant to national objectives
and social needs.
Besides researches conducted at NIE, NCERT offers financial
aid to research projects of the teachers.
It also organizes summer Institutes to school teachers and teacher
- educators for attaining their professional growth. Through these
measures NCERT wants to achieve qualitative improvement in
Education.
1) Discuss the functions of National agencies of teacher education.
106
3.4 AGENCIES AT THE INTERNATIONAL LEVEL :
3.4.1 UNESCO :
At no time in human history was the welfare of nations so
closely linked to the quality and outreach of their higher education
systems and institutions. (World Conference on Higher Education
Partners, June 2003).
As the only United Nations agency with a mandate in higher
education, UNESCO facilitates the development of evidence-based
policies in response to new trends and developments in this field
emphasizing its role in achieving the Millennium Development
Goals and particularly poverty eradication.
The Organization fosters innovation to meet education and
workforce needs and examines ways of increasing higher education
opportunities for young people from vulnerable and disadvantaged
groups.
It deals with cross-border higher education and quality
assurance, with a special focus on mobility and recognition of
qualifications, and provides tools to protect students and other
stakeholders from low-quality provision of higher education.
UNESCO promotes policy dialogue and contributes to enhancing
quality education, strengthening research capacities in higher
education institutions, and knowledge sharing across borders.
Teacher education :
Global leadership on teachers,
Their status,
Their professional training,
Their management and administration and key policy issues.
The UNESCO/ILO Recommendations concerning the Status of
Teachers and provide the framework for the same.
The Teacher Training Initiative for Sub-Saharan Africa
(TTISSA) is a core initiative addressing key issues in the African
context.
What UNESCO is doing for Teacher Training- (ROLE AND
FUNCTIONS) :
107
tomorrow.
UNESCO and Teachers :
Good teachers are the cornerstone of quality education. On a
daily basis, teachers contribute to sustainable development by
building its human foundation nurturing each childs capacity and
desire to learn. Without teachers, Education for All (EFA) by 2015
would be an unobtainable dream.
Teachers : Creating hope for tomorrow :
Teachers are at the very heart of UNESCOs work. Each day,
over 60 million teachers care for 1 billion children, cultivating
their souls and minds. Any process that attempts to improve the
quality of education promote peace and harmony and eliminate
discrimination requires teachers. Teachers work with children
who will be the leaders of tomorrow.
But for teachers to be effective, they must be well-trained,
motivated, have a decent work environment, good pay and an
attractive career path. UNESCO enables the worlds teachers by
building on the standards for the professional, social, ethical and
material concerns of teachers set in the 1966 and 1997
recommendation concerning the status of teachers and education
personnel.
There is currently a severe shortage of teachers worldwide.
UNESCO helps adjust national policies to reverse teacher flight,
teacher drop-out and assists countries with the
professionalization of volunteer teachers recruited by hardpressed
governments to fill crisis-level gaps.
UNESCO and Teacher Education :
Emphasizing the essential role teacher training and education
policy play in national development goals.
Producing and disseminating policy guidelines on open and
distance learning, e-learning, and use of ICTs in teacher
education.
Advocacy to improve the training and status of teachers
worldwide.
Integrating international standards regarding HIV/AIDS and life
skills into national teacher education policies.
108
Promoting exchange of good national practices and lessons learnt
within groups of countries with common teacher-related agendas
through networking and exchange.
tomorrow.
UNESCOs Teacher Training Initiative in Sub-Saharan Africa :
UNESCOs Teacher Training Initiative is a new 10-year project
to dramatically improve teacher training capacities in 46 subSaharan
countries.
The programme is designed to assist countries to synchronize
their policies, teacher education, and labour practices with
national development priorities for Education for All and the
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) through a series of
four-year cycles.
Teacher training for the achievement of Education for All :
The acute shortage of qualified teachers has been identified as
one of the biggest challenges to EFA. If EFA is to be achieved by
2015, then between 15 and 30 million more teachers are needed
worldwide. In sub-Saharan Africa, 4 million additional teachers
will be needed by 2015 to meet the goal of Universal Primary
Education alone. Additional teachers will be needed for nonformal
education and literacy training, as well as in-service
training of teachers.
UNESCO recognizes that teacher education is integrally related
to quality education and closely linked to curriculum renewal,
improved learning outcomes, and a positive school environment.
At the end of four years, each country participating in the
Teacher Training Initiative is expected to integrate a
comprehensive teacher education plan into the national education
plan, improve the quality of training in teacher education, address
the issues of severe teacher shortage and the status of teachers,
and implement an internationally prescribed standard and
national policy regarding HIV prevention education.
UNESCOs teacher training activities :
109
Dynamic national information mapping completed in Angola,
Zambia, and Niger and in progress in Burundi
Providing of a full-time country-designated expert in seventeen
countries for the first phase of the Initiative
Establishing and maintaining comprehensive and integrated
national databases concerning the state of teacher education
Assisting countries in analysing their teacher shortages and in
implementing policies and strategies to increase the number of
qualified teachers and professionalize currently under qualified
teachers
Encouraging consultations between governments and teachers in
planning and implementing fully EFA reforms
Sharing and distributing good teacher policies and practices
Coordinating relevant research to guide EFA policies and
disseminating good teacher policies and practices
UNESCOs Teacher Training initiative is aimed at redirecting
policies, improving institutional capacity, improving teacher
quality, and stemming the teacher shortage in order to achieve
Education for All by 2015.
The UNESCO Chair for Teacher Education is an addition to the
UNITWIN / UNESCO Chairs Programme that is already well
established in the region. The Chair has been established in East
China Normal University, Shanghai, PR China. The purpose of
the Chair is to promote an integrated system of research, training,
information and documentation in the field of teacher education
and training, and educational research. It will serve as a means
of facilitating collaboration between high-level, internationally
recognized researchers and teaching staff of the East China
University and other institutions in China, and South East Asia
region.
1) Discuss the role and functions of UNESCO as an International
agency of teacher education programme.
110
3.5 LET US SUM UP :
In this unit, we have discussed various agencies like SIE,
SCERT, NCERT, NCTE, UGC and UNESCO and their functions
towards teacher education at state, national and international level.
But it is the role of yours to work out these plannings into reality.
1. Explain the functions of MSCERT with relation to development
of teacher education.
2. Name various agencies at national level. explain the role of
NCTE towards teacher education.
3. Write Short Notes on :
a) UGC
b) UNESCO
1. Khan M.S. (1983) Teacher Education in India and abroad, New
Delhi, Ashish Publishing House.
2. Shankar V. (1984) Education of Indian Teachers, New Delhi
Sterling Publishers.
3. Patil V. (1996) Teachers Handbook Pune, MSCERT.
4. Kadam Chavan (2006) Primary Education : Problems and
measures Latur, Sanskar Prakashan.
111
4
TEACHER EDUCATION AT
PREPRIMARY AND PRIMARY LEVEL
Unit Structure :
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives of Teacher Education at Preprimary level
4.3 Objectives of Teacher Education at Primary level
4.4 Structure of Teacher Education Programme at Pre-Primary &
Primary level as recommended be NCTE.
4.5 National Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education at
The Pre-Primary Stage
4.5.1 National Curriculum Framework for Teacher
Education at the Elementary / Primary Stage
4.6 Role and competencies required for the teacher at the
Preprimary level
4.7 Role and competencies required for the teacher at the primary
level
4.8 Let us sum up
4.0 OBJECTIVES :
Become aware of the importance of objectives of teacher
education at different levels of education.
Become aware of objectives of teacher education at Childhood
Care and Education level.
Become aware of objectives of teacher education at Elementary
School level.
Become aware of objectives of teacher education at Secondary
School level.
Become aware of objectives of teacher education at Higher
Secondary School level.
112
4.1 INTRODUCTION :
India has now accepted a ten years general school system,
divided into three stages: pre-school education, elementary
education and secondary education, There is further a provision for
two year diversified senior secondary education with the subject
oriented and disciplinary approach. The maturity level and
psychosocial make-up of the students and curriculum requirements
demand separate teacher education programmes for all the stages of
the school education.
PRE-PRIMARY LEVEL :
Teacher Education for preprimary level
Pre-primary stage is not the stage for formal education.
Literacy should not be the concern at this level though it prepares
children for elementary schools. Learning at this stage may be
characterized by group activities, play way techniques, language
and, number games and activities directed to promote socialization
and environmental awareness among children and help them in the
process of attaining physical, mental and emotional maturity.
Approaches in developing life skills and the formation of good
habits and living togetherness need to be addressed with great care.
To ensure happy and healthy childhood by means of varied activities
have to be the main focus.
The specific objectives for teacher education at this stage may be
the following:-
To prepare teachers for helping physical, mental, social,
emotional, aesthetic and linguistic development of children by
means of individual and group activities.
To impart them relevant knowledge of child psychology, basics
of cultural anthropology, sociology, Indian heritage and childs
environment.
To develop among them the capacity and desire for obtaining
parental cooperation and establish coordination with the agencies
working in similar areas.
To empower them to organize educational games and
supplementary activities for children.
113
To arrange field trips for nature study and train their power of
observation and appreciation.
To enable them to prepare, select and use different kinds of
materials at low cost with a focus on sensory and motor
development of children.
To empower them to develop self-concept, self-esteem and the
art of self-expression and sense of discrimination and
appreciation among the children.
To enable them to develop environmental awareness among
children.
To empower them to inculcate the art of living good life.
PRIMARY LEVEL :
Teacher Education for primary level :
Elementary education, which makes a significant contribution
to national development, occupies a crucial position in the system of
education. It admits mainly the children coming after completing
pre-school education, children from educated families, the first
generation learners and from the neglected and oppressed sections of
the society. It is the nursery of citizenship, value inculcation,
development of appropriate behaviour and life skills. The
impressions acquired during this stage often continue through out the
life.
Objectives of Teacher Education at the Primary level : -
To make the teachers aware of the nature, purpose, problems and
issues of elementary education.
To enable them to understand the nature and maturity of children
for imparting education and to ensure their many sided
development.
To enable them to manage and mobilize community resources for
the school and teaching.
To empower pupil teachers to impart and organize instruction of
unified and integrated subjects, their nature and purpose in the
new educational and social context.
114
To develop holistic approach for understanding and solving the
problems of life.
To create environmental awareness with the intent of promoting
its protection / preservation.
To empower them to evolve need based community specific and
child centred pedagogy including indigenous learning systems.
To promote among them the desire, taste and capacity for lifelong
learning and make them aware of latest developments in
their areas and the needed transactional skills.
To make them understand/appreciate the advantages of ICT and
empower them to use the same in the class.
To give an elementary knowledge of inclusive, physical, yogic,
health and citizenship education in the common school system.
To prepare them to use the latest constructivist pedagogy and
evaluation techniques and
To enable them to impart value education, life skills education,
work education and feel their responsibility towards the
education of neglected sections of society including those
affected by diseases and deprivation of various forms.
What are the important areas of development for children at the
elementary education level? How do they differ from those for
children requiring early childhood care and education?
Note : Write your answer in the space given below.
115
4.4 STRUCTURE OF TEACHER EDUCATION AT
PRE-PRIMARY AND PRIMARY LEVEL AS
RECOMMENDED BY NCTE :
Norms and Standards for Pre-School Teacher Education
Programme:
1. Preamble
This programme is meant for the preparation of Pre-school
teachers for teaching children in the age group of 4-6 years. This
will enable creation of cadre of teachers for pre-school education
of children. As pre-school education has not yet been integrated
with the primary school education and it is being run generally as
private initiative, it needs to be recognized as different from
nursery teacher training which is for children for age group 4-8
years.
(a) The programme shall be of a duration of one academic year.
(b) There shall be a unit of 50 students to ensure optimum
utilization of physical and instructional infrastructure and
expertise of the teaching staff.
3. Eligibility
(a) Secondary Examination (Class X) or its equivalent.
(b) Admission shall be made either on the basis of marks
obtained by the qualifying examination or in the entrance
examination conducted by the state government as per the
policy of the state government.
(c) There shall be reservation of seats for SC / ST / OBC /
Handicapped / Women etc., as per the policy of the concerned
state government.
(a) There shall be at least 150 teaching days exclusive of period
of admission, examination etc. Every student teacher shall be
required to undergo internship in school experiences at least
for 30 days in nearby pre-schools. To ensure optimal
interaction of teacher-trainees with the kids, the programme
may also be conducted by an institution having nursery
school teaching.
116
(b) Curricular transaction should emphasise approaches and
methods, like, role playing, games, quiz, material preparation,
project work, bal mela etc., by which prospective teachers can
be trained to create joyful environment so that children of the
age group of 4-6 years may have attraction towards school
education.
(c) For a unit of 50 students, the faculty shall comprise of the
Principal / Head, two full time teachers and two part time
teachers. For intake of students in excess of the prescribed
unit, the number of teachers shall be increased
proportionately.
(d) For co-curricular activities like physical education, art, work
experience, music, etc. part time instructors may be
appointed.
(a) Principal / Head
1. Academic and Professional qualifications will be as
prescribed for the post of teacher.
2. At least five years experience of teaching in Elementary
Teacher Education / Pre-school Teacher Education
Institution.
(b) Teachers
Candidate should have a good academic record with the
following academic qualification.
Good academic record with graduation with B. Ed. / B. El.
Ed. / B. Ed. (nursery)
OR
Graduation with diploma in Pre-school and Lower Primary
Education / Diploma in Elementary Education
(c) Qualification of teachers of physical education art, work
experience, etc. shall be as prescribed by the concerned state
government.
Administrative and other support staff may be provided as per
the norms prescribed by the concerned state government for
secondary schools.
117
a) Adequate number of classrooms and activity room for
approved intake of students, rooms for the Principal and
faculty members and office for the administrative staff and a
store should be available in the institution. The size of
instructional space shall not be less than 10 sq. ft. per student.
b) There shall be appropriate space for outdoor and indoor
games.
c) To provide these facilities, the Management / Institutions
from all encumbrances. Govt. land acquired on long-term
lease as per the law of the concerned State / UT will also be
considered valied for the purpose. Pending construction of
There should be a Learning Resource Centre housed in a bigger
room and having books, magazines, journals, audio-visual aids,
teaching aids, play material, computer etc.
a) The appointments shall be made on the basis of the
per the policy of the concerned state government.
b) All appointments are to be made on full-time and regular
basis.
c) Institutions may make appointments on deputation or contract
basis as an interim measure, in the absence of availability of
suitable candidates.
made as per the norms of the concerned government.
by the concerned government from time to time.
fund, etc.
118
policy of the concerned government subject to maximum age
10.Management
a) In case of private institutions, the institution shall be run by a
society / trust which should be registered with competent
authority as per the provisions of the relevant Act.
b) The tuition fees and other fees shall be charged at rates
prescribed by the concerned state government.
c) In case of unaided institutions there shall be an endowment
fund of Rs.5.00 lacs to be operated jointly by the authorized
concerned regional committee and a reserve fund equivalent
to three months salary of the staff.
11.Affiliation
The examination would be conducted by the examining body
designated by the State Government.
Norms and Standards for Elementary Teacher Education
programme :
1. Preamble
The elementary teacher education programme is meant for
preparing teachers for elementary schools (primary and upper
primary / middle).
a) The elementary teacher education programme shall be of
duration of two academic years.
b) For effective curriculum transaction and for ensuring
optimum utilization of physical and instructional
infrastructure and expertise of the teaching staff, there shall
be a unit of 50 students for intake each year.
3. Eligibility
a) Candidates with at least 50% marks in the senior secondary
examination (+ 2). Or its equivalent, are eligible for
admission.
b) Admission should be made either on the basis of marks
obtained in the qualifying examination or in the entrance
examination conducted by the State Government, as per the
policy of the State Government.
119
c) There shall be reservation of seats for SC / ST / OBC,
Handicapped, Women, etc. as per the rules of the concerned
State Government.
a) There shall be at least 150 teaching days in a year exclusive
of period of admission, examination, etc. Besides, every
teacher trainee shall be required to undergo internship in
teaching (including practice teaching / skill development) at
least for 30 days in nearby elementary schools.
b) Apart from teaching of foundation subjects, there shall be
provision for teaching of methods subjects relating to primary
and upper primary curriculum, namely, Regional Language /
Mother Tongue, English, Mathematics, Science and Social
Studies.
c) For a unit of 50 students or less (with combined strength of
100 or less for the two-year course), the full-time teaching
faculty shall comprise the Principal / Head and at least five
Lectures. For intake of students in excess of the prescribed
unit, the number of full time teachers shall be increased
proportionately.
d) Appointment of teachers should be so distributed as to ensure
the required nature and level of expertise for teaching
methodology courses and foundation courses.
e) For teaching subjects such as physical education, art, work
experience, music, information technology literacy etc., parttime
instructors may be appointed.
a) Principal / Head
i) Academic and professional qualification will be as
prescribed for the post of Lecturer.
ii) At least five years experience of teaching in elementary
teacher education institutions.
b) Lecturer
i) Good academic record with M. Ed. / M. A. (Education)
with B. Ed 55% marks, preferably with specialization in
elementary education.
OR
ii) Good Academic record with Masters Degree with 55%
marks in the relevant school subject and Bachelor of
120
Elementary Education (B. El. Ed.), or B. Ed. Preferably
with specialization in elementary education, and with five
years teaching experience in recognized elementary
schools.
iii) A relaxation of 5% may be provided, from 55% to 50% of
the marks, at the Masters level for SC / ST category.
iv) Qualifications for other academic staff for teaching
physical education, art, work experience, information
technology literacy etc. shall be as prescribed by the
concerned State Government.
The administrative and other support staff may be provided as
per the norms prescribed by the concerned State Government.
a) There shall be provision for adequate number of classrooms,
hall, laboratory space for conducting instructional activities
for approved intake of students, rooms for the principal and
faculty members, and office for the administrative staff and a
store. The size of instructional space shall not be less than 10
sq. ft. per student.
b) There shall be a library equipped with text and reference
books relating to prescribed courses of study, educational
encylopaedia, year books, electronic publications (CDROMs)
and journals on teacher education and other software
relevant to the elementary stage.
c) There shall be games facilities with playground.
Alternatively, the playground available with the attached
school or local body may be utilized and where there is
scarcity of space as in metropolitan towns / hilly regions,
facilities for yoga, indoor games may be provided.
d) To provide these facilities, the Management / Institutions
from all encumbrances. Government land acquired on long
term lease as per the law of the concerned State / UT will also
be considered valid for the purpose. Pending construction of
121
a) There shall be a multi-purpose educational laboratory with
psychology and science sections and a workshop attached to
it.
i) The science shall have the apparatus and chemicals
required to demonstrate all the experiments as per the
syllabus of elementary schools.
ii) The psychology section shall have facilities for
conducting the following tests : Sensory motor,
intelligence (Performance, Verbal and Non-Verbal),
Aptitude, Personality and Interest inventories including
Projective Tests : provision for conducting simple
Piagetian and Brunnerian experiments.
b) There shall be hardware and software facilities for language
learning.
c) There shall be an Educational Technology laboratory with
hardware and software required for imparting Information
Technology (IT) literacy.
a) The appointments shall be made on the basis of
recommendations of the Selection Committee constituted as
per the policy of the Central / concerned State Government.
b) All appointments are to be made on full time and regular
basis.
c) Government institutions / Government-aided institutions may
make appointments on deputation or contract basis as an
interim measure, in the absence of availability of suitable
candidates recommended by appropriate bodies set up by the
concerned government.
made as per the norms of the concerned Government.
by the concerned State Government from time to time.
fund etc.
122
policy of the concerned Government subject to maximum age
10.Financial Management
a) The tuition fees and other fees shall be charged at rates as
prescribed by the concerned State Government.
b) In case of unaided institutions, there shall be endowment fund
of Rs.5.00 lakh to be operated jointly by the authorized
concerned Regional Committee, and a reserve fund
equivalent to three months salary of the staff.
11.Relaxation in eligibility / duration of the course
As in some States, the duration of the elementary teacher
education course is one year only and the eligibility for
admission to such course is a pass in class ten, such States are
given time up to the end of academic session 2004 05 to switch
over their programmes for bringing them in conformity with the
NCTE Norms and Standards. Meanwhile, recognition for
reduced duration of the course which shall not be less than one
year and / or lower eligibility criteria, which shall not be less than
a pass in class ten with at least 50% marks in aggregate, may be
given subject to the condition that the certificate given by the
State authorities in respect of such a course will be valid for
employment within that State only and such courses including
their duration and admission criteria are those that have been in
existence in that State on the date when the NCTE Act, 1993
came into force.
In 1978, NCTE appointed four region wise teams to study
problems of teachers and suggest measures to raise its standard.
Each team included following members.
Principal of Regional College of Education (Chairman)
A member from Dept of Teacher Education (NCERT)
5 Members from the states of a region.
Considering situational changes, NCTE prepared, Teacher
Education curriculum framework. The said framework suggested
stage wise models for Preparation of teachers. Let us go through the
model suggesting teacher preparation at Primary Stage.
123
Preparation of Primary Teachers :
NCTE prepared its first model for teacher Education in 1978
and second model in 1988.
NCTE Model I (1978) :
At primary stage, A teacher education model showed three
areas (A), (B), (C) and % weight age in terms of time, area wise and
concerned course wise weight age of the said model at primary stage
is as under-
(A) Pedagogical theory (20%)
(i) Teacher and Education in the emerging Indian society.
(ii) Child Psychology
(iii) Principles / Problems of Primary Education.
(B) Working with Community (20%)
(iv) Work situations related to (i), (viii), (ix), (x) and (xi).
(C) Content cum Methodology, Practice teaching / Practical work
(60%):
(v) Core teaching Programme (10%)
Special training programme packages (vi to xi):
(vi) Languages (10%)
(vii) Mathematics (5%)
(viii)Environmental studies I (5%)
(ix) Environmental studies II (5%)
(x) Work Experience / Art (10%)
(xi) Health, Physical Education and Recreational activities (5%)
(xii) Related Practical work (10%)
Duration of this course included 4-6 semesters after std. X
Seminars sponsored by NCERT, SCERT and Board of Studies of
various universities analysed and discussed the NCTE- model I
Very few universities introduced this framework, so expected
improvement in Teacher-education did not occur. Later on, National
Policy on education and Programme of action (1986) suggested to
restructure teacher education; because only quality teacher
education can cause quality school-education. National curriculum
for school education (1988) emphasized learner centred approach
to education. Considering guidelines of NPE (1986) and National
124
Commission on teachers (1983-85) NCERT initiated to set up
following two working groups on:
Revitalization and Modernization of Pre-service teacher
education.
Issues of teacher education curriculum.
Considering observations and suggestions at these groups
made by NCTE to improve its model (1978), NCTE Prepared NCTE
Model-II (1988)
NCTE Model II (1988) :
This model offered Pre-service Teacher-education curriculum
at primary stage for those having entry qualification std. XII (or 10 +
2). Its duration : 2 years. Its curriculum components with respective
% weightage (in terms of time) are as under
A) Foundation Course (20%) :
(i) Education in emerging India (Philosophical & Socio-cultural
perspective (10%)
(ii) Primary students : Learning process, adjustment (10%)
(Educational Psychology)
B) Stage Relevant Specialization (30%) :
(iii) Primary education and teacher functions (5%)
(iv) Language teaching (1 relevant language choice): (5%)
(v) Maths teaching (5%)
(vi) Environmental studies teaching (related to std. 1 to 5) (5%)
(vii) Health and Physical education (5%)
(viii)Art Education, work-experience (5%)
C) Additional specialization (10%) :
(ix) Science teaching and social science teaching / Pre-school
Education (5%)
(x) Any one elective (Adult education / Nonformal education / 5%)
social Education / Tribal education / Multiple class teaching /
Population education / Special education / Educational
technology)
125
D) Practical / Field Work (40%) :
(xi) Practical work (20%)
(xii) Internship in Teaching (in primary, upper-primary & (20%)
Pre-school system)
Thus NCTE Model II (1988) indicated four Areas (A, B, C,
D) and its nine curriculum components. Its theoretical components
had 60% weightage while the practical components 40% weight age.
As compared to NCTE Model-I (1978), the Model-II offered more
weight age to practical area at primary stage.
TEACHER EDUCATION AT THE PRE-PRIMARY
STAGE :
Early Childhood Education plays a significant role as it helps
children in successful completion of primary education. Its
curricular linkages with enrolment, retention and learning outcomes
of children at primary stage have been established through research
and field experiences. First major recommendation, in this regard,
was made by the Education Commission (1964 66) for
establishment of pre-primary education development centres in each
district with State Institutes of Education and state level centres
responsible for promoting quantitative expansion and ensuring
quality of pre-primary schools. Subsequently, the National Policy
on Education, 1986 and the Programme of Action, 1992 reiterated
such revolutionary ideas. It states that Early Childhood Care and
Education (ECCE) provides a crucial input in the strategy of human
resource development, as a feeder and support programme for
primary education and as a support service for working women
especially belonging to the disadvantaged sections of the society.
The NCFSE 2000 has stressed the need and importance of Early
Childhood Education of two-year duration between 3-6 years of age.
Emphasis has been laid on pleasure, perception and participation, at
this stage. Further, learning at this stage needs to be characterized
by group activities, play-way techniques, language games, number
games, colour games and activities helpful in promoting
socialization and environmental awareness among children. Formal
teaching of subjects and formal evaluation of childrens progress
have been clearly prohibited. It has been stressed that Early
Childhood Education needs to be made uniformly available to all
children of the country to ensure equity.
126
The Tenth Five Year Plan also acknowledges ECCE as the
first step in the education ladder. The major provider of ECCE is the
Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) scheme which
covers 158 lakh children (which is 17.8% of the child population of
3-6 years) through about 5.20 lakh Anganwadis in 35 states and
UTs. Early Childhood Education or Pre-School Education, as it is
termed, is only one of the six components of Integrated Child
Development Services ICDS scheme. This remains one of the
weakest components in ICDS.
ECCE is indeed more inclusive than the concept of Preprimary
Education. ECCE programmes include ICDS, Anganwadis,
Balwadis, Creches, Day Care Centres and Pre-primary Schools. The
number of pre-primary schools are too few as compared to the
number of primary schools in each state and most of them are nongovernmental
enterprises. There is need for expansion of ECCE
facilities throughout the country following holistic approach aimed
at fostering health, psyche, social, nutritional and educational
development of the children. The Constitutional (86th Amendment)
Act 2002 by inserting Article 21(a) has provided the children of the
age group of six to fourteen years a Fundamental Right to Education.
Besides this, the Act has substituted Article 45 by stating that the
State shall endeavour to provide Early Childhood Care and
Education for all children until they complete the age of six years.
The provisions of this Act will have far reaching implications for
large scale expansion and strengthening pre-primary education in the
country. In the years to come, the demand for ECCE will increase
manifold and it will be necessary to focus on pre-primary teacher
education and its quality.
Pre-school Education : Major Thrusts :
The NCFSE 2000 at this stage discourages formal teaching
of subjects and advocates play way techniques. This will ensure
joyful participation and reduce harmful load on young children
whose neuro-muscular capacities are yet not developed for the same.
The curriculum emphhasises learning the language orally through
interactive mode. Abundant opportunities need to be provided for
developing skills of identification, matching, drawing, etc. without
formal teaching. This is also the stage where the skills of
socialization are to be nurtured among children through interaction.
Children at this stage need to be encouraged to develop positive
attitudes through child and nature and child and child interactions.
The thrust is built around pleasure, perception and participation for
developing readiness to learn.
127
Objectives :
The general objectives of pre-primary teacher education may include
the following :
Enabling student teachers to understand philosophical, sociopsychological
aspects of pre-primary education, its aims, content
and methodology;
Enabling student teachers to understand holistic development of
pre-primary age children in terms of physical, social, emotional,
intellectual, aesthetic, linguistic, cultural and related aspects;
Inculcating among student teachers love, affection, sensitivity
and respect for uniqueness for young children;
Developing among student teachers competencies, attitudes and
skills needed to organise play and other activities for promoting
the all-round development of children;
Enabling student teachers to understand and use a variety of
activity oriented and child centred approaches to promote
childrens self-concept, creativity and inventiveness;
Preparing student teaches with methods and materials needed for
Developing in student teachers skills in resource mobilization,
organisation, planning and management of pre-primary schools.
Developing in student teachers skills and aptitude for close
contact and co-operation with parents and local community for
strengthening the programmes of pre-primary education;
Developing values among student teachers which could be
naturally passed on to young learners;
Creating among student teachers thorough awareness of health
and hygiene related issues so that young learners may be taught
to live a healthy life; and
Preparing student teachers to use local resources and local
contexts.
128
The programme of pre-primary education is to be designed
carefully to provide for an all-round, wholesome growth and
development of the children including their neuro-muscular
coordination, self-expression, observation skills, health and hygiene,
habit formation and the like. The programme must centre around
suitable play activities such as free play, educational and
manipulative toys and puzzles and motor activities in small groups
involving simple exercises. Use of coordinated muscular and limb
movements; self-help skills; eye-hand coordination, other activities
such as drawing, painting, clay modeling, music, singing and
dancing, oral language skills of listening and speaking, pre-number
concepts, study of nature, plants, insects and animals, areas of visual
(craft, painting, clay modeling) as well as performing arts (music
dance, etc.) all need to be emphasized.
The curriculum for pre-primary teacher education programme
has to be flexible to include activities to promote physical, cognitive,
social, emotional, linguistic and aesthetic development of children
upto 6 years of age. It may also include resource mobilization and
management, use of community resources both human and material,
enlisting community participation. Building relationships with
parents and establishing collaborative and cooperative links with
ECCE and ICDS functionaries, DIETs and other agencies. Teacher
education programme must develop among student teachers an
awareness of local environment and natural surroundings and
inculcate in them appreciation for values and skills that promote
joyful learning.
Pre-primary is not a stage for introducing and providing any
formal education. Therefore, student teachers at this stage will have
to be sensitized and educated for understanding the developmental
needs of these young children and their requirements. Teacher
education curriculum at this stage need to develop awareness about
literacy programmes, community dynamics, national and local
customs, fairs and festivals and community mode of social living. It
may also develop awareness of forces affecting environment
including pollution, appreciation of places of historical and cultural
significance and special educational features and developmental
tasks contained in policies and programmes. Besides various
129
curricular and pedagogical concerns, concerted efforts have to be
made to sensitise teachers with new developments such as child as
the constructor of knowledge, child as a unique being and child with
multiple talents.
The curriculum transaction has to be in terms of childcentred,
activity-based, play-way and joyful approaches besides oral
instruction and demonstrations. Role-play, puppetry, story telling,
simulation exercises, dramatization and creative thinking strategies
have to be suitably used. Due importance has to be given to
participatory and interactive situations. The activities shall be such
that they have the potential to help children learn and develop
appropriate language and communication skills, self-expression,
social skills and besides promoting manipulative motor skills and
eye-hand coordination.
To help pre-primary centres do their work effectively,
establishment of Learning Resoeruce Centre in a teacher education
institution has to be made mandatory. Such a centre may be
equipped with toys and play materials, suitable for children of the
age group 3-6 years. In addition, provision may also be made of
picture books, games, audio-visual materials like TV, VCR,
computer, tape recorder, slide projector, audio and video tapes,
models, blow up charts and pictures, slides showing pictures of
animals, insects, birds, trees, flowers, fruits and vegetables.
Practice teaching may be organized in pre-primary schools,
anganwadis / balwadis. Instead of prescribing the number of lessons
or number of periods to be given each day, practice teaching must
enable student teachers to plan and manage the activities for all day
span. Time management, integrated play-way approaches and small
group activities that involves participation of every child, are some
of the important things that student teachers are expected to learn.
The duration of practice teaching may be realistically determined,
based on experience, with emphasis on the progress of the student
teacher towards becoming a professional.
Practical work for student teachers, in this context, may
include the following :
Practicum for Pre-primary Teacher Education :
Collection / preparation of materials for enabling children to
arrange objects in terms of size, weight, length, shape, colour,
etc;
130
Preparation of simple items of childrens imagination and
linking;
Assembling of puzzles and preparation of story charts;
Collection of materials to make children understand the concept
of soft-hard, rough-smooth, thin-think, etc;
Collection / writing of 15 to 20 stories and their narration to
children with special emphasis on the values embedded in them;
Designing and using locally popular games;
Exposing and helping children to identify and discriminate
different objects, birds, animals etc. available in the immediate
environment of the learner;
Rhythmic group-singing activities;
Undertaking case studies, observing and maintaining childrens
developmental records in the form of cumulative records;
Arranging local field trips;
Organising/celebrating school functions, festivals and important
days.
This list is not exhaustive and activities may be included
according to local requirements.
Evaluation :
Evaluation of pre-primary teacher education stage needs to
focus on assessment of understanding and skills concerning
planning, conducting and evaluating joyful activities for young
children.
Assessment of attitudinal change and value orientation has to
be an integral part of the total evaluation mechanism. Separate
evaluation be conducted for theory, practice teaching and field
experiences. The responsibility of assessment of practice teaching
needs to be shared both by the cooperative teacher and the teacher
educator. Grading system may serve this purpose in a better way.
Parameters such as planning, organisation, management, execution
of activities, capacity for innovations and play-way approaches,
students participation, communication skills and their ability to
guide individually and in groups childrens initiative and potential
need to find a rightful place in the evaluation scheme. Skills for
identification of children with special educational needs, children
with learning disabilities, planning and organising remedial action
131
and skills for crisis management need to be adequately assessed.
Profile of student teachers would need to be maintained on
qualitative as well as quantitative dimensions for which procedures
involving ranking, rating scales and peer assessment may prove to be
useful. The whole exercise has to be participatory, performancebased
and transparent.
4.5.1 National Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education
at the Elementary Stage / Primary Stage :
Elementary education is the foundation on which the super
structure of the entire educational system is built. Its contribution to
nation building and process of development and growth has been
universally recognized. The NCFSC 2000 therefore, attempts to
enrich the curriculum at elementary stage of school education by
adopting modern approaches, reducing the burden of irrelevant and
incomprehensible materials. It recommends new approaches for
transactional and evaluation strategies to raise the quality of
elementary education. Teachers working at this stage may be guided
by new areas of NCFSE 2000 as well as by the pedagogical
principles that form the base of teaching at elementary education.
Though teachers at all stages of school education try to make
learning a joyful activity, however, greater responsibility lies on
teachers of elementary education to ensure that learning becomes
activity based, participative and joyful. The recommendations of
the NCFSE 2000 have far reaching consequences for the
preparation of teachers at this level.
Elementary School Education : Major Thrusts :
The salient features of the NCFSE 2000 at elementary stage
include, among others, freedom from stress and anxiety, emphasizes
on mother tongue as medium of instruction, centrality of learners
immediate environment, development of practical skills and positive
attitudes and values. It also includes human rights and fundamental
duties of citizens and recommends related activities, project work,
etc. as an integral part of the curriculum. It emphasizes on mastery
level learning.
In Classes I and II the subjects of study recommended are :
one language mother tongue / regional language, Mathematics and
Art of Healthy and Produuctive Living (AHPL). In Classes III to V,
Environmental Studies is included in addition to the three areas of
study suggested for Classes I and II. For Classes VI to VIII (upper
primary stage) the scheme of studies includes (a) three languages
132
mother tongue, another modern Indian anguage and English; (b)
Mathematics; (c) Science and Technology; (d) Social Sciences; (e)
Work Education; (f) Art Education (fine arts visual and
performing); and (g) Health and Physical Education (including
games and sports, yoga, NCC and Scouts and Guides).
The NCFSE 2000 recommends reduction of the learning
load and a common scheme of studies for elementary stage with
flexibility of content and modes of learning, suited to theneeds and
requirements of learners. Formal teaching of environmental
education is introduced only from Class III onwards where both
natural as well as social environments have been introduced in an
integrated fashion.
A new course on Art of Healthy and Productive Living has
been introduced in Classes I to V by integrating earlier subject areas
such as art education, work education and health and physical
education. This does not remain confined to the development of
mechanical skills alone. It also goes much beyond to provide
opportunities for all round development of learners cognitive,
emotional and spiritual personality. It seeks to nurture values by
developing a positive social attitude towards the dignity of labour,
aesthetic sensibility and skills for healthy living.
Objectives :
The objectives of teacher education at this stage may include the
following :
Developing among student teachers an understanding of
philosophical, psychological and sociological principles relevant
to elementary education, i.e. understanding the learner, the
teachers role and the teaching-learning process;
Developing among student teachers skills for teaching integrated
environmental studies, integrated social sciences and integrated
science and technology;
Developing among student teachers language skills including the
skills of listening and speaking so as to be able to teach
languages effectively and creatively;
Enabling student teachers for planning and organising activities
such as puppetry, games, sports, physical and other similar
activities;
Enabling student teachers to integrate values with the total
curriculum transaction within classroom and outside;
133
Enabling student teachers to be life-long learners and developing
among learners the skill of learning how to learn;
Enabling student teachers to understand the potentialities of ICT
and make use of the same;
Developing among student teachers the capacity to solve social,
interpersonal and emotional problems of learners;
Enabling student teachers to establish mutually supportive
linkages with parents and the community to strengthen school
programmes;
Enabling student teachers to undertake action research projects;
Familiarizing student teachers with methods and materials for
Developing among student teachers a special concern for the
education of weaker and deprived groups of learners;
Developing among student teachers skills to contribute
effectively in UEE;
Developing among student teachers thorough awareness of health
and hygiene.
Developing among student teachers skills of continuous,
comprehensive and diagnostic evaluation and organising
remedial teaching.
Teacher education for preparation of UEE would require
special consideration in dealing with students of rural background,
girls, SC / ST, working children, urban deprived, disabled, children
in difficult circumstances, migrating, children in poor families,
socially disadvantaged groups and minorities. It would also need
special effort for bringing all the children to the mainstream of
education.
134
It is necessary that student teachers be sensitized to the need
for reducing curriculum load, organize appropriate learning
experiences which are joyful in nature and related to immediate
environment of the learner and help them develop and imbibe
desirable values.
Teacher education programmes at this stage shall have to
provide subject based orientation. Teaching and learning of
mathematics would be woven around the environment of the learners
so that environmental concerns are properly integrated. The
activities would focus on local culture and environment using the
local specific contexts and resources. Student teachers shall have to
be provided with experiences to help children develop socioemotional
and cultural aspects. A realistic awareness and perspective
of the phenomena occurring in the environment will have to be
linked with social or scientific events. This may be accomplished by
emphasizing observation, classification, comparison and drawing of
inferences, conducted within and outside the classroom. The desired
objectives could be successfully achieved by employing integrated
approach. Yet another important area of learning at elementary stage
comprises the Art of Healthy and Productive Living, since will
contribute towards the all round development of the personality of
children. Teacher education programmes shall have to stress on
activities and practices that strengthen the element of curiosity,
imagination and a sense of wonder besides inculcating positive
feelings and attitudes for cooperative living and social service.
A major shift at the upper primary stage is in the teaching of
sciences and social sciences, each is to be taught as an integrated
subject. Teaching these as integrated subject requires special
attention and orientation in teacher education programmes. The
thrust in new school curriculum on Indias cultural heritage and its
rich traditions, which have contributed to social, political, economic
and other related areas, requires an appropriate sensitization of
student teachers. The new course of science and technology requires
suitable orientation of student teachers to make the subject learnerfriendly.
Similarly new developments in educational psychology,
language education and others necessitate orientation of student
teachers. Further, emphasis on concept formation and development
of skills along with knowledge about applications of science and
technological advances in various fields need appropriate skill
development on the part of student teachers. It would help them,
develop the desired skills in the learners to deal with real life
situations.
135
The new school curriculum framework also gives importance
to the education of special needs groups and socio-economically
deprived sections of society such as women, rural poor, tribals,
minorities, the disabled, etc. it is imperative that teacher education
programme is accordingly oriented to enable student teachers to
overcome their biases and provide equal opportunity for all children
irrespective of their socio-economic and religious backgrounds.
Another major thrust is that the content of education be
rooted in Indian thought and experience and remain open to ideas
from outside. The vast cultural plurality of our nation comes handy
for increasingly drawing from the Indian experience, both past and
present. Special emphasis is needed on pedagogical analysis, a clear
understanding and appreciation of Indian contribution to knowledge
and achievements in various fields / sectors, etc. This would enable
the student teachers to develop a sense of national identity among
the learners, right from the elementary stage.
The NCFSE 2000 highlights education in human values as
an integral part of curriculum for all subjects at all stage of school
education. It stresses the need for suitably weaving of values,
human rights and fundamental duties of citizens in day-to-day
teaching and other school activities. This has a clear implication for
teacher education. Teachers have to play a crucial role in
inculcating values among children. Since every teacher is envisaged
to be also a teacher of values, student teachers have to be oriented
for value education and developing different strategies for
inculcation and promotion of values among school students.
Achieving Minimum Levels of Learning (MLL) is yet
another concern reflected in the school curriculum framework for
elementary school stage. MLL are learning outcomes to be achieved
by all children and also serve as one of the bases for determining
performance goals of both students and teachers. Teacher education
programmes have to orient student teachers to MLLs in terms of
performance capabilities of learners, translating them to specific
learning outcomes in the form of competencies. Exercises to this
effect, during teacher education programmes, would make student
teachers capable of ensuring MLLs at this stage of school education.
ICT is gradually emerging as an integral part of the schooling
process. It influences not only the teaching style but also the
learning style. ICT results in transformation from teacher-oriented
learning to that of exploratory self-learning.
136
Transaction of teacher education is based on several factors :
the academic background of student teachers and teacher educators,
nature of the subjects to be taught, philosophy of the subjects to be
taught, practical work to be conducted, community resources
available for education and characteristics of learners. Attempt may
be made to integrate theory and practice as well as community
resources. Student teachers need to acquire competencies to draw
community resources to facilitate more effective functioning of
schools. Emphasis on lectures be minimized while activity-based
and participatory methods be encouraged. Practical activities,
projects and field work will have to be the main focus of teacher
education. Student teachers are to be empowered to inculcate values
among students and they are also to be acquainted with the totality
of school and community experiences. They have to be encouraged
to undertake action research, group discussion and self-learning
activities as a part of their educational programme. Emphasis needs
to be laid on outcome-oriented activities. Student teachers have to
learn the skill of adjusting to the level of learners and make their
expectations reasonable. Temperamental adjustments may also be
necessary so as to identify themselves with the young learners.
Regular diagnosis and timely remediation must be encouraged to
help achieve mastery of basic skills pertaining to various subjects of
study and art of healthy and productive living.

TEACHER AT THE PREPRIMARY LEVEL:
The aim of preprimary education is that child develops
learning to learn skills and positive self image, acquires basic skills,
knowledge and capabilities from different areas of learning in
accordance with their age and abilities. Preprimary education lays
emphasis on the preparation for school.
The difference roles teacher performs at the preprimary level
are:
Manager
As a manager observes classs overall feeling and tone.
Consult with other teachers for curriculum ideas, sharing materials
and scheduling common activities.
Facilitator
- Assist children who need individual help to work.
- Remain in contact with the whole group and sense changing
mood or activity.
137
- Treat children with unconditional positive regard and
provide individualized care for needs.
Evaluator
- Provides proper atmosphere for the development.
- Organises activities properly so that preschool children pick
them up quickly.
Guide & Counsellor
- Give guidance about how to interact with others.
- Develops healthy & safe play environment.
- Meets with other educational professionals and parents to
discuss above the improvement of classroom techniques and
progress of children.
In general, the pre-school teachers role is very important.
They have a number of general responsibilities in their daily
teaching job. They must provide a wonderful learning environment
for the children, teach them social skills and help them with their
daily needs. They will instruct them in basic educational
programmes, teach them to creative and provide them with a safe
and caring environment to learn and grow.
Competencies Required
Personal
- Academically qualified
- Physically fit and healthy
- Love for children and teaching
Professional
- Up to date knowledge of subject
- Ability to tryout innovative and creative methods of
teaching.
Social
- Be open to criticism
- Developing rapport and creating friendly environment
138
TEACHER AT THE PRIMARY LEVEL:
The Indian government lays emphasis to primary education
upto the age of fourteen years. Inspite of several efforts made by the
government to enhance quality, levels of quality remain low.
Therefore the role of the teacher is most important. They should
perform various roles like:
Manager
- To plan and deliver activities that meet students needs.
- To develop skills of time management, class-room
management and material management.
Facilitator
- Facilitates learning by being creative and organized in
planning daily classes.
- Plan appropriate programme for exceptional students
those need extra help.
Evaluator
- Continue to set and correct homework.
- Evaluate students progress and discuss results with
students, parents and other teachers.
- Participates in staff meeting, workshops for continuing
Guide and Counsellor
- Give guidance for the development.
- Act as a role model.
- Prepares for secondary school.
Competencies Required:
Personal
- Physically sound
- Academically fit
- Aware of self
- Intellectually love for teaching
139
Professional
- Specialist in subject
- Depth and update knowledge
- Uses innovative methods of teaching
Social
- Works in collaboration and co-ordination
- have leadership quality
- develops rapport and creates congenial and friendly
environment.
However, NCTE has developed a competency based and
commitment oriented teacher education curriculum focusing on
quality and efficiency of teacher education. Ten competency areas
have been identified. They are:
1. Contextual Competencies
2. Conceptual Competencies
3. Curricular and Content Competencies
4. Transactional Competencies
5. Competencies in other educational activities
6. Competencies related to teaching learning material
7. Evaluation Competencies
8. Managing Competencies
9. Competencies related to parental contact and co-operation
10.Competencies related to community contact and co-operation
These competencies are first to be developed during
pre-service teacher education and then further updated and
strengthened during re-current in-service teacher orientation as well
as continuing and self directed professional enhancement by
individual teachers on their own.
4.8 LET US SUM UP:
In this unit, we have discussed the objectives and structure of
teacher education programme at pre-primary and primary level. We
have also discussed on the National Curriculum framework of
teacher education programme at pre-primary and primary education.
It also deals with the role and competencies required of teachers at
pre-primary and primary level with special reference to the ten
competencies recommended by NCTE.
140
Unit End Exercises:
1) Explain the teacher education progremme at preprimary level
with special reference to its objectives and structures.
2) Explain the Role and Competencies required for teachers at
primary stage with special reference to ten competency areas
suggested by NCTE.
References :
1. Khan M.S. (1983), Teacher Education in India & abroad, New
Delhi, Himalaya Publishing House.
2. Kohli V.K. (1992), Teacher Education in India, Ambala (India),
Vivek Publishers.
3. National curriculum framework by NCERT.
4. Competency based and commitment oriented teacher education
for quality school education by NCERT.
141
5
TEACHER EDUCATION AT SECONDARY
AND HIGHER SECONDARY LEVELS
Unit Structure :
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Objectives of Teacher Education Programme at Secondary
5.3 Objectives of Teacher Education Programme at Higher
Secondary Level as recommended by the NCTE
5.4 Structure of Teacher Education Programme at Secondary
5.5 Structure of Teacher Education Programme at Higher
Secondary Level as recommended by NCTE
Programme at Secondary Level as recommended by the
NCTE
Programme at Higher Secondary Level as recommended by
the NCTE
5.8 Role and Competencies required of the Teacher at the
Secondary Level
5.9 Role and Competencies required of the Teacher at the Higher
Secondary Level
5.10 Let us Sum up
5.0 OBJECTIVES :
After reading this unit, the student will be able to:
List the objectives of Teacher Education Programme at
Secondary and Higher Secondary Levels as recommended by
NCTE.
Discuss the structure of Teacher Education Programme at
Secondary and Higher Secondary Levels as recommended by the
NCTE.
142
Explain the National Curriculum framework for Teacher
Education Programme at Secondary and Higher Secondary
Levels as recommended by the NCTE.
Discuss the role and competencies required of the teacher at
5.1 INTRODUCTION :
In the recent years India has taken a fresh and more critical
look at the role of education within the context of overall national
development. The goals of education follow the national goals of
development. This means development of the human resources.
The development of human resources is possible through a properly
organised programme of education.
It is imperative, that the teacher has to assume greater
responsibility so as to initiate action for the transformation of society
as an agent of social change and thereby help achieve the goal of
national development. Thus success in carrying out educational
reforms and acceptance of the new role by the teacher depends on
the quality the teacher which, in turn depends on the quality of
teacher education.
PROGRAMME AT SECONDARY LEVEL AS
RECOMMENDED BY THE NCTE :
To maintain the continuity of elementary education and to
prepare students for the study of diversified courses and
appropriate selection of subjects at the senior secondary stage,
To empower the prospective teachers to adopt disciplinary
approach in teaching, and to develop among students interest in
such studies.
To enable them to understand the implications of liberalization,
privatization, globalization (LPG) free market, W.T.O. and
Outsourcing etc. on education and adopt precautionary measures
against their unsound effects.
To train them in the use of ICT, its advantages, disadvantages
and safeguards,
143
To curtail the educational and cultural gap between the rich and
the poor the schools meant for them by adopting suitable
educational approaches.
To develop among the prospective teachers love for Indian
culture, and its contribution to the world and to inculcate a sense
of national pride and identity.
To enable them to develop the teaching competencies and
performance skills for the subjects they have to teach, using
appropriate aids including ICT, organize supplementary
educational activities and elicit community cooperation,
To empower student teachers not only to understand the nature of
subjects but also the unity and integrity of knowledge,
To prepare them for the development of personality, inculcation
of values, fostering the spirit of citizenship and patriotic feeling.
To create among them the awareness of environmental protection
and need to maintain an ecological balance.
To enable students to acquire, construct, process and utilize
knowledge as per the requirement of circumstances,
To help them to grasp the main thrust of the curriculum and
develop appropriate transactional and evaluation strategies for
the same.
To enable them to integrate yogic, health, physical, aesthetic and
inclusive education with other educational activities.
To enable the prospective teachers to orient and sensitize the
students with care and caution about Life Skill education. HIV /
AIDS preventive education, reproductive health, etc.
To develop among them the capacity for undertaking action
research for improving the quality of education, for the solution
of its problems and to evolve the culture specific and community
oriented pedagogy.
To help them evolve happy and healthy school and community
relationship and promote interest in life long learning,
To acquaint them with Indian nations distinctive character of
unity of diversity and adopt curriculum development practices
to strengthen them.
Similarly, a few more objectives may be formulated in
consonance with the emerging trends in the context of local to global
scenario.
144
THE HIGHER SECONDARY STAGE AS
RECOMMENDED BY NCTE (ACADEMIC
STREAM) :
To develop among teachers an acceptable desired perspective
about academic stream and understanding of its nature, purpose
and philosophy,
To make them aware of the philosophy, purpose and teaching
learning strategies of the subjects they have to teach,
To empower them to make indepth pedagogical analysis of the
subjects they have to teach and understand their relevance to
tertiary education.
To empower prospective teachers to comprehend the
characteristics of students for making suitable educational
provisions for them.
To enable them to guide learners and prepare them for self
study, independent learning, to develop reference skills,
undertake group learning, critical thinking, conceptualization,
self evaluation of their own performance and derive knowledge
/ information from ICT, mass media and MCLS,
To develop among them the competencies to communicate
abstract and complex ideas and concepts in simple terms,
To make them understand the objectives, transactional strategies,
evaluation techniques and curriculum designing in different areas
of study at this stage,
To empower the prospective student teachers to understand the
regional specifies and educational demands and establish
correlation with the main stream of national life and to suggest
suitable solutions there off.
To develop among them the skills for promoting patriotic feeling
national consciousness, social cohesion, communal harmony and
universal brotherhood.
To enable the perspective teachers to evolve need based and
culture specific pedagogy,
To make them aware of national problems, environmental crisis
and Indian cultural ethos and
To enable them to orient and sensitize the students about HIV /
AIDS, preventive education and to bring attitudinal change in
145
understanding numeriuos problems relating to healthy life, life
skill development, stigma and discrimination etc.
Objectives of Teacher Education at the Senior Secondary Stage
(Vocational Stream)
The programme of teacher education for the vocational
subjects has to achieve the following targets in the domain of
competencies of student teachers.
To impart enriched vocational education which is essential for
success in competitive and open market economy,
To transform the nature of traditional vocations and modernize
them to achieve success,
To enable them to impart the skills of marketing, market survey,
salesmanship and advertisement,
To empower them to develop higher and finer vocational skills
and competencies among the prospective teachers and the ability
to foster them among their students,
To enable them to design courses and competencies needed for
self employment,
To take precautions against becoming narrow specialists and
educationally inferior workmen and
To enable the prospective teachers to inculcate dignity and
morality of work and produce work culture among their students.
5.4 & 5.5 STRUCTURE OF TEACHER EDUCATION
PROGRAMME AT SECONDARY AND HIGHER
SECONDARY STAGES AS RECOMMENDED BY
NCTE :
NCTE while finalising the structure & curriculum framework
followed two criteria i.e. Flexibility & Integration flexibility for
mobility of teachers from stage to another, mobility from one
discipline to another and from pre-service to in-service.
Integration meant integrating theory component with one total
programme. Each stage comprised of 3 main areas
1) Pedagogical Theory
2) Working with Community
3) Content cum methodology including practice teaching
146
In pedagogy core papers were taught core training
programme focused on development of skills for teachers regardless
of their subject, area or level. Each stage will also aim at developing
specific skill for teaching.
Working with community was introduced with specific
purpose of applying theory to actual situation. Weightage to be
given to these 3 areas at the secondary stage is
Pedagogy - 20%
Weightage at higher secondary stage is
Pedagogy - 30%
Entry qualification at secondary stage is graduation with 3
pagers in school subjects with minimum second class. Duration is 1
year. Entry qualification for higher secondary stage is post graduate
in 1 of 2 subjects with minimum 55% at post graduate level. Two
types of courses i.e. academic and vocational have been designed.
The characteristics of courses of academic stream are :
Differentiated, demarcated and specific contents
Subject and discipline orientation preparatory to specification
Enriched and comprehensive curriculum with goal specificity
Regrouping of subjects into compulsory and optionals
Emphasis on abstract and creative thinking and higher mental
faculties to deal with complex ideas and complicated concepts
Directed and focused towards higher studies
Vocational Stream :
Job oriented
Skill based
Useful
Practical
147
Manipulative
Rich in economic values
Employment or self employment oriented
Terminal in nature
Suitable for middle level workers in economy
SECONDARY LEVEL :
Duration : 1 Year
AREA COURSE
Curriculum Framework for the School
Teacher Education
A Theoretical Compulsory
- Principles, Status, Problems and Issues in
Secondary Education in India and the region
concerned,
- Emerging Indian Society : (Emphasis on
unity, diversity and regional specificity) and
Secondary Education,
- Philosophy of Secondary Education : Indian
and Western : (Only trends and educational
implications),
- Sociology of Education and Cultural
Anthropology (unity diversity and the
study of regional culture be given due
Weightage),
- Psychology of learning and motivation of
secondary school level students (Regional
and Group Specificities be given due
(Weightage),
- Curriculum and instructional designs for
secondary school level,
- Action research and innovative practices,
148
- Health, Hygiene and Physical Education,
- Safety and Disaster Management,
- Management, Planning and Finance,
- Guidance and Counseling,
- ICT and its use in Secondary Education,
- Any other as per regional needs.
B Practical
Activities
- Internship for one week at secondary school,
- Teaching of two subjects & pedagogical
analysis as is common in schools or
prescribed by the university (minimum 30
lessons),
- Communication skills,
- Environment Protection,
- Ecosystem Structure & Functions,
- Plantation and Water Harvesting,
- Energy Harvesting,
- Work Experience,
- Beautification of Schools,
- Organization of Games and Sports,
- Organization of Literary activities,
- Organization of tours and Excursions
- Organization of Field Work,
- Community work / Interaction,
- Cleanliness of Students,
- Implementation of Action Research, Case
Studies and Field work,
- Preparation of tests to measure abilities,
- Evaluation of answer scripts,
- Sessional work and its Evaluation,
149
- Preparation of maps, charts, diagrams,
- Improvisation of law cost and no cost
teaching aids,
- Educational Games,
- Diagnostic testing and remedial teaching,
HIGHER SECONDARY LEVEL :
Duration : 1 year
AREA COURSE
Curriculum Framework for the Teachers
of Senior Secondary Schools
(Academic Streams)
A Theoretical - Emerging Indian Society (Indian
heritage, its unity, diversity, regional
specificities modernization, post
modernity, (Indian culture, globalization,
knowledge economy and knowledge
society etc. be given emphasis),
- Psychology of teaching and learning,
- Philosophy of education (Relevant parts
of Indian and Western Metaphysics,
Epistemology and axiology),
- Sociology and Cultural Anthropology,
- Principles, Status, Problems, Issues and
challenges of senior secondary
education,
- Pedagogical Analysis and techniques of
teaching (two subjects one being
advanced level (A level) and the other
being ordinary level (O level),
- ICT and its integration,
- Health, Hygiene & Physical Education,
150
- Safety Education and Disaster
Management,
- Management, Planning and Finance of
Education,
- Any other need based course of study.
B Electives - Teaching of (Pedagogical analysis of two
subjects : one advanced and the other
ordinary),
- Pedagogical analysis of Home Science,
- Pedagogical analysis of Foreign Language,
- Pedagogical analysis of Mother Tongue &
Regional Language,
- Any other need based subject of study
C Specialization
One
- History of Indian Education,
- History of Western Education,
- Comparative Education,
- Educational Technology,
- Education of the oppressed,
- Women Education,
- Rural & Urban Education,
- Education of Challenged Children,
- Population Education,
- Problems of Education,
- Distance Education and Open Learning
System,
- Evaluation of Textbooks and Reading
Materials and their selection,
- Any other which has not been taken as
compulsory or elective.
151
D Practical
Activities
- Internship of one week in a higher secondary
school,
- Teaching 40 lessons in a subject opted at A
level and 20 at O level,
- Pedagogical analysis of advanced and
ordinary level subjects,
- Community survey and preparation of
report,
- Action Research, Field Work, Case Study
one each,
- Environmental Protection,
- Plantation, Water Harvesting and Grass land
development,
- Participation in community games and
festivals etc.,
- Organization of games and sports,
- Organization of supplementary educational
activities,
- Sessional work in major and ordinary
subjects and their evaluation,
- Soil Management and Manures,
- Beautification of school & Gardening,
- Wall writing
- Addressing assemblies & debates,
- Promoting cleanliness hygiene in school and
students,
- Preparation of tests to evaluate performance
and all kinds of abilities,
- Evaluation of students answer scripts,
- Preparation of Maps, Charts, Diagrams etc.
- Socially useful and productive work
(SUPW),
- Non conventional methods and teaching,
- Maintenance of educational records,
- Any other need based activity.
152
Structure of the Professional Course for Senior Secondary
School Teacher Education (Higher Secondary) (Vocational
Stream)
Duration : 1 year
AREA COURSE
Curriculum Framework for Senior
Secondary Schools
(Vocational Streams)
A Theoretical Courses of Study
- Emerging Indian Society (Emphasis on
science, technology, electronics, trade,
commerce, industrialization and economy
etc.),
- Philosophy, Sociology, Cultural
Anthropology and their bearing on
Vocational Education,
- Occupational and Industrial Psychology,
- Economic and Commercial Geography,
- Entrepreneurship and Management,
- Managing Financial Resources & Raw
Materials and Machineries,
- Marketing, Salesmanship, Advertisement
and market Survey,
- Price fixation, Profit, Insurance etc.,
- Elementary labour laws, Labour Welfare and
Labour Problems,
- Status, Problems, Issues and Challenges of
Vocational education,
- Theoretical knowledge of a trade or
vocation,
- Environmental education,
- Evaluation
- ICT
- Any other region specific subject
153
B Specialization Theory and Practice One or Two
- Fashion Design,
- Catering and cooking,
- Sewing and knitting,
- Hotel management,
- Spinning and Weaving,
- Carpet Weaving,
- Carpentry,
- Block smith ship,
- Agro based products,
- Food and Fruit preservation,
- Auto Mechanic,
- Repair of machines and engines,
- Electrician,
- Drilling,
- Radio & Television,
- Tractor mechanic,
- Clay work / Painting,
- Wall hanger / Painting,
- Interior Decoration,
- Toy making,
- Painting,
- Advertisement,
- Computer Hardware,
- Any other vocational activities.
C Practical - Apprenticeship of one semesters,
- Workshop Techniques,
- Practical Accountancy,
- Internship in a vocational school, ITI, TTI
etc. for teaching and learning,
- Internship as a salesman,
- Market survey and reporting,
- Survey of social demand & supply of a
product,
154
- Assessment of community needs,
- Transportation of goods and its management,
- Purchase of raw materials,
- Maintenance of various tax registers and the
payment procedures,
- Environmental protection,
- Water and Energy harvesting,
- Disaster management & Safety Education,
THE TEACHER AT THE SECONDARY LEVEL :
At secondary level consolidation takes place and also students
are prepared for the future life.
The aim of secondary education is developing leadership,
democratic citizenship, self reliant skills, political ability and
social values.
The different roles teacher performs at the secondary level are :
1) Manager
As a manager teacher develops human resources i.e. students by
creating interest for the academic, correlates the subject with
other subjects. Also as manager to develop skills of time
management, class room management and material
management.
2) Facilitator
Keeps in mind the intellectual development of the students.
Develops ability for abstract reasoning & conceptualization.
Emphasis on understanding / comprehending rather than
memorizing.
Orgnaised form of learning.
Values and attitudes crucial for desirable way of functioning
in the society.
Developing critical thinking and scientific attitude.
155
3) Evaluator
To monitor learning development.
Developing an awareness that role of evaluation is directly
proportional to teaching.
4) Guide and Counsellor
Give guidance for the development stage i.e. adolescent about
rapid physical growth, emotional changes.
Guidance for type of career to be chosen, i.e. professional /
technical etc.
Developing healthy attitude towards work.
Act as a role model.
Competencies Required :
1) Personal
Physically fit and healthy.
Active and Energetic.
Emotionally stable.
Aware of self.
Socially warm & friendly.
Intellectually love for teaching.
Have principles & values.
2) Professional
Subject Specialist with grasp and depth & upto date
knowledge about subject.
Appropriate teaching skills.
Ability to try out innovative methods of teaching.
3) Social
Develop inter personal & interactive skills.
Be open to Criticism.
Achieve the goals of the institution.
Working in collaboration & coordination.
Be a leader.
Developing rapport and creating congenial & friendly
environment.
156
TEACHERS AT HIGHER SECONDARY LEVEL :
Roles : Teacher performs various roles as
1) Manager
Teacher manages human resources i.e. students as well as
material resources i.e. Equipment, Facilities etc. As dealing with
students teachers should reach out, share, show concern, help to
get realistic goals & face the failure.
2) Facilitator
Developing life skills like decision making, problem
solving, Critical thinking etc.
Cope with rapidly increasing knowledge explosion.
Develop subject expertise.
Be a motivator.
3) Evaluator
Not only evaluate students (Continuous & Comprehensive)
but also, programme, Course material & teacher her / himself.
4) Guide and Counsellor.
Friend, confidantor, advisor.
Problems of relationship with opposite sex.
Extending activities to society.
Competencies :
1) Personal
Develop positive self concept
Emotionally stable
Physically sound
Self motivator
Wider reading interest
2) Professional
Research minded
Competency of Presentation (Communication, Mechanics of
delivery, simulation and skills of teaching)
157
Competency of maintaining discipline
Competency of evaluating techniques
Competency of handling feedback
5.10 LETS SUM UP :
In this unit we have discussed the objectives, structure,
Curriculum framework of teacher education programme at
secondary and higher secondary level. It also deals with role and
competencies required of teachers at secondary and higher
secondary level.
Unit End Exercise :
1. Compare the objective of teacher education programme at
Secondary and Higher Secondary Level.
2. Discuss the Curriculum framework of teacher education
programme at:
a) Secondary Level
b) Higher Secondary Level academic stream
3. Discuss the roles and competencies required of teachers at:
a) Secondary Level
b) Higher Secondary Level
158
6
TERTIARY LEVEL
Unit Structure :
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Need for Teacher Education for Preparation of Teachers in
Higher Education
6.3 Objectives of Teacher Education at Tertiary Level
6.4 Structure of Teacher Education Programme at Tertiary Level.
6.5 Curriculum for Teacher Education Programme at Tertiary
Level.
6.6 Role and Competencies Required of the Teacher at The
Tertiary Level.
6.7 Let us Sum up
6.0 OBJECTIVES :
At the end of this unit you will be able to :-
Analyse the importance of Teacher Education at higher level.
Explain the need of Teacher Education at Tertiary level.
6.1 INTRODUCTION :
Education is a transmission of knowledge and information
through predefined teaching methods and various training
programmes. The quality of learning mainly depends on the ability
and the capability and also the opportunity available to individual
159
learner. Hence transmission of qualitative education at higher level
may have various receptions.
When we talk about quality in higher education which is perceived
in terms of satisfaction of students, teachers and society. There is also a
growing realization that we are practicing in our schools and colleges
these days will define the social and intellectual competencies and
character of the new generation which has to take upon itself the
responsibility of shaping and functioning the society of incoming
generation. The concerned for quality in higher education in particular
surfaced strongly in the recommendations of education commission which
noted that The essence of a programme of teacher education is nothing
but quality and in its absence, teacher education becomes overall
deterioration in educational standards.
Tertiary education is a constituent part of the life long education
system. The out puts of secondary education are inputs for it and a quality
of higher education products solely depends on the their quality Teacher
Education inputs which are meant for the world of labour and the system
of further Non Formal formal education system.
The fast changing world today is characterized by the emergence
of global markets, the application of new knowledge in production,
requirements, for new skills in teaching professions changing nature of
equality of work , and introduction of information and communication
technologies in all spheres of human endeavors. This explains for new
concept of learning in the field of teacher educational institution is no
more a place where teacher and students have face to face interaction
Traditional approach to develop curriculum based on perceived
requirements of skills and professional and there fore curriculum and
study programmes have become more flexible , complex and dynamic
infact education at tertiary level is over coming state and national
boundaries, Researches at higher education are being redefined as
collective teachers M. S. University Baroda introduced D H E. for
training of college teachers at tertiary level which was also discontinued
after few years of trial As things stands teacher education at tertiary level
enter this professional without any proper programme preparation,
knowledge of pedagogy and educational psychology. The conventional
thinking in the academic circles is that appropriate scholarship in a
discipline is enough to become a food for teacher in higher education, The
University teachers learn how to teach by the pure trial and error to one
method of teaching lectures method to complete their teaching roles,
modern knowledge however present a different concept of teaching
learning must change to bring and develop new and advanced skills and
apply it in their class room teaching.
160
Re-orientation of subject knowledge which should include a study
of fundamental concepts and their implications for the college syllabus
preparation and use of text books and preparing source materials to assist
teaching, On order to over come the curriculum load arising had anisiving
out of such re-organization of course content the number of working day
and be extended.
The experiment of integrated courses of teacher education could be
tried in universities having strong education departments of education,
Theses courses should not be organized in separate institutions set up for
the purpose, other way is to accredit and call for accountability of the
institution expecting quality in all the required parameters in education
programmes.
The current system for teacher education at territory level has
failed to provide the teachers the training they normally need. Indeed there
is a little systematic coordination between various elements of teacher
education which may leads to a lack of coherence and continuity
especially between teacher initial professional education and their
subsequent induction in service training and professional development.
There is an urgent need for ensuring professional development
well coordinated coherent and adequate resources. It is essential to
promote culture of reflective practice and research among teachers in
order to sustain not only quality but the skills and collaboration of scholars
in distant time zones in order to cope with assimilate vast information and
knowledge, hence universities and other institutions of teacher education
at tertiary level take on new features which needs new modes of
administration and management in order to keep quality in teacher
education programme at tertiary level.
It is the need of the hour to bring and modify the teacher education
programme at universities and colleges to reflect on its objectives
curricular transaction, the structure of the education system and mainly the
competencies and the skills expected of the teacher at the tertiary level.
6.2 NEED FOR TEACHER EDUCATION FOR
PREPARATION OF TEACHERS IN HIGHER
EDUCATION :
It is learnt and expected that the learners of today are expected to
be more independent and autonomous in respect of their learning
activities, the rapid expansion and adoption of distant and open learning
161
education at tertiary level has reduced the need to spend more time within
the four walls of classrooms. The question arises what type of
professionalism is expected of teacher education teachers to effectively
handle the new learning situations at tertiary level ?
It is observed that very few teachers education frame works
developed by NCTE except in 1978 frame work talked about teacher
education programmes for teachers at tertiary level. In practice a teacher
education degree is never made compulsory to teachers in colleges of
higher education or in universities. At this time there were hardly any
preservice courses for university and college teachers. Even though their
innovative programmes developed during the mid 70 s were
discontinued later the course was in much demand. The very first
programme was the Master of College Teaching (M.C.T.) started in the
Calicut University way back in 1975, which was later discontinued after
few years of functioning. Another course for college teachers began in
1978 in Kerala. M. Phil in Science Education too was scrapped
after few years, when there was a great demand for the course Annamalai
University run a Master of Higher Education course ( MHED ) for training
of college teachers and later discontinued after few years when it had
sufficient competencies to compete with other teacher education system at
national and international territory.
Thus the need of teacher education is reflected in the cohesion of
activities which are lacking need improvement in to bring creativity,
novelty in teacher education programme at higher level.
Activity :
1) Organize a discussion on the existing need of teacher education
programme at tertiary level seek the views of colleague and present it
to the authority concerned in the institute of higher
education..
2) There is a common feeling that teacher education programmes meant
for different stages of education are isolated, how can be remove this
kind of isolation ?
Have a paper reading session on this issue
We have discussed about the importance of quality education in
teacher education programmed at tertiary level. It is learnt that in the
absence of quality, the education standard can never be met. In this
context how some universities like, Annamali Kerala and other places
started the training programmes to teacher education and later scraped
162
when the courses were in demand. Integrated education vocational
education is the need of the hour. There should be a coordination between
various elements of teacher education. It is essential to promote culture of
reflective practice and research among the teacher educators. The teacher
educator should bring creativity novelty and productivity as out put in
teacher education programmes
Question for critical reflection :
a) How far do you think the training of teachers in teacher education are
benefited with the current system of teacher education ?
b) Do you think that there is need to introduce teacher education
programme at tertiary level for college teachers ? Justify your views
on this.
The Role of teacher is becoming more specific and specialized and
yet demanding in the new world order on account of the explosion of
knowledge. This would mean the need for increased professionalism
among the incoming teaching community. If the objectives have to reflect
the new national and international needs will have to be integrated with to
local working conditions and be made more receptive to the realities of
Indian social context along with the requirements at international
competition.
We are aware that till today we followed independent programmes
of teacher education that varied form one system to another, the advent of
apex bodies for monitoring and controlling quality in teacher education
has helped to achieve certain degree of homogeneity in the objectives of
teacher education. What are the objectives of Teacher Education
programme at tertiary level ? How far these objectives be achieved is an
important introspection to be made by the teacher community.
Learning Outcomes :
At the end of this unit you
1) Shall be able to explain the important objectives of Teacher Education
at Tertiary Level.
2) Become aware of the objectives of Teacher Education at the tertiary
Level.
Objectives of Teacher Education Programmes :
163
To develop essential competencies and skills for curriculum
development, transaction and evaluation of Teacher Education
programme.
Inspire and demonstrate research based and reflective practices.
Able to share and use modern and applicable learning centred teaching
and assessment methods.
Develop among teachers commitment to scholarship of teaching and
learning in discipline and in the inter discipline scientific community.
Able to show and promote active participation in national and
international networks.
Develop abstract reasoning creative and critical thinking among the
students.
Build excitement and increase anticipation of professional educators
for the use of information and communication technology to enhance
instruction.
Identify computer and related technology resources for facilitating life
long learning and emerging roles of the learner and the educator.
Inspire students for higher and Independent study and promote library
and laboratory Skills to develop managerial and organizational skills
required for functioning of modern system of education.
To enable the perspective teacher educators to evolve need based and
culture specific pedagogogy.
To empower them to induce their students for self employment.
Develop insight among the students to transfer their vocational skills
in higher learning form one area to another.
To make them aware of national problems environmental crisis and
Indian cultural ethos.
To enable them to develop the spirit of self reliance and self
confidence.
To develop and inculcate the skills of problem solving and research
based activities.
Develop communication, psychomotor skills and abilities conducive
for human relations which enable to promote learning effectively.
To develop skills in making use of educational technology in teaching
vocational subjects by providing appropriate learning experiences.
To Develop skills cognitive and psychomotor for teaching academic /
Vocational subjects.
Activity : -
164
1) Compare the objectives of secondary education teacher education
programme with that of tertiary level. Bring out the similarities and
differences. (In about 150 Words)
2) Give an opportunity to be the Director of NCTE, how would set up
objectives for vocational courses. (In about 200 Words)
We have discussed about the various objectives related to tertiary
level. It has also dealt with objectives of vocational course. It is important
that the objectives like developing competencies and skill in transaction of
curriculum, development of scientific temper, identifying computer related
technology researches for facilitating life long learning. It has dealt with
library and laboratory skills. It had stressed need based and culture
specific pedagogy.
Question for Critical Reflection :
What is your opinion regarding the experience teachers can alone
mature enough to teach appropriately at higher education ? If yes justify
with your views what are the special required objectives at Tertiary Level?
6.4 STRUCTURE OF TEACHER EDUCATION
Introduction :
In the present world with advancement in science and
technology the teaching structure and models are prominent. The
structure of education system varies from states to national to
International scenario. The three levels of education system includes
primary education, secondary and higher education. The syllabus
curriculum do varies at different levels of education system it is
imperative that for the entire Indian education, is to bring the 2 stage
of education within the purview of school education and to give it a
vocational bias, This requires immediate attention be paid to the
development of functional teacher education programme at this
stage.
The tertiary teacher education programmes need different
structure present system need changes in the structure in order to
compete with other countries.
165
Learning Out Comes :-
At the end of this unit you will be able to
i) Differentiates the structure of teacher education programme with
secondary education.
ii) able to perceive the various courses in teacher education
programmes
Structure of Teacher education Programme and institutions at
Tertiary Level.
In this context that Teacher Education Frame work developed
by the NCTE in 1978 recommended the framing of functional
teacher education programme for the + 2 stage as well as for college
teachers. The framework suggested three structures of teacher
education programme for the +2 stage and for the collegiate stage.
Structure I
Modified version of secondary teacher education programme
and was meant for preparing post graduate teachers for the academic
stream.
Greater importance to pedagogical inputs
Specialize in only one subject
Structure II
As suggested for + 2 stage vocational stream
All the components of structure 1
Trainees for the vocational stream
Work experience programmes
Structure III
Importance to pedagogical theory and general methods of
teaching to college teachers
166
Duration <---- > One semester the structure of teacher
education at tertiary level means the logical arrangement of the
components of teacher education inclusive.
Teaching Skills.
Perpetuates objectives to individual and social development.
To generate teaching culture
STAGES OF STRUCTURE OF TEACHER EDUCATION :-
M. Ed. Teacher Education for those who have completed
L. T. or B. Ed. 1 Year Full Time.
M. Phill Completed M. Ed. Course teaching at higher
level 18 months
Ph. D. Doctor of Philosophy Research related aspect
M. A. Education Higher Education related course Research
Methodology (2 years)
Distance and open learning formal system of
education Department / University
B. Ed. Conventional System 1 Year
Open and Distance Learning 2 Year
Teaching Skills Teaching Objectives Teaching Culture
Methodology and
Teaching
Strategies
National
Goals and Values
Sociological
Values
Human Qualities
167
Courses / Subject Offered :-
Educational Sociology / Philosophy
Educational Psychology
School Management / Educational Evaluation
Information Communication Technology
Special fields in Education
Environmental Education
International Education
Languages / Social Science
Science and Mathematics
Economics And Commerce
M. Ed. Theory Dissertation
Methodology of Education
Problems in Any Educational area Research
Research Practical Work
6 Papers
Phill. Sociology Advanced Psychology
Teacher Education Management
Of Education Guidance Counselling
Educational Technology
Area M. Ed. M. Phill
a) Pedagogical Theory 1) Foundation Courses
20 %
2) Research Courses 20
%
3) Theoretical Course
60 % Research
Courses 20 %
4) Task Oriented
Courses 60 %
5) Any two areas of
specialization
Not Essential for M. Ed.
But needed For other
discus.
Research Courses 20%
Guidance and
Counselling
Action
Research
Rural
Development
Inclusive
Education
Computer
Education
168
3) Interdisciplinary four years integrated course related to Teacher
Education Programme
B. Sc. (Ed) M. A. (Ed.)
B. A. (Ed) M. Sc. (Ed.)
M. A. (Education) 2 years (Open and Distance Learning)
MATE Master of Arts in Teacher Education (Sri Lanka)
M. Phill - Those who have passed B. Ed / B. Phil
Topics Like Research Methodology and tools
* Educational Organization and Administration
* Teacher Education
Designing of Curriculum
Ph. D Study of significant problem presenting
solution, collecting data analyzing and
interpreting it statistically
M. A. T. E. Master of Arts in Teacher Education Related to
teach Education programme
P. G. D. H. E. Post graduate Diploma in Higher Education
Ignou / Distance Education
Activity If you were to be an authorized faculty in
U. G. C. N. C. E. R. T. how would you structure
and design Teacher Education Courses ?
(In about 150 Words)
List Out the probable programmes launched for teacher training
at tertiary level ?
* Social Understanding
* Leadership Traits
* Creativity Development
* Progressive Attitude
Teaching Skills
Teaching Objectives
Teaching Culture
Core Skills / Special Skills
Identifying, analyzing,
Solving skills
169
( In about 200 Words )
We have discussed about the structure of teacher education
programmes at tertiary level. The structure of teacher education
includes teaching skills, objectives, to individual and social
development and to generate teaching culture. It has highlighted the
courses like. M. Ed. M. Phil Ph. D where in the course content like
research methodology in the form of research is very important, the
course duration varies in formal and Distance Education It elaborates
pedagogical and specialization thus the structure varies in different
system of education.
Questions for reflective / Entical Reflection :
Enumerate the importance of vocational education at tertiary
teacher education programme.
What are the other courses can be included in teacher training
programmes at Tertiary Level of teaching
6.5 CURRICULUM FOR TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMME AT
TERTIARY LEVEL :
Introduction :
The implications of the paradigm shift for curricula in
institution of higher education in general and Teacher Education in
particular are far reaching . Humanities curriculum of the past has
undergone progressive diversification in order to meet contemporary
needs courses in science and technology, business and commerce
have been directly or indirectly located with in the curriculum of
arts. Commerce and science courses have become more holistic.
The other expectations is to make Teacher Education globally
relevant with learner centred pedagogy and objective continuous
assessment
Curriculum of T. E. Programme at Tertiary Level
Over Reaching Goals / Objectives
Specialized Studies :
Language Studies
170
Career Preparation
Global Issues
Choice Based Optional
Learning Outcomes :
At the end of this Unit you will be able to
Analyse the Importances and parameters that helps to prepare
curriculum for teacher education at tertiary level.
Able to explain the importance of theory and practical aspects of
curriculum for teacher education.
Able to suggest other components required while framing
curriculum.
Need Based curriculum :

The primary purpose of teaching education curriculum in our
country is to prepare teacher for the different school levels. The
concept of teacher preparation for higher education has not gathered
enough momentum An ideal teacher education curriculum should be
deduced from the professional competencies to be required and the
roles to be performed and the habits attitudes and values to acquire.
The great and general complaint about the school curricula is that
they are overloaded. This is often due to the non involvements of
teachers in the process of curriculum development and in the
preparation of textual material and also to the rigid nature of the
curriculum document.
Quality Curriculum :
The quality curriculum is one which has the potential to
realize its stated objectives with minimum efforts. In this context of
teacher education a quality curriculum stands for its ability to
develop professionally competent teachers within the assigned time
for the operation. The quality of curriculum refers to its attributes are
in corporated in its development. As the existing curriculum in
higher education is mostly non functional, it ought to be
restructured. At may be well be made to respond to the challenges
enumerated to avoid the pitfalls Apart from the Apex bodies like
NCERT and NCET, Curriculum building should be more democratic
in spirit in corporating the suggestions from social workers,
psychologists, eminent persons in the various field.
171
Preparation of final draft curricula only after extensive
deliberation of subject teachers at grass root level. Integration,
inter-disciplination components are essential in framing
curriculum.
Creation of an atmosphere in the colleges conducive to
participation in such academic activities and the appreciation
and recognition of the teachers in teacher education work would
be a motivating factor.
It is clearly reflected that the curriculum component should
includes science and technology with prime importance to
recognition subjects keeping the local and international scenario.
Need based curriculum catering to the needs of both rural and
urban folks.
The syllabus preparation should coordinate with management
and industrial requirement is essential. It should coinage /
synchronizes with what you learn and how you apply in your
future work oriented adjustment.
Different aspects of Curriculum of Tertiary Level
TEACHER EDUCATION : CURRICULUM
Languages Science Maths
I.C.T. (E.T.) Education Field Work
Vocational Courses General
Education
Curriculum
Designing
Education
Management
Research Project Intereerated Courses
a) Pedagogic Theory
b) Working with Community
Theory
Papers
Practical
Work
Research Extension
Programmes
172
c) Content Cum Methodology
Content of Integrated Programme :
Curriculum Frame work :-
Higher Education states problems and issues
Research Methodology
Methods of Teaching of a subject at + 2 stage
Information and communication Technology
Management of Education
Planning and Finance
Innovations in Education
Physical education
Environmental Education and Computer Education
Practical Work :-
Specialization Additional Specialization
Content
Professional Education General Education
173
Vocational Stream :
Theory Practical Components
Management
Project formulation
Computer Education
Marketing and Advertising
Entrepreneurship /
Organizational Behavior
Working with computers
Projects imparting
vocational Education
Formulating and
Implementing Projects
Research Based Curriculum at Tertiary Education :
The curriculum must cater to the needs of higher education
learners by making research as a compulsory component which
should be conducted at two levels.
Organizing on the job
training workshop /
practices
Project work in
every Subject
(Research Based)
Preparation and
use of
instructional
technology
Library and
Laboratory Work
Sessional and
Practical Work
Field Work
Problem Solving
Approach
Action Research
Development Stage Implementation Stage
174
Action Research :
It is considered to be of high Pragmatic Value > teachers to
find a practical solution to the problem faced. It can be done in the
field of special education general / inclusive set up.
Case Studies :
The curriculum in Teacher Education programme to provide
insight into the severity of the problems
Studies to test the effectiveness of various approaches to
strengthen teaching learning process.
Experimental :
Descriptive Research methods
Role and Implementing ICT based curriculum :
Integration of information and communication Technology in
the curriculum at tertiary level is vital. In this era of e-education,
e-business and e-administration in cybernetic society. The ICT
knowledge be highlighted, the curriculum should comprise of
examples of ICT use be prominent.
ICT
The use of multimedia like television, tele-conferencing,
radio counseling, video counseling, computer assisted instruction,
use of hard ware and soft ware in computer technology is essential.
The preparation of power point presentation has become a common
phenomena in the present system of education.
The use of multimedia like television, teleconferencing, radio
counseling, Video counseling, computer Assisted instruction, use of
Theoretical Practical
175
hard ware and software in computer technology is essential. The
preparation of power point presentation has become a common
phenomena in the present system of education .
Activity :
Compare the existing curriculum of teacher education at
tertiary level with those of secondary education bring out the
similarities and differences ( in about 150 words)
________________ ________________ ________________
________________ ________________ ________________
________________ ________________ ________________
List out the methods of transaction of curriculum (Subject) in your
teaching in what way you feel more creative than your
colleagues.
..(in about 200
words)
We have discussed the curriculum different ways of
designing and organizing curriculum be the frame work of
curriculum at tertiary level. The curriculum should be need based
entering to the Local level to global level. The teacher education
curriculum composes of pedagogic theory to technological aspect,
the research based working with community, content cum
methodology, curriculum should reflect general and professional
education, Theory with practical is an essential components of any
curriculum.
Questions for critical reflection :
1. How do you define hidden curriculum with regard to tertiary
education in our country?
2. What are the major implications of college curriculum reforms
for reform of teacher education syllabus at Tertiary level?
3. Teachers must involve in framing curriculum for college level
compulsorily justify the statement.
TEACHER AT THE TERTIARY LEVEL :
When we talk of sustenance of quality and professional
development, it implies strengthening and sharpening of the
professional competencies of understanding and insights concerning
various intricacies of a profession. Professional development leads to
176
job satisfaction and helps the professional to attain higher degree of
self actualization. Teacher and teaching at tertiary level is much
more responsible in the art and science of teaching. It is imperative
for every teacher to reassess and reflect professional competence and
identify and provide input programme for up dating them in terms of
new professional needs, apart from routine teaching in form
institutionalized in service education, A teacher can make use of
multiple alternate modalities to upgrade and update knowledge and
professional skills. This can be tackled once teachers make use of
Research facilities provided by universities.
Institutional interlinking and interaction with reputed institutions
functioning every where.
Latest development from the internet
Teacher exchange and membership on professional
organizations.
Attending state sponsored formal in service education
programme.
Learning outcomes :-
Once you complete the learning of this unit you should be able to
Critically analyse the existing programmes meant for
professional development of teacher educators in our country.
Reflect on the various skills required to become a competent and
competitive teacher educator.
Explain the essential features of professionally organized in
service education programme.
Competencies and Role of Teacher Educator:
is a
Promotes
is
Uses
Competent
Teacher In an
academic
discipline
TERTIARY
EDU
Creative Develop Research
based
reflective
demonstrator
Comitted
Scholarship
Active
Participation in
National and
International
networking
Modern
Learning
Centred
Teaching and
Assessment
method Tools
177
How to develop qualities competencies :
The teacher at tertiary level is expected to play the role of
counselor, guide and humanistic provided he / she firstly involve in
the study habits like.
Self study and self improvement
It is one of the most effective tools for achieving the
professional growth. Every individual is free to choose reading
material and learning time as per once need a teacher has to remain
in touch with the latest developments and publications in the area of
interests and professional needs. Learning the treasure within are
examples of UNESCO publication of education has to be
acquainted. There are certain standard publications, research
journals, management of education teaching methodologies be read
continuously. The latest events and changes in the national and
international area be kept in mind. Thus self study leads to self
improvement by updating knowledge and professional skills from
others and develop self study habits.
In service education and training
This is one area where teachers should make utmost use of in
service education training. There is worth attending a routine,
mechanical educational in service education programme, on the
other hand In service education must be an investment ensure to
yield appropriate returns in the form of
Assessment of training needs
The effectiveness of an in service programme depends on the
appropriateness of the training content, quality of the trainers,
availability and utilization of essential support and equipments
178
randomly selected course topic will be futile. The content relevant to
the objectives of training and has the potential to meet the training
needs of the target group. A content is appropriate if it helps in
solving difficult problems related with teacher education and will
help in the teaching practice. The content should be interested and
the area be explored by conducting research be it action research or
Descriptive scientific research. Training needs be assessed by the
following manner.
Expert comments by experts / researchers attending the in
service programme
Identifying areas of teacher performance which attract large
scale public critisam
Preparation of training curriculum
While preparing curriculum during in service training
programme, adequate practical exercises should be included in the
course subject content and its pedagogy. Each major unit is to be
conducted using the distance education mode of instruction along
with IT support, the objectives to be achieved and strategies
recommended for the transaction of the unit should be identified and
an instructional model be developed to facilitate self study.
Organization of training
The Resource persons should be thoroughly oriented on the
objectives, content and methodology of training. The course material
distributed to the teachers should be made available for personal use
and reference. The physical arrangement be made appropriately.
Appraisal of training
A variety of techniques could be used to appraise the quality
of training sessions by expert evaluators, quality of curriculum
transaction in different sessions. The result of assessment should be
utilized for designing new programmes.
Study Visit :-
In order to widen the mental horizon of the teachers a visit to
institutions like NIEP / NCERT / RTE will acquaint teacher with the
progressive practices adopted by those institutions Discussion with
the subject experts will help to develop new ideas about the teacher
education.
Study circles and book clubs :-
179
In order to upgrade their professional competence the teacher
educators should seek membership in study circles and book clubs.
Latest developments, researches, current issues and problems
pertaining to teacher education.
Seminar presentation :-
Teacher education institutions need to encourage and
motivate for seminar presentations. The like minded institutions be
invited to participate. It would be useful if the theme may be
research study conducted by any teacher educator, it is an
opportunity for every teacher educator to participate in involve in
presentation.
Conferences / Seminars :-
The teacher educator can gain competency by participating
and presenting paper in seminar and conferences and sponsored by
UGC and other noted apex bodies of education. The faculty of
teacher educator institutions should collaborate to conduct The
teacher educator seminar conferences can benefit from the seminar
by exchanging new ideas from other participants.
The teacher competences be developed as suggested by
NCTE (1998)
Contextual content
Teaching learning material
Conceptual Educational activities
Management , Evaluation Working with parents
Working with community
A competent and confident teacher needs to build personal
and professional skills while competing with others at national and
international level if he / she develop.
emphasis on thoughts and broad altitudes towards students and
field of knowledge
focuses on group discussion particular Lecture Associative
discussion
Excel and enhances quality if analyses,
SWOT, Intercollgial audits, information system, quality hand
book,
180
Research is one of the most essential areas where teacher
educator should work on action research, problem solving and other
related project activity
ACTIVITY :-
1. How do you justify the prior assessment of training needs for an
in service training programme intended for teacher educator
emphasized ?
__________ ___________ ____________ ____________
___________ ___________ ____________ ____________
___________ ___________ ____________ ____________
___________ ___________ ____________ ____________
[ in about 150 words ]
2. Write down your views and opinion after attending the refresher
course.
Recommend your colleagues from different disciplines to attend
the refresher course -------------- how would you convince them?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6.7 LET US SUM UP :
In this unit we have discussed about the professional
development of a teacher educator. It obviously implies further
enrichment of teachers knowledge about theories and practices.
How a teacher educator develops competitive skill by updating
knowledge and understanding of the content, pedagogy, various
strategies for professional development, the teacher educator at
tertiary level should perform his / her role by using positive and
constructive skills, commitment to profession, in-depth learning
habits, self study attending in service Programme, The utility of
attending workshops and seminars. Presentation skills can be
developed by participating in such academic activities.
Questions for critical Reflection :-
1. What parameters do you keep in mind while teaching at tertiary
level related ICT?
2. How do you create interest and motivate students to do research
activity on their using different methods of research activity
using different methods of research?
Suggested reading :
181
Arora G.L. Panda Pranati (eds) 2001. Fifty years of teacher
education in India. Post independence development, New Delhi,
NCERT (mimeo).
Liberman (1992) Building professional culture in schools and
colleges, New York, Teachers college press.
NCTE (1998) competency based and commitment oriented,
teacher education for quality college education, New Delhi
NCTE
S.K. Singh, Role of educated, competent teacher in upliftment of
the weak students.
Quality of Higher Education A new paradigm.
182
7A
MAJOR ISSUES AND PROBLEMS OF
TEACHER EDUCATION
Unit Structure
7.A.0 Objectives
7.A.1 Introduction
7.A.2 Issues in Teacher Education
7.A.3 Problems of Teacher Education
7.A.4 Suggestions for improving the condition of Teacher
Education
7.A.5 Maintaining standards in Teacher Education
7.A.5.1 Admission Policies and Procedures for student
teachers
7.A.5.2 Recruitment of Teacher educators
7.A.6 Service conditions of Teacher Educators
7.A.6.1 Terms and Conditions of Service
7.A.7 Quality Management of Teacher Education
7.A.7.1 Concept of Quality
7.A.7.2 Characteristics of Quality
7.A.7.3 Principles of Quality
7.A.7.4 Quality in Education
7.A.7.5 Quality Management in Teacher Education
7.A.8 Let us Sum up
7.A.0 OBJECTIVES :
Know the issues and problems of teacher education.
State about the admission policies of procedures of teacher
education.
Explain about the recruitment of teacher educators.
Realize the Service condition of Teacher Educators.
Explain the terms and conditions of service.
Define quality.
183
Discuss about quality management of teacher education.
There are many problems and issues plaguing the system of
teacher education. Teacher preparation has been a subject of
discussion at all levels, from the government, ministries, regulatory
bodies, schools, to teachers themselves.
7.A.2 ISSUES IN TEACHER EDUCATION
Major issues in teacher education concern the following:
Proliferation of Colleges of Education
Isolation of Colleges of Education
Regional imbalances
Alternative modes of teacher education
Duration of teacher education programmes
Examination system
Further there are issues related to the quality of the teacher education
Curriculum
Personal and social skills
Competencies
Subject knowledge
ICT skills
Context sensitivity
New pedagogy for the global world
7.A.3 PROBLEMS OF TEACHER EDUCATION :
1. Several types of teacher education institutions thereby lacking
in uniformity.
2. Poor standards with respect to resources for colleges of
education.
3. Unhealthy financial condition of the colleges of education
4. Incompetent teacher educators resulting in deficiency of
scholars.
5. Negative attitude of managements towards development of
both human as well as material resources.
6. Uniform education policy of the government treating
excellent institutions alike.
7. Improper selection of the candidates (student teachers) to be
admitted.
184
8. Traditional curriculum and teaching methods of teaching in
the teacher education programme.
9. Inadequate duration of the teacher programme.
10.Haphazard and improper organization of teacher education.
11.Unplanned and insufficient co-curricular activities.
12.Subjective evaluation pattern.
13.Practice teaching neither adequate nor properly conducted.
14.Feedback mechanisms lacking.
15.Objectives of teacher education not understood.
16.Secondary level teacher education is not the concern of higher
education.
17.Lack of dedication towards the profession.
18.Lack of occupational perception
7.A.4 SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVING THE
CONDITION OF TEACHER EDUCATION :
There are some suggestions here for improving the condition of
teacher education:
1. Teacher education, like higher education and technical
education must be the responsibility of the central
government.
2. Uniformity among teacher education institutions must be
ensured and maintained in terms of curriculum, duration and
timings of the programme.
3. Curriculum development on a continuing basis to keep pace
with current trends.
4. Government should look after the financial requirements of
the institutions.
5. Teacher educators must be well qualified and experienced
with language proficiency.
6. Teacher educators to be trained in the use of ICTs.
7. Privatization of teacher education should be regulated.
8. Institutes of low standards should be reformed or closed.
9. Conditions for affiliation should be made strict.
10.Regular and rigorous inspection by NCTE should be done on
a regular basis.
11.Selection procedure must be improved and interviews, group
discussions along with common entrance test and marks
should be introduced.
12.Duration of teacher education should be increased to two
years.
13.More emphasis should be given on practice teaching till
mastery is reached with appropriate feedback.
185
14.Internship should be of sufficient time (six months) and
student teachers must be exposed to the full functioning of the
school.
15.Evaluation in teacher education should be objective, reliable
and valid.
16.Teacher pupil ratio should be ideally 1:8.
17.Several types of co-curricular activities should be included in
the curriculum.
18.Professional development of teacher educators as ongoing
ritual.
19.Refresher course should be organized frequently for teacher
educators.
20.Research in teacher education should be encouraged.
21.Number of teaching days to be increased to 230 per year.
7.A.5 MAINTAINING STANDARDS IN TEACHER
EDUCATION :
The two key players in teacher education are the Student
teachers and teacher educators. The selection of both is very
important for making successful teachers, who are responsible for
the education of millions across the country. These issues need to be
dealt with in details.
7.A.5.1. Admission Policies and Procedures for Student Teachers
Qualifying marks 50% at the graduate level and an entrance
exam (CET).
The candidate must have studied at least two school subjects
at the graduation level.
It is unfortunate that the teacher in the making should possess
only 50% of knowledge in the subject of his specialization. How is it
possible for such a candidate to teach concepts which perhaps they
themselves have not studied or understood? Content knowledge of
such teachers will remain poor. By adding subject mastery at the
B.Ed. level is ideal provided the duration of the B.Ed. course is
increased. An integrated B.A. B.Ed. / B.Sc. / B.Ed. / B.Com. B.Ed.
of four years duration after higher secondary is the right way to do
this.
The Common entrance Test (CET) does not really test the
candidates aptitude for teaching or attitude towards teaching. An
interview, group discussions essay writing would enable to
186
understand the readiness of the candidate as well his attitude and
communication skills.
7.A.5.2. Recruitment of Teacher Educators :
Qualifications prescribed for teaching positions in the
Regulations of NCTE are as follows:
(i) Principal / Head (in multi-faculty institution) :
a. Academic and professional qualification will be as prescribed for
the post of lecture;
b. Ph.D. in Education and.
c. Ten years teaching experience out of which at least five years
teaching experience in a Secondary Teacher Educational
Institution.
d. A minimum score as stipulated in the Academic Performance
Indicator (API) based.
(ii) Assistant Professor:
(a) Foundation Courses
i) Masters Degree in Science / Humanities / arts with 50% marks
ii) M. Ed. With at least 55% marks or its equivalent grade and
Indicator (API) based
OR
i) M.A. in Education with 55% marks or its equivalent grade
ii) B.Ed. with at least 55% marks and
187
(b) Methodology Courses
i) Masters degree in subject with 50% marks
ii) M. Ed. degree with at least 55% marks or its equivalent grade
and
Having obtained 55% at Master of Education level and 50%
at Masters level or 55% at M.A. Education and B.Ed. and qualified
the NET/SET exam teacher educators become eligible to apply in a
College of Education. This is followed by an interview. Success at
the interview forms the basis of appointment. Some institutions
appoint teacher educators without the NET/SET qualification,
thereby paying less salary.
Qualifications For M. Ed. Course :
(i)Professor / Head:
M. Ed. each with a minimum of 55% marks OR M. A.
(Education) with 55% marks and B. Ed each with a minimum
of 55% marks
of education or College of Education of which a minimum of 5
years at the M. Ed. level with published work in the area of his
specialization.
(ii) Associate Professor:
188
M. Ed. each with a minimum of 55% marks or its equivalent
55% marks
of education or College of Education which a minimum of 3
years at the M. Ed. level and published work in his area of
specialization.
(iii) Assistant Professor:
M. Ed. each with a minimum of 55% marks or it equivalent
55% marks
ii) Any other stipulation prescribed by the UGC in the general
iii) A minimum score as stipulated in the Academic Performance
Once again having obtained 55% at Master of Education level
and 50% at Masters level or 55% at M.A. Education and B.Ed. and
qualified the NET/SET exam teacher educators become eligible to
apply in the University Department of Education. This is followed
by an interview. Success at the interview forms the basis of
appointment.
There are many problems and issues faced by the system of
teacher education. An in depth look at them and a serious thought to
experimenting with the suggested solutions may help to bring about
a change in the system.
1. Suggest a detailed procedure for selection of students for the
B.Ed. programme.
189
2. Suggest appropriate qualifications for teacher educators at the
B.Ed. and M.Ed. levels. How can the system of teacher educator
recruitment be made more stringent?
7.A.6 SERVICE CONDITIONS OF TEACHER
EDUCATORS :
The expectations with regard to teachers role in the
education of children are very high. This in turn places high
expectations from the teacher education system. Teacher educators
working in unaided schools often face several disadvantages as
compared to aided schools. Incidents of exploitation by the
managements in terms of low salaries, no emoluments, long working
hours, no job security are plenty. The government has made attempts
to regulate the functioning of private institutions. However,
existence of mere laws is a not sufficient guarantee against teacher
exploitation. Therefore, selection procedures, probation period,
promotion, job security, emoluments and salaries, leaves and
professional development of the teacher educators need to be taken
care of.
7.A.6.1 Terms and Conditions of Service :
As per the National Council for Teacher Education, the norms
and standards for the Master of Education programme leading to
Master of Education (M.Ed.) degree terms and conditions of service
of teacher educators are:
a. The appointment shall be made on the basis of
per the policy of the UGC/Affiliating University.
190
b. All appointments are to be made on full-time and regular
basis.
c. Appointment of supporting shall be made as per the norms of
the UGC/University concerned.
d. The academic and other staff of the institution (including
part-time staff) shall be paid such salary in such scale of pay
as may be the UGC/University concerned from time to time
through account payee cheque or as per the advice into the
Bank account of the employee.
e. The management of the institution shall discharge the
statutory duties relating to pension, gratuity, provident fund,
etc. for its employees.
f. The age of superannuation of the staff shall be determined by
the policy of the concerned Government.
g. The reservation for SC/ST/OBC and other categories shall be
as per the rules of the Central Government/ State Government
Following aspects as stipulated by the UGC should be
adhered to bring transparency into the system of education and the
service conditions of the teacher educators.
The Selection Procedure: The overall selection procedure
should be transparent, objective and credible. Methodology of
analysis of the merits and credentials of the applicants should be
based on weightages given to the performance of the candidate in
different relevant dimensions and his/her performance on a scoring
system proforma, based on the Academic Performance Indicators
(API) as provided by the UGC.
In order to make the system more credible, universities may
assess the ability for teaching and/or research aptitude through a
seminar or lecture in a class room situation or discussion on the
capacity to use latest technology in teaching and research at the
interview stage.
These procedures can be followed for both direct recruitment
and for promotions under the Career Advancement Scheme (CAS)
191
wherever selection committees are prescribed in these Regulations.
UGC observer in the selection committee for the post of Associate
Professor/Professor under CAS . In all the selection Committees of
direct recruitment of teachers and other academic staff in universities
and colleges, an academician representing SC/ST/OBC/Minority/
Women/Differently-abled categories should be present to ensure
fairness.
Pay scales, designations and promotion: under CAS of Incumbent
and newly appointed assistant professors/ associate
Professors/professors
Increments: Each annual increment shall be equivalent to 3% of the
sum total of pay in the relevant Pay Band and the AGP as applicable
for the stage in the Pay Band.
Allowances: Allowances such as Leave Travel Concession, Special
Compensatory Allowances, Childrens Education Allowance,
Transport Allowance, House Rent Allowance, Deputation
Allowance, Traveling Allowance, Dearness Allowance, area based
Special Compensatory Allowance etc. as applicable to teachers has
to be given.
Duty Leave, Study Leave, Sabbatical Leave:
(i) Duty leave of the maximum of 30 days in an academic year may
be granted for: (a) Attending conferences, symposia and seminars on
behalf of the university or with the permission of the university; (b)
delivering lectures in institutions and universities at the invitation of
such institutions or universities ; (c) working in another Indian or
foreign university, any other agency, institution or organization,
when so deputed by the university; (d) participating in a delegation
or working on a committee appointed by the Government of India,
State Government, the University Grants Commission, a sister
university or any other academic body, and (e) For performing any
other duty for the university. The leave may be granted on full pay,
provided that if the teacher receives a fellowship or honorarium or
any other financial assistance beyond the amount needed for normal
expenses.
(ii) Study leave may be granted after a minimum of 3 years of
continuous service, to pursue a special line of study or research
directly related to his/her work in the university or to make a special
study of the various aspects of university organization and methods
of education. In respect of granting study leave with pay for
acquiring Ph.D. in the relevant discipline while in service, the
number of years to be put in after entry would be a minimum of two
years or the years of probation specified in the university statutes
192
concerned, keeping in mind the availability of vacant positions for
teachers and other cadres in colleges and universities, so that a
teacher and other cadres entering service without Ph.D. or higher
qualification could be encouraged to acquire these qualifications in
the relevant disciplines at the earliest rather than at a later stage of
the career.
(iii) Sabbatical leave is granted to Permanent, whole-time teachers
of the university who have completed seven years of service as
Reader/Associate Professor or Professor to undertake study or
research or other academic pursuit solely for the object of increasing
their proficiency and usefulness to the university and higher
education system. The duration of leave shall not exceed one year at
a time and two years in the entire career of a teacher. A teacher, who
has availed himself/herself of study leave, would not be entitled to
the sabbatical leave. A teacher is paid full pay and allowances during
the period of sabbatical leave along with the increment on the due
date. The period of leave is also counted as service for purposes of
pension/contributory provident fund, provided that the teacher
rejoins the university on the expiry of his/her leave.
Research Promotion Grant: The UGC or the respective funding
agency (Central/State Governments) provides a start-up grant at the
level of Rs.3.0 lakhs in Social Sciences, Humanities and Languages,
and Rs.6.0 lakhs for the disciplines in Sciences and Technology to
teachers and other non vocational academic staff through the
respective universities to take up research immediately after their
appointments which should facilitate such new appointees for
generating major sponsored research proposals/grants for the
respective departments/ schools/ universities.
Incentives For Ph.D / M.Phil and other Higher Qualification: Five
non-compounded advance increments are admissible at the entry
level of recruitment as Assistant Professor to persons possessing the
degree of Ph.D. awarded in a relevant discipline by the University
following the process of admission, registration, course work and
external evaluation as prescribed by the UGC. M.Phil. degree
holders at the time of recruitment to the post of Assistant Professor
shall be entitled to two non-compounded advance increments.
Teachers who complete their Ph.D. Degree while in service shall be
entitled to 3 noncompounded increments if such Ph.D. is in a
relevant discipline of the employment and has been awarded by a
University complying with the process prescribed by the UGC for
enrolment, course work and evaluation, etc. Teachers who acquire
M.Phil. Degree or a post graduate degree in a professional course
193
recognized by the relevant statutory Body/Council, while in service,
shall be entitled to one advance increment.
The government has made attempts to regulate the
functioning of private institutions. However, existence of mere laws
is not sufficient guarantee against teacher exploitation. Therefore,
selection procedures, probation period, promotion, job security,
emoluments and salaries, leaves and professional development of the
teacher educators need to be taken care of. UGC has stipulated in all
these aspects. It is important that they are followed in spirit and
action leading to a satisfied faculty.
1. Under what conditions can duty leave be availed of?
2. Analyze the incentives given to teachers to work towards their
professional development?
194
7.A.7 QUALITY MANAGEMENT OF TEACHER
EDUCATION :
According to Jan D. Timmer quality is a state of mindthe
relentless pursuit of excellence, of never being satisfied with what
you do, how you do it and how quickly you do it. There is always
room for improvement. Everything can always be done better.
Quality should be a part of our soul. Quality is perceived differently
by different people. Quality is not something that is bestowed by
others, it is attained and maintained as a result of ceaseless efforts.
Quality of a product may be good for one but not for another
because it does not serve the purpose.
7.A.7.1 Concept of Quality :
organization or entity. Consumers look at these elements in deciding
whether or not to buy particular products or services.
According to Bennis (1993) Quality often is not measured at
all, but is appreciated intuitively. Ones response to quality is a
feeling, a perception that is connected intimately with our experience
of meaning, beauty and values in our lives.
Quality has been defined by several management experts. The
dictionary meaning of quality is the degree of excellence. Juran
says quality is fitness of purpose i.e. something is of good quality
if it satisfies ones need. Deming is of the opinion that quality is a
positive concept. Product or service which helps someone and
enjoys good sustainable markets is of good quality. According to
Crosby if a product or service conforms to requirements then it is
said to be of good quality. Seymour opines that quality is
continuous improvement.
Quality and excellence are often used synonymously. In a
sense, they trigger the same response when they are experienced.
Gardener (1961), who wrote a seminal book on excellence, makes
the point that there are many kinds of excellenceacademic,
professional, artistic, athletic and so on. Some form of excellence is
fostered through education, some is not; some kind of excellence
leads to worldly success, some does not; some form of excellence
involves becoming while some involves being, excellence involves
comparison, either with others or with oneself; excellence indicates
action (it does not just happen) and requires the exercise of human
will. That explains the frequently used expressionsthe pursuit of
excellence and the quest for quality. There can be poor quality, but
not poor excellence.
195
In recent times some themes have become more significant
including quality culture, the importance of knowledge management,
and the role of leadership in promoting and achieving high quality.
Disciplines like systems thinking are bringing more holistic
approaches to quality so that people, process and products are
considered together rather than independent factors in quality
management. The influence of quality thinking has spread to nontraditional
applications i.e. manufacturing, to service sectors such
as hospitality, transport, and even education.
Customers recognize that quality is an important attribute in
products and services. Suppliers recognize that quality can be an
important differentiator between their own offerings and those of
competitors. Applying this to the field of education, the customers
of education, the students, parents and future employers recognize
the importance of quality students i.e. the products of the system. In
this sense the different educational institutions must provide the best
of courses, and training in order to meet the demands of the students
and future employers and try to give better opportunities than other
competing institutions. From this discussion it is possible to identify
certain characteristic of quality.
7.A.7.2 Characteristics of Quality :
Quality is a matter of perception, not logic. It is the perception
that resides outside the product, service or organization. Peter
Drucker (1990) says the results of an organization are always
outside the organisation. Inside, there are only costs. The result
of a business is a satisfied customer, the result of a hospital is a
healed patients and the result of an educational institution is a
student who has something of value which he/she can use ten
years later. Thus, quality is perceived by the consumer.
Quality is relative and not absolute: It is a matter of degree.
Theoretically, there are no maximum or minimum limits. Quality
improvement, like pursuit of excellence, is a journey without a
destination. There is nothing that cannot be little better in some
way or the other.
Quality is subjective: The criteria for judging quality can be
substantially different from people to people, based on
experience, values and culture.
Quality is a contextual idea: Indicators of quality are institution
specific. A high rate of job placement of graduates is a legitimate
indicator of quality for vocational-technical-professional
196
education programmes, but would not hold for humanities and
liberal arts education. Each institution has a mission, a clear
understanding of what it is, why it exists and what its primary
obligation is. All functions and activities are informed by this
mission. Assessment of performance and quality are valid only in
terms of mission and goals.
Quality can be measured inferentially: Like intelligence,
motivation, attitude and other educational outcomes indicators of
quality are established that serve as a basis of measurement.
Quality is attainable: quality is not something that is bestowed
by others it is attained and maintained as a result of ceaseless
striving (Sapre 1999)
Quality is applicable to the system and its parts: Quality is
applied to each component of a system i.e. input-process-output.
7.A.7.3 Principles of Quality :
Quality management adopts a number of management
principles that can be used by upper management to guide their
organizations towards improved performance. The principles are:
Customer focus
Leadership
Involvement of people
Process approach
System approach to management
Continual improvement
Factual approach to decision making
Mutually beneficial supplier relationships
1) Define quality. Explain the characteristics of quality.
197
2) Apply the quality principle to education.
7.A.7.4 Quality in Education :
Quality has become a defining element of education in the
21st century in the context of new social realities. The information
communication revolution, the knowledge economy and
globalization are greatly influencing the next society.
How to provide quality education to large numbers at
affordable costs is the primary concern of developing countries.
Quality makes education as much socially relevant as it is
personally indispensible to the individuals. In this sense quality
becomes the defining element of education. In this context, quality
and excellence should be the vision of every higher education
institution including teacher education. Acquisition of quality and
excellence is the great challenge faced by all higher education
institutions.
7.A.7.5 Quality Management in Teacher Education :
Applied to the field of Teacher Education, quality refers to
the totality of features and characteristics of the student teacher
acquired as a result of the teachers education programme. If the
expectations of the schools, students, parents and the society are met
that indicates that the right type of teachers have been prepared by
the teacher education institutions. And if the teachers continue to
improve themselves then there is value addition in education
(Feigenbaum, 1951). Such teachers will continue to meet the needs
of the society. There is fitness of educational outcome and
experience for use (Juran and Gryna 1988). There will be defect
avoidance in education process (Crosby 1979) of teachers in a
quality teacher education institution.
In any educational institution there are three aspects to be
managed-academic, administrative and financial. Besides these there
198
are the human and physical resources to be managed to their
optimum level. In other words management of input-processproduct
is of utmost concern of the system of teacher education. If
every component is of good quality then the final product i.e. the
teacher will be perceived as fulfilling the needs of the consumers.
Quality in teacher education can be indicated by the
educatedness of the products of the institution i.e. the student
teachers. Quality teachers are indicated by their educatedness
that they have achieved through their education and training.
The teachers are well informed and possess knowledge about
facts figures, concepts in their subjects. They are cultured and
possess integrated personality which is warm, empathetic and
ethical. One level ahead of being cultured is emancipation
wherein teachers are individuals who rise above the known
artificial boundaries of religion, caste, creed, gender, linguistic
and geographic belongingness, social mores, cultural traditions
and forms and treat their students fairly. Finally, teachers
should achieve the best of potential already in them. However, if
the following questions are answered by the educational
institutions in general they will be able to achieve quality.
1. What key outcomes have we achieved?
2. How well do we meet the needs of our stakeholders?
3. How good is our delivery of education processes?
4. How good is our management?
5. How good is our leadership?
6. What is our capacity for improvement?
Quality Indicators for Teacher Education (NAAC)
Curriculum Design and Planning
Curriculum Transaction and Evaluation
Research, Development and Extension
Infrastructure and Learning Resources
Student Support and Progression
Organisation and Management
organization or entity. Quality is a matter of perception, it is relative,
199
subjective, attainable, measured inferentially, and is applicable to the
system and its parts. Providing quality education to large numbers at
affordable costs is the primary concern of developing countries. If
the expectations of the schools, students, parents and the society are
met that indicates that the right type of teachers have been prepared
by the teacher education institutions to impart quality education. The
three aspects to be managed are academic, administrative and
financial as well as the human and physical resources. In other
words management of input-process-product is of utmost concern of
the system of teacher education.
1. Identify some aspects of your institution that need to improve.
Apply the principles of quality management to improve those
aspects.
2. Elaborate the quality indicators for teacher education.
3. What are the indicators of a quality teacher?
200
In this unit, we have discussed some of the issues & problems
of Teacher Education. We also have discussed how to improve upon
these conditions. Maintaining standards of teacher education is
possible by following proper admission procedures & proper
recruitment of teacher educators. We can manage & maintain
quality in teacher education by following the quality indicators given
by NAAC.
References :
1. Norms and Standards for Bachelor of Education and Master of
Education UGC/NCTE website. Accessed in 2008.
2. University Grants Commission (1990) Towards New Educational
Management New Delhi UGC.
3. NCTE Website
4. UGC Website
5. Paul H. Selden (December 1998). "Sales Process Engineering:
An Emerging Quality Application". Quality Progress: 5963.
6. Mukhopadhaya M. (2007) Quality Management of Schools, New
Delhi, NIEPA
7. Menon Mohan, K. Rama, T. K. S. Lakshmi and Vasant D. Bhat
(Edrs) (2007) Quality Indicators for Teacher Education,
Bangalore, National Assessment and Accreditation Council
(NAAC), India and the Commonwealth of Learning (COL),
Canada.
8. Thareja P (2008), "Total Quality Organization Thru People,
Each one is Capable", FOUNDRY, Vol. XX, No. 4, July/Aug
2008
9. http://unstats.un.org/unsd/dnss/QAF_comments/Object%20Orien
ted%20Quality%20Management.pdf.
http://ssrn.com/abstract=1488690
10.Web: http://www.naacindia.org and http://www.col.org.
201
11.Wikipedia accessed in June 2010.
7B
PRIVATIZATION, GLOBALIZATION AND
AUTONOMY IN TEACHER EDUCATION
Unit Structure :
7.B.0 Objectives
7.B.1 Introduction
7.B.2 Privatisation
7.B.2.1 Concept of Privatisation
7.B.2.2 Education and Privatisation
7.B.2.3 Need for Privatisation
7.B.2.4 Advantages of Privatisation
7.B.2.5 Fears in Privatisation
7.B.3 Globalisation
7.B.3.1 Concept of Globalisation
7.B.3.2 Features of Globalisation
7.B.3.3 Global Education
7.B.3.4 Professionalizing the teacher and teacher education
for global world
7.B.4 Autonomy in teacher education
7.B.4.1 Concept of Autonomy
7.B.4.2 Autonomy in Education
7.B.4.3 Need for Autonomy
7.B.4.4 Types of Autonomy
7.B.4.5 Challenges before autonomous institutions
7.B.4.6 Factors conducive for Autonomy
7.B.4.7 Problems faced by institutions for Autonomy
7.B.4.8 Apprehensions about Autonomy
7.B.5 Let us sum up
202
7.B.0 OBJECTIVES :
Define Privatisation, globalization and autonomy.
Define autonomy.
Explain the need of autonomy and challenges before autonomous
institutions.
Explain the concept of privatisation, globalization and autonomy
with reference to teacher education.
At the time of independence India declared itself as a socialist
democratic state. Public sector undertakings were initiated and
developed to provide for all and usher India towards development.
But the nineteen eighties witnessed disillusion with socialist
economies which led to dissatisfaction with the public sectors.
Education too was considered as a public good and the government
set up institutions just as other public enterprises, which provided
education to the masses. With passage of time these institutions
became inefficient.
As a reaction to the inefficient working of the state owned
enterprises, the wave of privatization has spread all over the world,
including India. What was needed were economic reforms and the
idea of privatization was seen as panacea to all the problems. India
too could not remain unaffected and the wave of privatization has
influenced education sector.
7.B.2 PRIVATIZATION :
7.B.2.1 Concept of Privatization :
Privatization connotes a wide range of ideas. Privatization
implies induction of private ownership, management and control of
organizations. Privatization can imply deregulation meaning thereby
lesser control of the government. It refers to expansion of private
sector and reduction of public sector. It also means that areas
reserved for the public sector will be opened to the private sector.
The shift towards privatization reduces the role of the government
and increases the role of the private, cooperative and local
203
government. The areas of shift are mainly decision making and
responsibility of money and administration.
7.B.2.2 Education and Privatisation :
Applied to the education sector, privatization can be seen as
part of the wider reform of the public sector. Education is both a
private and social investment. It is therefore the responsibility of
both the individual including the student, his family and even his
employers and the society which includes the community and the
state. The areas of shift in the education sector are mainly decision
and responsibility of money, administration and a relevant
curriculum of high quality.
Privatization is management by private sector with total
absence of government intervention. Such institutions generate their
resources. They survive on the philosophy that they do not have to
pay for those who can pay.
Privatization of higher education has emerged in several forms
and types in the recent decade in India.
1. Privatization within government higher education institutions
takes place in the form of introducing self-financing courses
within government institutions.
2. Converting government aided private institution in to private self
financing institution.
3. Allowing to expand self financing private institution with
recognition and also without recognition, which may be termed
as commercial private higher education institutions.
1) What is privatization?
2) Explain privatization of higher education.
204
7.B.2.3 Factors Responsible for Privatization of Higher
Education
(Need for Privatization) :
1. Need for competitive efficiency: Main justification for
privatization rests heavily on the grounds of efficiency to
promote a more competitive economic environment. Operation
of public sector enterprises is considered inefficient. It is
believed that private ownership and control are more efficient in
terms of resource allocation and work.
2. Growth in population: India has a population of nearly one
hundred and seven cores.In order to provide to a large number of
people more private institutions are needed. To fulfill the demand
for higher education of young people in the country privatization
of higher education is needed.
3. Financial burden on government: Higher education in India is
in financial stress. The state/government can no longer bear the
financial burden of public enterprises. Current spending on
education in India is not more than 3.5% of GDP. The center
itself concedes that the minimum should be 6%. Very little is
being spent on higher education. This compares unfavorably with
the international level, especially when compared with countries
such as South Africa, which invests eight per cent of GNP on
education. Therefore there is a need to evolve policy through
which private resources are mobilized.
4. Education is an Economic good: Education is no more being as
a social service but as a necessary economic input. Investment in
education is treated as a factor contributing to the development of
human resources. In this effort private initiative can help since
the private sector is the beneficiary of the knowledge industry.
5. Quest for Quality: Private institutions do not require long
procedures for procurement of human as well as material
resources. In order to purchase and maintain good qualitative
205
infrastructure and equipment like furniture, buildings, different
types of laboratories and qualified and competent academic staff,
who can be paid as per the demand, there is a need for
privatization.
6. Rapid growth of school education: Growing number of schools
naturally pushed the demand higher education which the
government is not able to provide, therefore demand for
privatization of higher education is the need of the hour.
7. Fulfilling the need for skilled manpower: There is very little
initiative from the public sector due to limited freedom. Private
institutions are free to initiate modern and advanced courses in
order to fulfill the demand for subjects which facilitate economic
development of the nation. The demands of the market and the
times can be fulfilled. For this privatization is needed.
8. Curtailment of corruption: In order to control the corruption in
the government sector, private sector is much needed.
Privatization stops the corruption to some extent and brings about
some discipline. As a result there will be capacity utilization.
9. Desire for more autonomy: Privatization of higher education
will provide autonomy to institutions and there will be less
dependency on the government. This will remove political
interference in areas of administration, management and finance.
10.Synergy for information based economy: In the present times
there is a need for interaction between UGC, academic
institutions of higher learning, industry, R&D institutions and
funding agencies. This could be achieved by a synergy process
wherein they will be partners in various activities,
complementing each other in reaching their visions, objectives
and goals. This can be achieved through private participation.
11.Technological developments: Information revolution has been
brought about and strengthened due to technological
developments such as microchips, genetics, communications,
robots, lasers, growth of satellite TV and computer technologies.
Due to limited resources public sector cannot meet the demands
of the industry and other sectors of economy. Thus private sector
should undertake to train manpower in technology and respond to
market demands.
206
12.Greater responsibility with the recipients of education: Over the
years education has been considered as a free public good
thereby devaluing education. Privatization of education where
the recipient will bear the full cost will help bring greater
responsibility in them. As a consequence, students are likely to
demand greater efficiency and quality in teaching.
1) What are the factors responsible for privatization of higher
education?
7.B.2.4 Advantages of Privatization :
Privatization will enhance:
Decentralization and debureaucratization of educational
institutions.
Initiatives in educational reforms.
Innovativeness in teaching and evaluation.
Tailor made services and provision of wide choice of courses and
subjects to students.
Competition.
Quality education and training.
Shaping of the curriculum according to global, national and local
needs.
Availability and better maintenance of resources
transparency in all procedures.
Fulfill the need of the country in liberalization, privatization, and
globalization.
Utility of human and physical resources in proper way.
7.B.4.5 Fears in Privatization :
207
Privatizing education
Will badly affect the poor
Undermine equity, diversity and openness
Does not address issues of equality, fairness and responsibility
Exorbitant fees will deprive many of availing education
Accountability problem will arise
Courses in humanities and social sciences will be sidelined due
to no economic gain
Civic and democratic values may not get passed down
Apprehensions about job security and retrenchment of staff
Cost saving will lead cost cutting
Collected funds may be misused by the owners
Favoritism towards family members and friends
Benefits remain un proven
1) What are the advantages of privatization of higher education?
2) Why is privatization of higher education feared?
Privatization is essentially deregulation meaning thereby
lesser control of the government. Private institutions generate their
resources. Need for privatization arose due to governments
inability to financially support higher education and provide efficient
and effective education to its young population. While there are
208
many advantages of privatization, at the same time there are many
obvious fears which put privatization at a disadvantaged position.
7.B.3 GLOBALIZATION :
The closing decade of 20th century saw major social, political
and economic transformations on a global level. The developments,
combined with increasingly rapid advances in the nature of and
impact of information and communication technologies have had a
powerful influence on all nations, societies and cultures worldwide.
All this has intensified globalization.
7.B.3.1 Concept of Globalization :
Globalization is a much talked about term today and has
become a phenomena, which is greatly affecting the society in
general and different nations in particular. Globalization is the
integration of economic, political and cultural systems and trends
across the world for economic growth, prosperity and democratic
freedom. It pursues liberal or free market policies in world economy
for economic liberalization. It aims at realizing one single unified
world community where no social conflicts exist calling for social
and cultural integration.
Globalization entails privatization and marketization of
economic and political structures in which ability of the state to
control all the activities within its borders is becoming limited.
Simply put, globalization in fact is a combination of free exchange
of goods services and capital.
Globalization is the tendency of any entity, activity, and
technology to acquire a dimension that grows beyond any frontier
that would be imposed by such criteria as geography, religion,
gender, age and the like. Anything or anybody can have a worldwide
impact. Globalization seeks to deal with relations that go beyond the
confines of the nation state or country boundaries.
Historically globalization dates back to the international trade
in the middle ages. During the second half of the 19th century it was
highlighted by the Industrial Revolution as result of colonial
exploitation. The continuous modernization of the international
exchange process during the 20th century and its ramifications
during the international agreements, for example The General
Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT) have maintained and given
pace to increasing globalization of the society.
209
However, in the past few years there has been acceleration in
this trend. This acceleration can be characterized by three essential
factors:
1. Extent of economic trend which is spreading world wide
2. Increase in technological innovations especially in the areas of
communication and transportation and
3. Interdependence between people and nations.
Contemporary social theorists and analysts David Harvey
(1989, 1999), Giddens (1990), Held, Mcgraw, GoldBlatt and
Perraton (1999) also associate globalization with three aspects.
Detritorization which has increased possibilities for action
between and among people where geographical space is immaterial
to social and economic activity. E-commerce and television allow
people situated anywhere to do business and see the impact of war,
famine, floods, fire and accidents.
Interconnectedness can be seen as distant events, forces and
decisions impacting local and regional endeavors through exchange
of ideas in cyber space through the internet. Interconnectedness also
creates feelings for humanity.
Speed and Velocity of social and economic activity has been
largely due to proliferation of high speed transportation,
communication and information technologies which have blurred all
boundaries, geographical and territorial as well as social and
economic. Movement of people, information, capital and goods is at
amazing speed.
There are two contradictory emerged as a result of
globalization, standardization and diversification. Standardization of
eating habits, clothing, lifestyles, communication, language tend to
produce similarities in living conditions of societies. On the other
hand diversification strives to preserve the multi facets of the society
by promoting access to diverse features of the world heritage. There
is a great desire in people to preserve, defend and protect their
cultural identities and thereby promoting a resistance to uniformity.
7.B.3.2 Features of Globalization :

Growth of transnational corporations and multinational
corporations/organizations.
International division of labor.
210
Encouragement of markets rather than government central
planning.
Growth of offshore finance and telecommunication that can link
banks, stock markets, companies and organizations together in a
global network.
Increasing migration of peoples within and across national
boundaries in search of work.
The growth of media by satellite that ensures programs to be
beamed across the globe regardless of national boundaries.
Growth of national and international Non-Governmental
Organization (NGOs).
7.B.3.3 Global Education :
The purpose of globalization and global education is to
develop a global perspective and sensitize the youth for
understanding the multicultural world and maintaining peace and
harmony in the world. People in general and the youth in particular
has to be aware of the global happenings and issues and the
interdependence of people.
Global perspective means sharing and cooperation with
others allowing them to use whatever resources are available to
attain individual as well as common goals. Further, empathy towards
others, i.e. understanding and sharing feelings, communication
ability in order to express and exchange thoughts, feelings and
information and resolving conflicts by finding satisfactory ways of
dealing with disagreement or argument between people, groups,
societies or nations.
7.B.3.4 Professionalizing the Teacher and Teacher Education for
Global World :
There are many challenges before the teaching profession.
Firstly, teachers need to radically adapt to the new skills, techniques,
methods and demands and secondly a change in the mind set to take
up new responsibilities. It is only then that the teacher can be
professionalized.
Teaching is a profession with competing demands. In spite of
a high demand for teachers the profession has not attracted the best
with adequate qualifications, training and desire the world over. As
such, the following steps will help in professionalize the profession
and the teacher.
211
No devaluing of teacher functions
Good salaries
Good working conditions
Flexible hours
Individualized training to meet the needs of heterogeneous group
of teachers catering to heterogeneous students.
Constant training in use of new methods of teaching, counseling,
meeting curricular demands, computers, finding and interpreting
information
Autonomy to teachers in classroom management, teaching
strategies, arrangement of furniture and work spaces,
Standardize the skills and their certification, to be acquired by a
teacher enabling it to be used world over.
In order to prepare the new age teachers the system of teacher
education has to adapt to and adopt new challenges faced by the
system. Systemic changes have to be made to prepare the global
teacher. These could be in the form of infrastructure, facilities,
selection, recruitment and retention of competent human resources,
adopting and training in new technologies, and upgrading the
curriculum.
Globalization is the integration of economic, political and
cultural systems and trends across the world for economic growth,
prosperity and democratic freedom. It pursues liberal or free market
policies in world economy for economic liberalization. Acceleration
in this trend can be characterized by three essential factors,
economic activity spreading worldwide, increase in technological
innovations especially in the areas of communication and
transportation and interdependence between people and nations.
Globalization can be associated with three aspects, deterritorization,
interconnectedness and speed and velocity. Globalization has also
resulted in the emergence of two contradictory phenomena,
standardization and diversification.
1. Explain the concept of globalization. What are its key features?
212
2. How can teacher education help to professionalize the teacher
due to global demands?
7.B.4 AUTONOMY IN TEACHER EDUCATION :
The system of higher education in India is one of the largest
in the world and is continuing to expand. Many universities are
burdened with unmanageable number of affiliated colleges, because
of which many of the reputed universities and colleges have lost
their eminent positions. Only a few manage to maintain their status
and dignity in an environment of complex socio-economic pressures
and worldwide changes in approaches to the educational process.
In the Tenth Plan the University Grants Commission (UGC)
indicated a vision for higher education making it more flexible in
diversity of programmes, in its structure, its curricula in its delivery
systems and in its use of innovative use of information and
communication technologies. It was proposed to identify colleges
and universities with potential and fund them for achieving
excellence in teaching and research with greater academic,
administrative and financial autonomy. It was thought that delinking
colleges from affiliating universities would give them academic and
operative freedom as well as credibility.
As a result the question of autonomy has recently received
considerate attention in the main stream education. Autonomy is
thus considered as an important tool for quality improvement of
213
education. Successful implementation of the concept requires willing
and honest participation of students, teachers and management in the
educational process and their openness for scrutiny and audit.
Besides, dependence on UGC or the State institutions also require
some financial autonomy to mobilize resources.
7.B.4.1 Concept of Autonomy :
Autonomy is an attitude of the mind which can be equated
with critical intelligence, independent mindedness, a determination
and think things out for one self. Autonomy consists of ones own
independent judgments freely choosing among alternatives and
governing ones own action and attitudes in the light of ones own
thinking.
Etymologically, there are two features of autonomy viz. the
nature of self i.e. autos and the kind of norm and rule nomos.
Put together autonomy would thus mean adopting for oneself self
norms self governance and responsibility. Autonomy thus
introduces the idea of self direction as well as recognition of norms
or principles with which the autonomous person governs himself.
Autonomy therefore, essentially means the relative independence of
an individual in guiding and regulating his or her own conduct
without any external control.
Autonomy or freedom is accompanied by accountability.
Autonomy means accountability to stakeholders and society.
Therefore, it is important to strike a balance between stakeholders
needs, societal demands and institutional autonomy.
7.B.4.2 Autonomy in Education :
The concept of autonomy in education is a structural solution
intended to provide an enabling environment to improve and
strengthen the teaching learning process. Autonomy is the
unrestrained freedom of action within the established norms of the
institution. In the field of education the feeling of freedom percolates
to the each and every academic unit, creating in teachers and
students a sense of involvement in the pursuit of learning. Teachers
in colleges and departments are then to actively be associated with
four fundamental questions of what to teach, how to teach, whom to
teach and how to evaluate?
In education autonomy can relate to budgets, appointments,
students intake, curriculum, degrees awarded, quality of teaching
and research. Autonomy provides an enabling environment, to
214
improve and strengthen teaching-learning process. A decentralized
management culture can encourage autonomy within the
environment. However, no institution can have effective institutional
or academic autonomy without financial autonomy.
1) Explain the concept of autonomy.
2) What is autonomy in education?
7.B.4.3 Need for Autonomy :
These days some of the universities in India are too large and
have many affiliating colleges. Managing its own post graduate
courses, teaching and research is getting difficult by the day.
Managing the colleges, conducting number of exams, declaring
results and certification has become unwieldy.
The colleges, on the hand feel restricted in developing
themselves due to lack of freedom. They feel that too many controls
only hinder in their development.
It is also observed that same regulations govern all colleges
irrespective of their performance or non performance, management
215
or mismanagement, regularities or irregularities. The colleges which
are doing well face the same appraisal.
Academic freedom of teachers too is affected. University
bodies decide the curriculum, its transaction as well as evaluation
without consideration of the needs and aspirations of the students
residing in different parts of the city. The teachers in an institution
are too occupied completing what is mandated by the university and
are not motivated to give beyond the minimum requirements.
7.B.4.4 Types of Autonomy :
Essentially there are two types of autonomy or two levels of
autonomy.
1. Autonomy at individual level (individual autonomy)
2. Autonomy at the institutional level (institutional autonomy)
Individual Autonomy incorporates autonomy to be given to its
academics and its students to pursue knowledge. The teacher
(academic) is given freedom to learn and the freedom to teach i.e.
operational freedom to develop and innovate different methods and
styles of teaching, research testing and evaluation.
Role of teacher changes as they develop capacity to acquire
knowledge through continuous inputs and feedback. This implies
professional freedom for self directed teaching and self directed
learning. The student is given the freedom to choose courses which
they think would help them grow, are of interest to them and
students have the ability and capacity to pursue.
Institutional Autonomy implies freedom of operation to universities
and colleges. The universities and colleges have the freedom to
determine their own policies and programmes. University is a
community of teachers, students and researchers committed to
communication and advancement of knowledge. University
autonomy is governance of the university by the stakeholders
without any interference from any outside agency be it the
government (bureaucracy) or political parties. College autonomy
means that the principal, teachers, students are in charge of
admissions, curriculum, teaching-learning, exams and appointmentssubject
to university control. Autonomy can be of departments of
universities or a college or of a teacher.
216
An Autonomous institution/university/college requires three
types of autonomy
1. Administrative autonomy implies recruitment of staff both
academic and non-academic, appointment of examiners,
admissions of students.
2. Academic autonomy answers four questions- a) What to teach?
b) How to teach? c)Whom to teach and d) How to evaluate? Each
institution will have its own Board of Studies, Academic Council
and the Management Council.
3. Financial autonomy involves generating money for its operation
through fees, endowments, consultations, courses, using
premises. Further spending for its operations the institution will
have complete freedom.
Autonomy envisages two-pronged liberation for universities
and colleges, specially in the affiliating system. One, liberating the
universities from the burden of conducting examinations for lakhs of
students and their certification. In this process universities do not
discharge their main functions of teaching, learning and research and
giving academic and administrative leadership in higher education.
In the autonomous system the process and programmes of testing,
evaluation, grading and certification will be the portfolio of colleges
and universities are relieved of these responsibilities for autonomous
colleges. Second, autonomy also liberates colleges from excessive,
minute, oppressive control of the universities and allows freedom to
chalk out their plan of action including course, curriculum and
examination management, subject to of course overall supervision
and control of the universities.
The basic philosophy is that when a person or group is free
and autonomous, is more efficient than a person or group which is
controlled. Of course one has to be responsible and accountable for
its actions but there is no interference in the day-to-day functioning
of the individual or the group.
1) Describe the types of autonomy.
217
2) Why is autonomy liberating?
7.B.4.5 Challenges Before Autonomous Institutions :
Running an autonomous institution is challenging and
problematic.
Survival depends on achievement. This is the same as free
market economy, where there is greater productivity than in
controlled economy
Students placement and employability helps institutions achieve.
Autonomous institution has to be its own policy formulator.
It has to match declared objectives and performance.
It has to ensure coordination of teachers for qualitative
improvement through professionalism.
Autonomous institution to take steps towards excelling in
innovations in syllabi and curriculum
achieve larger number of teaching days
better regularity of teachers and classes
Objective evaluation-frequently conducted and expeditiously
conducted.
Will support teachers academic freedom
7.B.4.6 Factors Conducive for Autonomy :
For an institution to be autonomous the social and political
discipline, national consensus and new work ethos is important.
There should be no political and bureaucratic interference.
Functional independence has to be given. Government /UGC should
appoint expert committee to review state of affairs. University
nominees can be appointed on monitoring cell to give feedback to
218
autonomous institutions. External assessment and accreditation to
monitor for periodical review will help to improve the institution.
The institutions seeking autonomy should have clarity of
objectives of autonomy and aim of academic growth. They must
have improved infrastructural facilities and amenities. Well defined
measures of performance should be in place. Each autonomous
institution/college is to have its own Board of Studies, Academic
Committees, Governing Council. The management should be less
top heavy and Principals should have full freedom to function. The
board of management should have members from faculty, and expert
educationalists.
Focus should be on redesigning of high quality courses,
preparation of learning material, workshops, seminars, and
examination reforms. Curriculum and new courses should be need
based from the point of view of students, and the society. There
should be vocational courses leading to employability.
Parents, students, teachers should be educated on the merits
of autonomous institutions. Separate orientation course for
explaining the approach to autonomy should be held.
Teachers should be mentally prepared for this organizational
and academic change as it entails extra efforts and accountability.
Teachers are to have a respected status. Competent and devoted
teachers who are motivated, sensitized, understanding to be given
incentives for assistance in new courses, research, teaching, pursuing
excellence, teacher exchange.
1) What are the challenges in adopting autonomy?
2) What are the factors responsible for an autonomous institution?
219
7.B.4.7 Problems faced by Institutions for Autonomy :
No complete financial autonomy because the government
through UGC gives grants, so spending has to be incurred with
approval of government / university / UGC. Besides, budget
finalization committees, utilization certificates, audited accounts, are
looked by same committees causing external delays.
No full academic freedom because of the relationship
between university-government, university-colleges, universitycolleges-affiliation.
There is no freedom with regard to what to
teach, how to teach, and how to evaluate. There is fear that syllabus
will get diluted, wasted working days, prolonged examination,
distribution of bogus marks and mercy chances to undeserving will
become the norm.
No full administrative freedom because if the
Government/UGC finance then the Government/UGC nominees are
appointed to tell how to govern, state policies, and governance takes
place from the top.
7.B.4.8 Apprehensions about Autonomy :
UGCs offerings are too low and there are few takers of
autonomy. As such the progress is slow. State government is not
enthusiastic to let go control (abandon) good colleges. Universities
are indifferent and not encourage the schemes. Teachers too are not
prepared to accept challenge of independent functioning and take
additional work and accountability. They want to play safe and
maintain status quo. Due to negative experiences, and bitter feelings,
they are reluctant and think that managements will become stronger
and autocratic. It is assumed that there is no way to check
malpractices by managements especially financial matters.
The non-government institutions are confused and lack clarity
about the scheme of autonomy. There is paucity of resources. There
are no indigenous models available for autonomy. Only foreign
models and theories are available, which may or may not work in
Indian conditions. Operational difficulties will thus be a hindrance in
the smooth functioning of the institution. Finally, social attitude
220
towards autonomy is such that public wants university stamp on
the degrees.
All these apprehensions are due to lack of knowledge and
ignorance about autonomy. Pros and cons of the scheme and its
influence on quality of teaching-learning, teacher, students and
administrators of the college is not understood fully. Malpractices in
exam and admissions are feared.
It is also felt that autonomous colleges will promote elitism
and there will be accessibility to rich. Autonomy will be misused by
colleges for admission and evaluation leading to corruption.
Teachers and students will be victimized and administrators will use
power to penalize teachers arbitrarily. Teachers service conditions
will be affected, affecting job security, work load.
1) State at least five apprehensions for acceptance of autonomy.
The idea of autonomy of higher education institutions is
considered to be a step in the right direction. In education autonomy
can relate to budgets, appointments, students intake, curriculum,
degrees awarded, quality of teaching and research. Autonomy
provides an enabling environment, to improve and strengthen
teaching-learning process. Autonomy can be at the individual and
institutional level including three types of autonomy-academic,
administrative and financial. However, there are many challenges
before autonomous institutions and many are apprehensive about its
efficiency and effectiveness.
In this unit, we have discussed Privatisation, its need,
advantages and fear, globalization, its features and how to
professionalising the teacher and teacher education for global world.
We have also discussed about autonomy, its need and challenges
before autonomous institutions. Its uses and misuses in the field of
221
teacher education is to be analysed and care should be taken for
effective development in teacher education.
1. Explain the concept of privatization of higher education. Why is
privatization needed in education?
2. Discuss the pros and cons of privatization.
3. What is the concept of autonomy? What are the challenge faced
by educational institutions wanting to get autonomy from the
university?
4. How can autonomy help the affiliated colleges?
Suggested References :
1. Powar, K.B. and Johar, K.L.: Private Initiatives in Higher
Education.
2. Tilak, J.B.G.: The Challenging Concerns in Economics of
Indian Education in Perspectives in Education Vol. 17, 2001.
3. Hallak, Jacques Globalization and its Impact on Education. In
Mebrahtu. T Crossley. M. Johnson, D, (2000). Globalization
Educational Transformation and Societies in Transition (U.K.:
Symposium Books).
4. Harvey, David (1996) Justice, Nature, and the Geography of
Difference (Oxford, UK: Blackwell).
5. Held, David, McGrew, Anthony, Goldblatt, David, and Perraton,
Jonathan (1999), Global Transformations: Politics, Economics
and Culture (Stanford: Stanford university Press)
6. Scholte, Jan Art (19960 Beyond the Buzzword: Towards a
Critical Theory of Globalization, in Eleonore Kofman and
Gillians Young (ed) Globalization: Theory and Practice
(London: Pinter).
7. Tomlinson, John (1999), Globalization and Culture (Cambridge,
UK: Polity Press)
222
8. Global Transformations website (maintained by David Held,
Political Science, London School of Economics, and Anthony
McGrew, International Relations, Southampton University)
9. The Globalization Website, maintained by Frank Lechner (Emory
University)
10. http://www.bavside.sd63.bc.ca/home/rcoulson/globaled/perspecti
ve. html (accessed on 27.08.2004)
11.Palamattan V.P. : Autonomy: A Structural Innovation in Higher
Education in AIU University News 2
12.Kapur, J.N. in AIU University News 2 p 131.
223
8
EDUCATION-I
Unit Structure :
8.A.0 Objectives
8.A.1 Introduction
8.A.2 Co-operative and Collaborative teacher education
8.A.3 Constructivist and Reflective Teacher Education
8.A.4 Let us Sum up
8.A.0 OBJECTIVES :
Define Co-operative Learning
Explain the elements of Co-operative Teacher Education
Enumerate the features of a Co-operative/Collaborative team
Define Constructivism
Describe the 5ES of the Constructivist Approach
Explain the concept of Reflective teaching
Elaborate the criteria for Reflective teacher education
Discuss the approaches to Reflective teacher education
Problems in education have no fixed answers. No teacher
education program can prepare teachers for all the situations they
will encounter. Teachers themselves will make the final decisions
from among many alternatives. Such judgments may be good or
poor. Therefore, it is important for teachers to constantly reevaluate
their decisions. This can be achieved through collaborative and
reflective practices in teacher education. Co-operative learning in
teacher education can instill in future teachers the value of social
interactions. Reflection improves a teacher's ability to make
appropriate and sound judgments and, therefore, become an
empowered decision-maker.
224
8.A.2 CO-OPERATIVE AND COLLABORATIVE
TEACHER EDUCATION :
What is Cooperative Learning?
Cooperative or collaborative learning is a team process
where members support and rely on each other to achieve an agreedupon
goal. The classroom is an excellent place to develop teambuilding
skills you will need later in life.
Cooperative learning is a successful teaching
strategy in which small teams, each with students of
different levels of ability, use a variety of learning
activities to improve their understanding of a subject.
Each member of a team is responsible not only for
learning what is taught but also for helping
teammates learn, thus creating an atmosphere of
achievement. Students work through the assignment
until all group members successfully understand and
complete it.
Cooperative / collaborative learning is interactive; as a team
member, the student teacher :
Develops and shares a common goal
Contributes his/her understanding of the problem: questions;
insights and solutions
Responds to, and works to understand, others' questions, insights
and solutions
Empowers the other to speak and contribute, and to consider their
contributions
Is accountable to others, and they are accountable to him/her
Is dependent on others, and they depend on him/her
Elements of Cooperative Learning :
The conditions/elements that will ensure more productive than
competitive and individualistic efforts are:
1. Positive Interdependence
Each group member's efforts are required and indispensable for
group success
225
Each group member has a unique contribution to make to the
joint effort because of his or her resources and/or role and task
responsibilities
2. Face-to-Face Interaction
Orally explaining how to solve problems
Teaching one's knowledge to other
Checking for understanding
Discussing concepts being learned
Connecting present with past learning
3. Individual and Group Accountability
Keeping the size of the group small. The smaller the size of the
group, the greater the individual accountability may be.
Giving an individual test to each student.
Randomly examining students orally by calling on one student to
present his or her group's work to the teacher (in the presence of
the group) or to the entire class.
Observing each group and recording the frequency with which
each member-contributes to the group's work.
Assigning one student in each group the role of checker. The
checker asks other group members to explain the reasoning and
rationale underlying group answers.
Having students teach what they learned to someone else.
4. Interpersonal and Small-Group Skills
Social skills must be taught:
o Leadership
o Decision-making
o Trust-building
o Communication
o Conflict-management skills
5. Group Processing
Group members discuss how well they are achieving their goals
and maintaining effective working relationships
Describe what member actions are helpful and not helpful
226
Make decisions about what behaviors to continue or change
What makes for a good Co-operative/Collaborative learning
team?
Team activities begin with training in, and understanding group
processes. An instructor begins by facilitating discussion and
suggesting alternatives but does not impose solutions on the
team, especially those having difficulty working together
Three to five people in a team. Larger teams have difficulty in
keeping everyone involved.
Teacher-assigned groups. They function better than self-assigned
groups
Diverse skill levels, backgrounds, experience
o Each individual brings strengths to a group
o Each member of the group is responsible to not only
contribute his/her strengths, but also to help others understand
the source of their strengths
o Any member who is at a disadvantage or not comfortable
with the majority should be encouraged and proactively
empowered to contribute
o Learning is positively influenced with a diversity of
perspective and experience increasing options for problem
solving
expanding the range of details to consider
Commitment of each member to a goal that is defined and
understood by the group
o Confidential peer ratings are a good way to assess who is and
who is not contributing
o Groups have the right to fire a non-cooperative or nonparticipating
member if all remedies have failed. (The person
fired then has to find another group to accept him/her)
o Individuals can quit if they believe they are doing most of the
work with little assistance from the others. (This person can
often easily find another group to welcome his/her
contributions)
Shared operating principles and responsibilities, defined and
agreed to by each member. These include:
o Commitment to attend, prepare and be on time for meetings
227
o Have discussions and disagreements focus on issues, avoiding
personal criticism
o Take responsibility for a share of the tasks and carry them out
on time. You may need to perform tasks that you have little
experience, feel ill-prepared for, or even think others would
do better. Accept the challenge, but be comfortable in stating
that you may need help, training, a mentor, or have to resign
and take on different task.
Some Activities for Co-Operative Learning :
1. Jigsaw - Groups with five students are set up. Each group
member is assigned some unique material to learn and then to
teach to his group members. To help in the learning students
across the class working on the same sub-section get together to
decide what is important and how to teach it. After practice in
these "expert" groups the original groups reform and students
teach each other.
2. Think-Pair-Share - Involves a three step cooperative structure.
During the first step individuals think silently about a question
posed by the instructor. Individuals pair up during the second
step and exchange thoughts. In the third step, the pairs share their
responses with other pairs, other teams, or the entire group.
3. Three-Step Interview- Each member of a team chooses another
member to be a partner. During the first step individuals
interview their partners by asking clarifying questions. During
the second step partners reverse the roles. For the final step,
members share their partner's response with the team.
4. RoundRobin Brainstorming- Class is divided into small groups
(4 to 6) with one person appointed as the recorder. A question is
posed with many answers and students are given time to think
about answers. After the "think time," members of the team share
responses with one another round robin style. The recorder writes
down the answers of the group members. The person next to the
recorder starts and each person in the group in order gives an
answer until time is called.
5. Three-minute review- Teachers stop any time during a lecture or
discussion and give teams three minutes to review what has been
said, ask clarifying questions or answer questions.
6. Numbered Heads Together- A team of four is established. Each
member is given numbers of 1, 2, 3, 4. Questions are asked of the
228
group. Groups work together to answer the question so that all
can verbally answer the question. Teacher calls out a number
(two) and each two is asked to give the answer.
7. Team Pair Solo- Students do problems first as a team, then with a
partner, and finally on their own. It is designed to motivate
students to tackle and succeed at problems which initially are
beyond their ability. It is based on a simple notion of mediated
learning. Students can do more things with help (mediation) than
they can do alone. By allowing them to work on problems they
could not do alone, first as a team and then with a partner, they
progress to a point they can do alone that which at first they
could do only with help.
8. Circle the Sage- First the teacher polls the class to see which
students have a special knowledge to share. For example the
teacher may ask who in the class was able to solve a difficult
math homework question, who had visited Mexico, who knows
the chemical reactions involved in how salting the streets help
dissipate snow. Those students (the sages) stand and spread out
in the room. The teacher then has the rest of the classmates each
surround a sage, with no two members of the same team going to
the same sage. The sage explains what they know while the
classmates listen, ask questions, and take notes. All students then
return to their teams. Each in turn, explains what they learned.
Because each one has gone to a different sage, they compare
notes. If there is disagreement, they stand up as a team. Finally,
the disagreements are aired and resolved.
9. Partners- The class is divided into teams of four. Partners move
to one side of the room. Half of each team is given an assignment
to master to be able to teach the other half. Partners work to learn
and can consult with other partners working on the same
material. Teams go back together with each set of partners
teaching the other set. Partners quiz and tutor teammates. Team
reviews how well they learned and taught and how they might
improve the process.
Why use Cooperative Learning?
Research has shown that cooperative learning techniques :
Promote student learning and academic achievement
Increase student retention
Enhance student satisfaction with their learning experience
Help students develop skills in oral communication
229
Develop students' social skills
Promote student self-esteem
Help to promote positive race relations
1. Describe the elements of Co-operative Learning.
2. What are the aspects that make for a good co-operative learning
team?
3. What are the advantages of Co-operative Learning?
8.A.3 CONSTRUCTIVIST AND REFLECTIVE
TEACHER EDUCATION :
Reflective Teacher Education :
In the past ten years, the terms `reflection' and `critical
reflection' have increasingly appeared in descriptions of approaches
to teacher education. It is clear however that the terms are often illdefined,
and have been used rather loosely to embrace a wide range
of concepts and strategies.
230
Reflection is a natural process that facilitates the development
of future action from the contemplation of past and/or current
behavior. Reflection refers to the ongoing process of critically
examining and refining practice, taking into careful consideration the
personal, pedagogical, societal (including social, political, historical
and economical) and ethical contexts associated with schools,
classrooms and the multiple roles of teachers (Knowles, Cole and
Presswood, 1994).
Educators and researchers have struggled to define the term
"reflection." While Dewey (1933) believed that reflection is an aim
of education, others view it as a means to help pre-service teachers
become effective. Much of the writing on reflection in teacher
education is derived from Dewey (1933). He believed that
reflectivity involves active, persistent and careful consideration of
any belief or practice in light of its supporting grounds and its
eventual consequences. Dewey implies that two distinct components
are involved in reflective thinking: the process and the content. In
order to have a better understanding about teachers' reflective
thoughts, both the process and the content of reflective thinking must
be considered simultaneously.
While the process element of reflection emphasizes how
teachers make decisions, content stresses the substance that drives
the thinking. What type of knowledge do teachers or prospective
teachers draw upon when they reflect? Content includes
understanding children, including their developmental levels and
perspectives. Teachers must also consider appropriate teaching
methods, teacher's image, professional collaboration and support,
and the impact of society on schools; they must have knowledge of a
wide range of educational environments, evaluation and
interpersonal relationships; and they must have an ethical
commitment to children, parents and the field (Surbeck, Han and
Moyer, 1993).
Kemmis (1999) presents five propositions about the nature of
reflection, that not only clarify what reflective teacher education
entails but also indicate that reflective teacher education is a
complex approach, not easy to put into practice and even less to
evaluate:
1. Reflection is not biologically or psychologically determined, nor
is it pure thought; reflection expresses an orientation towards
action and is about relation between thought and action in real
historical situations.
2. Reflection is not the individualistic working of the mind as a kind
231
of mechanism or speculation; it presupposes and shapes social
relations.
3. Reflection is not value-free or neutral as regards values; it
expresses and serves concrete human, social, cultural and
political interests.
4. Reflection is not indifferent or passive towards social order, nor
does it extend socially accepted values; it either reproduces
actively or transforms the practical ideologies that support social
order.
5. Reflection is not a mechanical process or a purely creative
exercise to construct new ideas; it is a practice that expresses our
power to reconstitute social life through participation in
communication, decision making social action.
These propositions highlight the transform Tory potential and
empowering role of reflection, both at individual and social levels.
The basic assumptions of reflective teacher education are as follows;
1. Promoting critically reflective teachers is a value laden goal, with
direct implications for deciding the direction of reflection, its
aims and scope.
2. Critical reflection involves critical reason, critical self reflection
and critical action.
3. Critical reflection should facilitate teacher autonomy, especially
through the mediation between pedagogical goals and situational
constraints, within a research-like approach to teaching, whereby
educational contexts are questioned and scrutinized in order to be
understood and changed.
4. Critical reflection must entail an understanding of the nature and
goals of school education and of its role in social transformation.
Criteria for Reflective Teacher Education :
The criteria for reflective practices in teacher education are
grouped in six broad areas, namely, Assumptions, Goals, Tasks,
Content, Roles and Discourse : These areas are essential for the
critical regulation of teacher development practices and also to plan
teacher development programmes.
Assumptions : All teacher development practices are based upon
assumptions about the nature of teacher education and school
pedagogy. Analyzing these practices requires inquiry into those
assumptions;
232
To what extent do teacher development practices build on the
assumptions of a reflective approach? The assumptions as
developed by Donald Schon, Kenneth Zeichner and John Smyth
can be summarized as follows- Teacher education is a process of
personal and social transformation; practice generates theory; a
good teacher is a reflective practitioner; an autonomous teacher
develops autonomous learners.
Goals : An understanding of teacher development practices implies
the analysis of its direction. Reflective teacher education aims at
primarily the empowerment of student teachers towards the
promotion of a pedagogy for autonomy;
To what extent do teacher development practices promote an
empowering transformation of student teachers in tandem with
pedagogy for autonomy? Basic knowledge, abilities and attitudes
involved in this goal are, content knowledge, pedagogical
knowledge, artistry, ability to act, ability to self regulate, ability
to communicate and negotiate and a critical stance towards
institutional and socio-cultural contexts.
Tasks : The nature of teacher development tasks greatly determines
the quality of teacher education. This area involves the following
criteria;
Transparency- To what extent are teacher development tasks
made explicit as regards their assumptions and aims, steps and
demands, potential value and limitations and evaluation? Task
transparency improves awareness and enhances a critical attitude
towards practices. It can be promoted directly by the teacher
educator/the task instructions (external explicitness), or achieved
by student teachers reflection on tasks (participatory
explicitness).
Theory-practice integration- To what extent do the teacher
development tasks focus on the integration of private and public
theories and practices? Integration implies the activation of
student teachers experiential knowledge and/or practical
experimentation. Experimentation may be indirect or direct.
Indirect experimentation involves tasks other than teaching,
aiming at preparing for teaching (e.g. communication
development tasks, analysis and production of teaching materials,
observation of video-taped lessons, etc.). Direct experimentation
is school based and refers to all the tasks involved in real
233
teaching (planning, developing, monitoring and evaluating
pedagogical action). Both the types of experimentation should
foster a pedagogy for autonomy.
Consistency- To what extent do teacher development tasks reveal
congruence between aims and processes, as well as between their
different steps? Internal consistency increases task
meaningfulness, intentionality and impact. Lack of consistency
affects course credibility and student-teacher commitment.
Organization- To what extent is the management of resources,
space and time adequate to the assumptions, goals, content and
roles of teacher development practices?
Content : The content of teacher development practices highlights
the arena of professional reflection and action and it is important to
assess their relevance and progression.
Relevance- To what extent is the content of teacher development
programme/s relevant considering student teachers previous
knowledge, expectations, interests and needs (meaningfulness);
past/recent developments within the area of study (information);
contribution to challenging established assumptions and practices
towards the development of a pedagogy for autonomy
(innovation)?
Progression- To what extent does the content of teacher
development practices promote the elaboration of student
teachers theories and practices?
Roles : The roles student teachers assume vary according to the
assumptions and goals that orient development practices.
Reflectivity, (inter)subjectivity, negotiation and regulation are
important qualities of roles in a reflection-oriented approachReflectivity-
What kind of reflection does teacher development
practices promote? What view of school pedagogy do they
encourage? Reflection should be the basis for the definition of
the teachers role. At a technical level, reflection aims at the
achievement of short term objectives; in order to improve
performance (What do I do? How can I improve my action?). At
a practical level, reflection is centered on the analysis of
assumptions, predispositions, values and results of teachers
practice (How do I explain my action? What are the implications
of my action upon others?). At a critical or emancipatory level,
234
reflection includes the ethical, social and political dimensions of
teachers practices. This level includes reflection on teacher
education processes (metacognition), from an inquiry-oriented
perspective. All three levels of reflection are important in
promoting the development of pedagogy for autonomy.
(Inter)subjectivity- To what extent do teacher development
practices integrate the student teachers self in interaction with
others? The construction of professional knowledge is both a
personal and social process which involves description,
interpretation, confrontation and reconstruction of educational
practice. This means that roles are redefined through meaningful
interaction that fosters both individual and collective
commitment.
Negotiation- To what extent do teacher development practices
create opportunities for negotiation? Negotiation can involve
various degrees of student teacher autonomy, but it always
requires that teacher education curricula are conceived as praxis,
not as pre-defined products to be consumed.
Regulation- To what extent do teacher development practices
enable the individual and collaborative regulation of
development processes? The promotion of student teachers
autonomy requires their critical participation in the supervision
of their own learning and of the learning and of the learning
contexts.
Discourse : Reflective teacher education assumptions and goals
have implications for the discourse of student teachers and teacher
educators, especially for the quality of communication, which has a
strong influence on the quality of development processes,
particularly in terms of relevance and degree of democracy.
Communication- To what extent do teacher development
practices integrate focused and expressive communication?
Need for Reflective Teacher Education
Professionalization has become a very important issue in the field
of education. Reflection on one's own work is a key component
of being a professional (Schon, 1983) and is essential to teacher
education. Teachers must examine their beliefs, assumptions and
biases regarding teaching and learning, and determine how those
235
beliefs influence classroom practice.
Pre-service teachers should examine any cultural baggage they
may carry in order to evaluate its appropriateness in teaching.
Since teaching is often an uncertain, dynamic and complex
practice, teachers must make constant judgments about
appropriate goals, teaching methods and students' learning.
Recent research on teacher education raises concerns about
teacher education programs' tendency to encourage acquiescence
and conformity to the status quo of both schooling and society
(O'Loughlin, 1992). These studies also note that teacher
education programs too often espouse utilitarian perspectives in
which teaching is separated from its underlying educational,
social or ethical domains and the technical aspects become an
end in themselves rather than a means toward some broader
educational purpose. Constant re-evaluation of teaching practices
allows a teacher to question assumptions about teaching and
learning, and prevents teaching from becoming a passive role in
schooling.
Approaches to Reflective Practice
Using a reflective or inquiry-oriented approach to teacher
education relies greatly on identifying the quality of inquiry that is
being sought and the desirability of the ends intended. Following
principles need to be considered while deciding the approaches to
reflective practices.
a) Concern with the development in student teachers of a personal
style and philosophy of teaching, including ethical dimensions;
b) Use of action research or enquiry-based approaches to investigate
and improve teaching in a supportive environment;
c) Recognition of the problematic nature of schooling, including
classroom and curriculum decision-making;
d) Sensitivity to contexts for teaching, and in particular, to the range
of school students' backgrounds, abilities, and characteristics;
e) Attempts to build in cycles involving preparation for practicum
action, data collection about what happened, reflection upon it,
and possible (often `if-then') modifications;
236
f) Ongoing monitoring of program implementation, with careful
attempts to provide some evidence of their outcomes and impact;
and
g) Use of techniques such as microteaching to build a repertoire of
skills, journaling to encourage recording, thinking and selfevaluation,
and regular dialogues with peers, staff and/or teachers
to clarify issues and value positions.
Van Manen identified three levels of reflectivity: technical,
professional and critical. The third and final level, the critical level,
considers moral and ethical criteria, such as justice and equity, as
part of the discourse about education practices. Pre-service teacher
education should aim for this level, even though it is difficult to
reach.
Four types of writing could be identified as leading to
reflection. They are descriptive writing, descriptive reflection,
dialogic reflection and critical reflection. In essence, the first is not
reflective at all, but merely reports events or literature. The second,
descriptive, does attempt to provide reasons based often on personal
judgment or on students' reading of literature. The third form,
dialogic, is a form of discourse with one's self, an exploration of
possible reasons. The fourth, critical, is defined as involving reason
giving for decisions or events which takes account of the broader
historical, social and/or political contexts.
Sparks-Langer identifies three distinctive ways of looking at
teaching and teacher education, each of which may be related to Van
Manen's levels of reflection, or to the descriptive, dialogic and
critical types. The Cognitive Approach utilizes studies of teachers'
information processing and decision making. The Narrative
Approach has teachers telling their own stories through problem
framing, naturalistic enquiry and case studies. The Critical Approach
requires teachers to use ethical and moral reasoning, taking account
of the social and political contexts.
Three approaches that support the facilitation of reflective
practice are; self and peer assessment, problem-based learning and
personal development planning.
Self and peer assessment :
Both self and peer assessment can be used to support
reflective practice, since they involve students thinking about their
own learning. Boud, responsible for much of the pioneering work on
self and peer assessment, defines it as the "involvement of students
in identifying standards and/or criteria to apply to their work and
237
making judgements about the extent to which they have met these
criteria and standards" (1995: 12). For Boud, self assessment
involves two clear stages: a) the identification (and learner
understanding) of standards and criteria, and b) the making of one's
own judgements against those criteria. This two part process
necessarily involves students reflecting on their own learning.
Self assessment can be used to facilitate both a process of
learning and an assessment product. Self assessment can be used in
an informal way to encourage students to think about their work and
what they know in a given subject. Peer assessment is a particularly
useful device for supporting reflective practice, because of its focus
on dialogue and shared interpretations of teaching and learning
between staff and students (Stefani, 1998). Students learn from each
other and use the feedback provided by peers to inform their own
learning. Using the peer assessment approach students are
encouraged to make qualitative comments about the work of their
peers. The key to using self and peer assessment is to ensure that
each new group of students is given the same opportunities to
discover how they learn. There is a temptation for teachers to try to
streamline the process and offer students feedback, but students need
to discover for themselves what they know and don't know and to
make their own connections if these processes are to support
reflection.
Problem Based Learning :
Problem-based learning (PBL) is used in a number of
disciplines as a way of engaging students in 'real' problems. Unlike
conventional teaching, PBL starts with a problem and requires the
student to research, select, analyse and apply information and
theories to solve it. Students work in groups or teams to solve or
manage these situations, but they are not expected to acquire a
predetermined series of 'right answers'. Instead they are expected to
engage with the complex situation presented to them and decide
what information they need to learn and what skills they need to gain
in order to manage the situation effectively (Savin-Baden, 2000)
Characteristics of problem-based learning.
Using stimulus material to help students discuss an important
problem, question or issue
Presenting the problem as a simulation of professional practice or
'real life' situation
Encouraging critical thinking and providing limited resources to
help students learn from defining and attempting to resolve the
given problem
238
Students working co-operatively as a group, exploring
information in and out of class, with access to a tutor (not
necessarily a subject specialist) who knows the problem well and
can facilitate the group's learning process
Students identifying their own learning needs and the appropriate
use of available resources
Reapplying this new knowledge to the original problem and
evaluating their processes (Boud and Feletti, 1997: 4)
The advantage of students working upon real or simulated
situations is that real problems do not have simple solutions, but
require comparison and analysis of resources, strategies and costs.
What the PBL approach does is facilitate a dialogue between the
student, tutor, and peers (and in some cases external parties), which
helps the individual make sense of his or her learning.
PBL offers a genuine experience or context in which
reflection can take place. Unlike traditional problem solving where
the student is directed towards appropriate resources PBL forces
students to think on their feet and draw on previous experience to
transfer to new settings. This reflection and process of learning can
be articulated in the final report or presentation and, if required,
assessed. One of the advantages of using peer assessment or PBL is
that they enable law students to work together on a problem.
Macfarlane(1998) suggests :
The notion of capability in a reflective practice model
requires students to learn to work effectively with others as well as
on their own. Teamwork also tends to enhance self-reflection and
awareness of learning process, as individuals are accountable to the
group and especially if the group is encouraged to analyse its own
successes and weaknesses in accomplishing the set task.
Personal Development Planning and Portfolios :
Personal development planning (PDP) has existed in many
guises for over 20 years. It is a structured and supported process
undertaken by an individual to reflect upon their own learning,
performance and/or achievement and to plan for their personal,
educational and career development.The educational aim is to
provide students with a structure for thinking about and planning
their own development. PDP might be seen as a process of
239
evidencing learning and reflection. Portfolios and records of
achievement are the common forms in which the PDP process is
presented. The advantage of PDP is that it provides a rounded
picture of the capabilities of an individual. Usually consisting of
three parts (a checklist of skills or competences achieved, evidence
of achievement and a reflective piece on how the skill has been
developed) PDP offers more information than a certificate and
engages students in a process of thinking about their learning.
PDP will help student teachers :
Become more effective, independent and confident self-directed
learners
Understand how they are learning and relate their learning to a
wider context
Improve their general skills for study and career management
Articulate their personal goals and evaluate progress towards
their achievement
Encourage a positive attitude to learning throughout life
Portfolios are a useful way of getting students used to writing
reflectively, introducing them to the idea of providing evidence for
their reflection. PDP offers another way of encouraging students to
think about what they know, what they don't know and how they
might develop the skills to fill the gaps in their knowledge such that
their appreciation of the profession improves.
Advantages of Reflective Teacher Education :
Reflective Teacher educationEnables
teachers to analyze, discuss, evaluate and change their
own practice, adopting an analytical approach towards teaching;
Fosters teachers appreciation of the social and political contexts
in which they work, helping teachers to recognize that teaching is
socially and politically situated an that the teachers task involves
an appreciation and analysis of that context;
Enables teachers to appraise the moral and ethical issues implicit
in classroom practices, including the critical examination of their
own beliefs about good teaching;
Encourages teachers to take greater responsibility for their own
professional growth and to acquire some degree of professional
autonomy;
240
Facilitates teachers development of their own theories of
educational practice, understanding and developing a principled
basis for their own classroom work;
Empowers teachers to better influence future directions in
education and take a more active role in decision making.
Reflective Teacher Education helps to develop:
Problem solving and critically reflective skills.
Communication skills.
A capacity to adapt to changing circumstances.
An ability to work in teams.
Networking skills.
The ability to use and apply communication technologies.
Awareness of and the ability to address diverse learning needs.
Awareness of the changing education environment and of their
role in equipping young people to operate effectively within this
environment.
Constructivist Teacher Education :
Constructivism is a philosophical view on how we come to
understand or know.
Definition :
Constructivism is a philosophy of learning founded on the
premise that, by reflecting on our experiences, we construct our own
understanding of the world we live in. Each of us generates our own
"rules" and "mental models," which we use to make sense of our
experiences. Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting
our mental models to accommodate new experiences.
The three main propositions of this philosophy are as follows :
1. Understanding is in our interactions with the environment. This
is the core concept of Constructivism. What one understands is a
function of the content, the context, the activity of the learner,
and the goals of the learner. Cognition is not just within the
individual but rather it is a part of the entire context, i.e.,
cognition is distributed.
2. Cognitive conflict is the stimulus for learning and determines the
241
organization and nature of what is learned. Learners puzzlement
is the stimulus and organizer for learning.
3. Knowledge evolves through social negotiation and through the
evaluation of the viability of individual understandings.
There are several guiding principles of Constructivism :
1. Learning is a search for meaning. Therefore, learning must start
with the issues around which students are actively trying to
construct meaning. Meaning requires understanding wholes as
well as parts. And parts must be understood in the context of
wholes. Therefore, the learning process focuses on primary
concepts, not isolated facts.
2. Learning is an active process in which the learner uses sensory
input and constructs meaning out of it. The more traditional
formulation of this idea involves the terminology of the active
learner (Dewey's term) stressing that the learner needs to do
something; that learning is not the passive acceptance of
knowledge which exists "out there" but that learning involves the
learner s engaging with the world.
3. People learn to learn as they learn: learning consists both of
constructing meaning and constructing systems of meaning. For
example, if we learn the chronology of dates of a series of
historical events, we are simultaneously learning the meaning of
a chronology. Each meaning we construct makes us better able to
give meaning to other sensations which can fit a similar pattern.
4. The crucial action of constructing meaning is mental: it happens
in the mind. Physical actions, hands-on experience may be
necessary for learning, especially for children, but it is not
sufficient; we need to provide activities which engage the mind
as well as the hands (Dewey called this reflective activity.)
5. Learning involves language: the language we use influences
learning. On the empirical level, researchers have noted that
people talk to themselves as they learn. On a more general level,
there is a collection of arguments, presented most forcefully by
Vygotsky, that language and learning are inextricably
intertwined.
6. Learning is a social activity: our learning is intimately associated
with our connection with other human beings, our teachers, our
peers, our family as well as casual acquaintances, including the
people before us or next to us at the exhibit. We are more likely
242
to be successful in our efforts to educate if we recognize this
principle rather than try to avoid it. Much of traditional
education, as Dewey pointed out, is directed towards isolating the
learner from all social interaction, and towards seeing education
as a one-on-one relationship between the learner and the
objective material to be learned. In contrast, progressive
education according to Dewey recognizes the social aspect of
learning and uses conversation, interaction with others, and the
application of knowledge as an integral aspect of learning.
7. Learning is contextual: we do not learn isolated facts and theories
in some abstract ethereal land of the mind separate from the rest
of our lives: we learn in relationship to what else we know, what
we believe, our prejudices and our fears. On reflection, it
becomes clear that this point is actually a corollary of the idea
that learning is active and social. We cannot divorce our learning
from our lives.
8. One needs knowledge to learn: it is not possible to assimilate
new knowledge without having some structure developed from
previous knowledge to build on. The more we know, the more
we can learn. Therefore any effort to teach must be connected to
the state of the learner and must provide a path into the subject
for the learner based on that learner's previous knowledge.
9. It takes time to learn: learning is not instantaneous. For
significant learning we need to revisit ideas, ponder them try
them out, play with them and use them. If you reflect on anything
you have learned, you soon realize that it is the product of
repeated exposure and thought. Even, or especially, moments of
profound insight, can be traced back to longer periods of
preparation.
10.Motivation is a key component in learning. Not only is it the case
that motivation helps learning, it is essential for learning. This
idea of motivation as described here is broadly conceived to
include an understanding of ways in which the knowledge can be
used. Unless we know "the reasons why", we may not be very
involved in using the knowledge that may be instilled in us.
The 5 E Model of Constructivism :
The 5 E's is an instructional model based on the
Constructivist approach to learning, which says that learners build or
construct new ideas on top of their old ideas. The 5 E's can be used
with students of all ages, including adults.
243
Each of the 5 E's describes a phase of learning, and each
phase begins with the letter "E": Engage, Explore, Explain,
Elaborate, and Evaluate. The 5 E's allows students and teachers to
experience common activities, to use and build on prior knowledge
and experience, to construct meaning, and to continually assess their
understanding of a concept.
Engage : This phase of the 5 E's starts the process. Students
encounter the material, define their questions, lay the groundwork
for their tasks, make connections from new to unknown and identify
relevance. An "engage" activity should do the following:
1. Make connections between past and present learning experiences
2. Anticipate activities and focus students' thinking on the learning
outcomes of current activities. Students should become mentally
engaged in the concept, process, or skill to be learned.
Explore : This phase of the 5 E's provides students with a common
base of experiences. Students directly involved with material,
inquiry drives the process, teamwork is used to share and build
knowledge base. They identify and develop concepts, processes, and
skills. During this phase, students actively explore their environment
or manipulate materials.
Explain : This phase of the 5 E's helps students explain the
discoveries, processes and concepts they have been exploring. They
have opportunities to verbalize their conceptual understanding or to
demonstrate new skills or behaviors. This phase also provides
opportunities for teachers to introduce formal terms, definitions, and
explanations for concepts, processes, skills, or behaviors.
Elaborate : This phase of the 5 E's extends students' conceptual
understanding and allows them to practice skills and behaviors.
Through new experiences, the learners develop deeper and broader
understanding of major concepts, obtain more information about
areas of interest, and refine their skills. They apply learning to other
situations sometimes leading to a new inquiry.
Evaluate : This phase of the 5 E's encourages learners to assess their
understanding and abilities and lets teachers evaluate students'
understanding of key concepts and skill development. Rubrics,
checklists, teacher interviews, portfolios, problem-based learning
outputs, and embedded assessments are made use of. Results are
used to evaluate and modify further instructional needs.
Features of A Constructivist Classroom :
244
Student autonomy and initiative are accepted
and encouraged.
By respecting students' ideas and encouraging
independent thinking, teachers help students attain
their own intellectual identity. Students who frame
questions and issues and then go about analyzing
and answering them take responsibility for their
own learning and become problem solvers.
The teacher asks open-ended questions and
allows wait time for responses.
Reflective thought takes time and is often built on
others' ideas and comments. The ways teachers
ask questions and the ways students respond will
structure the success of student inquiry.
Higher-level thinking is encouraged.
The constructivist teacher challenges students to
reach beyond the simple factual response. He
encourages students to connect and summarize
concepts by analyzing, predicting, justifying, and
defending their ideas.
Students are engaged in dialogue with the
teacher and with each other.
Social discourse helps students change or reinforce
their ideas. If they have the chance to present what
they think and hear others' ideas, students can
build a personal knowledge base that they
understand. Only when they feel comfortable
enough to express their ideas will meaningful
classroom dialogue occur.
Students are engaged in experiences that
challenge hypotheses and encourage
discussion.
When allowed to make predictions, students often
generate varying hypotheses about natural
phenomena. The constructivist teacher provides
ample opportunities for students to test their
hypotheses, especially through group discussion of
concrete experiences.
245
The class uses raw data, primary sources,
manipulatives, physical, and interactive
materials.
The constructivist approach involves students in
real-world possibilities, and then helps them
generate the abstractions that bind phenomena
together.
In a constructivist classroom, learning is . . .
Constructed
Students are not blank slates upon which knowledge is etched.
They come to learning situations with already formulated
knowledge, ideas, and understandings. This previous knowledge
is the raw material for the new knowledge they will create.
Active
The student is the person who creates new understanding for
him/herself. The teacher coaches, moderates and suggests, but
allows the students room to experiment, ask questions, try things
that don't work. Learning activities require the students' full
participation (like hands-on experiments). An important part of
the learning process is that students reflect on, and talk about,
their activities. Students also help set their own goals and means
of assessment.
Reflective
Students control their own learning process, and they lead the
way by reflecting on their experiences. This process makes them
experts of their own learning. The teacher helps create situations
where the students feel safe questioning and reflecting on their
own processes, either privately or in group discussions. The
teacher should also create activities that lead the student to reflect
on his or her prior knowledge and experiences. Talking about
what was learned and how it was learned is really important.
Collaborative
The constructivist classroom relies heavily on collaboration
among students. There are many reasons why collaboration
contributes to learning. The main reason it is used so much in
constructivism is that students learn about learning not only from
themselves, but also from their peers. When students review and
reflect on their learning processes together, they can pick up
strategies and methods from one another.
246
Inquiry based
The main activity in a constructivist classroom is solving
problems. Students use inquiry methods to ask questions,
investigate a topic, and use a variety of resources to find
solutions and answers. As students explore the topic, they draw
conclusions, and, as exploration continues, they revisit those
conclusions. Exploration of questions leads to more questions.
Evolving
Students have ideas that they may later see were invalid,
incorrect, or insufficient to explain new experiences. These ideas
are temporary steps in the integration of knowledge. For instance,
a child may believe that all trees lose their leaves in the fall, until
she visits an evergreen forest. Constructivist teaching takes into
account students' current conceptions and builds from there.
What happens when a student gets a new piece of information?
The constructivist model says that the student compares the
information to the knowledge and understanding he/she already
has, and one of three things can occur:
The new information matches up with his previous
knowledge pretty well (it's consonant with the previous
knowledge), so the student adds it to his/her understanding. It
may take some work, but it's just a matter of finding the right
fit, as with a puzzle piece.
The information doesn't match previous knowledge (it's
dissonant). The student has to change his/her previous
understanding to find a fit for the information. This can be
harder work.
The information doesn't match previous knowledge, and it is
ignored. Rejected bits of information may just not be
absorbed by the student. Or they may float around, waiting
for the day when the student's understanding has developed
and permits a fit.
The difference between a traditional classroom and a constructivist
classroom can be summarized as follows;
247
TRADITIONAL
CLASSROOM
CONSTRUCTIVIST
CLASSROOM
Curriculum begins with the
parts of the whole. Emphasizes
basic skills.
Curriculum emphasizes big
concepts, beginning with the
whole and expanding to include
the parts.
Strict adherence to fixed
curriculum is highly valued.
Pursuit of student questions and
interests is valued.
Materials are primarily
textbooks and workbooks.
Materials include primary
sources of material and
manipulative materials.
Learning is based on repetition. Learning is interactive, building
on what the student already
knows.
Teachers disseminate
information to students;
students are recipients of
knowledge.
Teachers have a dialogue with
students, helping students
construct their own knowledge.
Teacher's role is directive,
rooted in authority.
Teacher's role is interactive,
rooted in negotiation.
Assessment is through testing,
correct answers.
Assessment includes student
works, observations, and points
of view, as well as tests. Process
is as important as product.
Knowledge is seen as inert. Knowledge is seen as dynamic,
ever changing with our
experiences.
Constructivist Frameworks in Teacher Education :
Constructivist teacher education generally reflects two major
traditions--the developmental and social reconstructionist traditions
(Canella and Reiff, 1994). Programs influenced by the
developmental tradition attempt to teach students how to teach in a
constructivist, generally Piagetian, manner. They are typically
characterized by substantial direct instruction in theory and practice,
often without complementary opportunities for inquiry, discovery, or
self-examination. This approach can easily become overly
prescriptive.
248
Programs influenced by social reconstructionist tradition
attempt to help teacher education students deconstruct their own
prior knowledge and attitudes, comprehend how these
understandings evolved, explore the effects they have on actions and
behavior, and consider alternate conceptions and premises that may
be more serviceable in teaching. Critical analysis and structured
reflection on formal course knowledge and everyday practical
experience are incorporated.
Richardson (1997) identifies two factors that appear to affect the
approach teachers and teacher educators take in forming
constructivist settings :
The extent to which the social is acknowledged as a critical
factor in learning and individual cognitive development and
The specific content, subject matter, or discipline. Some subjects,
such as mathematics, are more "bounded" than others by rules,
formulae, and procedures. They are more likely to be regarded by
teachers as producing problems and tasks to which there are
"correct" answers. Individual interpretations and construction of
ideas and concepts are less likely to be encouraged by teachers
than in subjects such as literature and writing.
Challenges :
The overarching challenge constructivism presents to teachers
and teacher educators is the formidable task of translating a
learning theory into a theory of teaching (MacKinnon and ScarffSeatter,
1997), which in turn raises questions about what teachers
need to know and be able to do. For teacher educators, among
other tasks, this involves balancing the need to acknowledge the
different discipline-specific requirements of teaching with the
need to model constructivist methods in teacher education
courses and practicums. Richardson (1997) also notes the limits
of a perspective on teaching that values students' understandings
at the expense of "right" answers. Student knowledge becomes
idiosyncratic; 30 different students may arrive at 30 different
understandings or interpretations of a concept, all of which are
not equally appropriate. Inappropriately applied, constructivist
approaches may lead to the "abandonment" style of teaching
(MacKinnon and Scarff-Seatter, 1997).
Several authors cite the importance of teacher educators'
modeling constructivist approaches that engage students in
interdisciplinary exploration, collaborative activity, and field-
249
based opportunities for experiential learning, reflection, and selfexamination
(Kaufman, 1996; Kroll and LaBosky, 1996) if future
teachers are to be able to employ these strategies in schools.
To derive culturally relevant and socially just pedagogy and
practice from constructivist epistemologies, Martin (1994) and
Vadeboncoeur (1997) urge teacher educators to deconstruct and
scrutinize cultural assumptions that underlie various
interpretations of constructivism to expose how social beliefs
have influenced the development of theory and practices.
Without such scrutiny, societal inequities and historical forms of
oppression may be perpetuated in supposedly constructivist
classrooms, and the very constraints on individual development
constructivists seek to remove or ameliorate will be reinforced.
A final challenge faced by educators is the pitfall of regarding
constructivism as the only viable theoretical framework for
teaching and learning. It is one way of thinking about how
knowledge and understanding are formed, but it is not the only
way. Prospective teachers should be exposed to varying
perspectives and given opportunities to develop the discretion
needed to choose most appropriately and the skills to implement
their choices.
Advantages of Constructivism :
1. Students learn more, and enjoy learning more when they are
actively involved, rather than passive listeners.
2. Education works best when it concentrates on thinking and
understanding, rather than on rote memorization. Constructivism
concentrates on learning how to think and understand.
3. Constructivist learning is transferable. In constructivist
classrooms, students create organizing principles that they can
take with them to other learning settings.
4. Constructivism gives students ownership of what they learn,
since learning is based on students' questions and explorations,
and often the students have a hand in designing the assessments
as well. Constructivist assessment engages the students'
initiatives and personal investments in their journals, research
reports, physical models, and artistic representations. Engaging
the creative instincts develops students' abilities to express
knowledge through a variety of ways. The students are also more
likely to retain and transfer the new knowledge to real life.
250
5. By grounding learning activities in an authentic, real-world
context, constructivism stimulates and engages students. Students
in constructivist classrooms learn to question things and to apply
their natural curiosity to the world.
6. Constructivism promotes social and communication skills by
creating a classroom environment that emphasizes collaboration
and exchange of ideas. Students must learn how to articulate their
ideas clearly as well as to collaborate on tasks effectively by
sharing in group projects. Students must therefore exchange ideas
and so must learn to "negotiate" with others and to evaluate their
contributions in a socially acceptable manner. This is essential to
success in the real world, since they will always be exposed to a
variety of experiences in which they will have to cooperate and
navigate among the ideas of others.
1. Explain the meaning of Reflective Teacher education.
2. Discuss the need for Reflective Teacher education.
3. Elaborate the criteria for Reflective Teacher education.
4. Discuss the approaches to Reflective Teacher education.
251
5. What are the advantages of Reflective Teacher education?
6. Explain the concept of Constructivist Teacher education.
7. Discuss the guiding principles of Constructivism.
8. Explain the 5E Model of Constructivism.
9. Elaborate the features of a Constructivist classroom.
252
10.What are the advantages of Constructivist Teacher Education?
Teacher Education faces a major challenge of a divide
between theory and practice. The quality of teacher development
practices has become a major concern in recent educational
discourse. There is a great emphasis on collaborative and reflective
approaches for teacher empowerment. This unit has elaborated upon
these approaches that would serve to make teacher development
practices more meaningful and holistic.
References :
1. Cannella, G. S., and Reiff, J. C. (1994). Individual constructivist
teacher education: Teachers as empowered learners. Teacher
Education Quarterly 21(3), 27-38. EJ 498 429.
2. DeJong, L., and Groomes, F. (1996). A constructivist teacher
education program that incorporates community service to
prepare students to work with children living in poverty. Action
in Teacher Education 18(2), 86-95. EJ 536 849.
3. Fischetti, J., Dittmer, A., and Kyle, D. W. (1996). Shifting
paradigms: Emerging issues for educational policy and practice.
Teacher Educator 31(3), 189-201. EJ 525 345.
4. Kaufman, D. (1996). Constructivist-based experiential learning
in teacher education. Action in Teacher Education 18(2), 40-49.
EJ 536 845.
5. Kroll, L. R., and LaBosky, V. K. (1996). Practicing what we
preach: Constructivism in a teacher education program. Action In
Teacher Education 18(2), 63-72. EJ 536 947.
6. MacKinnon, A., and Scarff-Seatter, C. (1997). Constructivism:
253
Contradictions and confusion in teacher education. In V.
Richardson (Ed.), Constructivist Teacher Education: Building
New Understandings (pp.38-55). Washington, DC: Falmer Press.
7. Martin, R. J. (1994). Multicultural social reconstructionist
education: Design for diversity in teacher education. TEACHER
EDUCATION QUARTERLY 21(3), 77-89. EJ 492 141.
8. Myers, C. B. (1996, April). Beyond Pdss: Schools As
Professional Learning Communities. A Proposal Based On An
Analysis Of Pds Efforts Of The 1990's. Paper presented at the
annual meeting of the American Educational Research
Association, New York. ED 400 227.
9. Oldfather, P., Bonds, S., and Bray, T. (1994). Drawing the circle:
Collaborative mind mapping as a process for developing a
constructivist teacher education program. Teacher Education
Quarterly 21(3), 5-13. EJ 492 137.
10.O'Loughlin, M. (1995). Daring the imagination: Unlocking
voices of dissent and possibility in teaching. Theory into Practice
24(2), 107-116. EJ 512 860.
11.Richardson, V. (1997). Constructivist teaching and teacher
education: Theory and practice. In V. Richardson (Ed.),
Constructivist Teacher Education: Building New Understandings
(pp. 3-14). Washington, DC: Falmer Press.
12.Teets, S. T., and Starnes, B. A. (1996). Foxfire: Constructivism
for teachers and learners. Action In Teacher Education 18(2), 31-
39. EJ 536 844.
13.Vadeboncoeur, J. (1997). Child development and the purpose of
education: A historical context for constructivism in teacher
education. In V. Richardson (Ed.), Constructivist Teacher
Education: Building New Understandings (pp. 15-37).
Washington, DC: Falmer Press.
14.Wolffe, R. J., and McMullen, D. W. (1996). The constructivist
connection: Linking theory, best practice, and technology.
Journal of Computing In Teacher Education 12(2), 25-28. EJ
526 775.
8B
254
EDUCATION -II
Unit Structure :
8.B.0 Objectives
8.B.1 Introduction
8.B.2 E-teacher Education
8.B.3 Value-based Teacher Education
8.B.4 Let us Sum up
8.B.0 OBJECTIVES :
Explain the role of teacher educators in E-teacher education.
Discuss the outcome of E-teacher education on student teachers
and teacher educators.
Explain the Value Clarifying approach to value based education.
Elaborate the use of Contrived experiences in value based
education.
Teaching and Learning discourse has been changed. New
roles of the teaching process have been derived from the concept of
knowledge society at all educational levels. In the context of the
information and/or knowledge societies and lifelong learning
strategy, a new frame of pre-service and in-service teacher education
needs to be defined. The current level of the learning technology
development provides opportunities for collaborative engagement,
access to information, interaction with content and individual
empowerment. Rapid changes in communication technologies
enable teachers to move from traditional classroom activities to
online classrooms, or online activities in the traditional classrooms.
8.B.2 E-TEACHER EDUCATION :
Concept and Features of E-teacher Education :
Educational systems worldwide insist on using information
and communication technologies (ICT) to teach students who gain
255
the knowledge and skills needed for the future knowledge society
(Jimoyiannis and Komis, 2007). E-teacher education would develop
in pre-service a positive attitude towards e-learning and using
computers in their future classrooms.
E-teacher education is the instructional system of processes
and activities designed according to the ICT development,
characteristics and models of e-learning, principles of formal
communication, principles of e-education, principles of competencebased
education system, etc.
E-teaching adopts the constructivist principles in the
designing of learning experiences. The concept of co-operative
teaching is the fundamental construct to develop e-teaching
scenarios.
There are different forms of e-learning courses (Milosevic et
al, 2009). They are as follows;
E-learning activities in online professional learning community:
graduated students active teachers participate in a series of
learning activities, exchanging ideas with other students and
teachers; this form uses web based technologies, asynchronous
discussions, participation in school based activities
(implementation lessons, assessment procedures, etc.)
E-learning programmes use broadcast formats, lectures
reviewing, class demonstrations, reviewing other online
materials; this form uses multiple sites, interaction via video
conferencing, online text messaging; video conference-based
teaching approach is important part of the (presented)
curriculum;
Individualized self paced instructional procedures: series of
online learning activities which are delivered between e-teacher
and teacher participants who are the e-learners in the curriculum:
it includes some forms of the self study without interaction,
some interactions with instructor though online discussion, email,
Skype;
Hybrid teaching models: this form uses integrative onsite
meetings, classroom visits, face-to-face workshops, coaching and
mentoring programmes, small study groups;
E-learning based on the extend communication in distance
situation and without immediate connection.
256
E-Tutors :
Teachers play a vital role in realizing the educational goals of
a dynamic society. The quality of teachers is of prime importance for
the success of educational endeavours. Teachers competence
includes the following three fundamental professional competencies
(Bjekic and Zlatic, 2006) :
Educational competenciessystem of knowledge, skills, abilities
and motivation dispositions to realize educational professional
roles;
Programme competencies or course content competenciessystem
of knowledge and skills from the course content and
developed activities to teach the students about the knowledge
and skills;
Communication competenciessystem of the knowledge, skills,
abilities and motivational dispositions to realize the goals of
communication and teaching social interaction.
To gain the expected educational outcomes a teacher can use
information and communication technology. E-teaching
competencies would serve to enhance the professional competencies
of teachers.
Structure
of teachers competence (Bjekic et al, 2008)
E-teaching competence is the synthesis of the didactical,
technological, personal and organizational components that are
necessary for effective e-learning and e-teaching modeling and
realization.
There are three dimensions of the teachers ICT competencies
(Awouters et al, 2008):
257
1. The teacher knows what learning activities using ICT can be
used in teaching (ICT Awareness).
2. The teacher has the necessary skills for using hardware and
software (ICT readiness) and
3. The teacher knows the pedagogical-didactical elements of ICT
(ICT drill and practice).
Teachers can be in a position of the creator of e-teaching
process or the user of the e-teaching/e-learning modules. Teachers
need to rethink their underlying assumptions about teaching, about
the learning process and, most fundamentally, about their role as
educators. Teacher activities in the e-teaching scenarios can be
broken into two major tasks: providing the content for the students
and supporting communication between students and tutors. Eteacher
educators must therefore be able to organize different types
of e-learning and e-teaching scenarios.
Some models of learning scenarios and e-teaching scenarios are as
follows:
Web-based e-learning scenarios;
Classroom based e-learning scenarios;
Online classroom e-learning scenarios;
Scenarios of net based course;
Scenarios of e-learning with streaming media technology;
Scenarios of e-learning in the hypermedia classroom;
Scenarios of e-learning based on the combination of the
traditional classroom learning and e-learning.
E-tutors have many professional roles in the e-learning
process. Brigitte Denis et al. (2004) described some central and
some peripheral roles of e-tutors in e-learning. They are as follows;
Sr.
No.
Central
Roles
The E-tutor
1. Content
facilitator
Intervenes sometimes as subject expert,
sometimes as interpreter and guide through
the concepts of study.
2. Metacognition
facilitator
Supports reflection on learning activities
and outcomes, study skills development.
258
3. Process
facilitator
Supports learners learning strategies, time
management.
4. Advisor
(counselor)
Provides pastoral support, doorway to
institutional/local support systems.
5. Assessor
(formative
and
summative)
Gives feedback on task achievement and
performance, assignment development,
sometimes he/she is also examiner.
6. Technologist Guide, first-post support with technologies
and tools for learning.
7. Resource
provider
Identifies and locates, develops and
produces resources to provide learning
support.
Sr.
No.
Peripheral
Roles
The E-tutor
1. Manager and
Administrator
Supports the management of the course
keeping records and checking the
enrolments.
2. Designer Can sometimes intervene to help to design
the course or course module, the lesson
itself- the pedagogies, the tasks to be done.
3. Co-learner Genuinely friend to the end of the course,
walking with the learner-participants and
learning alongside them.
4. Researcher Can be a reflective practitioner and action
researcher who acts on the basis of his/her
e-tutor experience.
Gilly Salmon (2007) emphasizes the importance of emoderation
in different teaching situations supported by ICT. Thus,
e-moderator is one of the teachers roles in e-teacher education. The
curriculum for e-teacher education should focus on the different eroles
for teachers and e-teachers, namely e-creator, e-designer, efacilitator,
e-tutor, e-moderator, etc. E-teaching requires a wide
spectrum of e-roles. It is necessary for teachers in e-education
environment to acquire sufficient knowledge about e-teaching and elearning.
The Outcomes of E-Teacher Education :
259
The competencies that are developed through E-teacher education
are as follows;
1. General Competencies;
System of knowledge, abilities and skills of the vocational
and scientific critical approach to investigation and problem
resolving; writing skills and skills of the presentation of the
vocational and scientific papers; research autonomy and selfreliance;
Team competencies and effective communication skills in the
work and research processes;
Qualified persons for continual education and development of
interdisciplinary approach;
Professional activities in keeping with professional and
scientific ethics.
2. Subject specific Competencies:
Complex theoretical knowledge system of the education
processes and technological systems;
Qualification for selection, applying investigation, evaluation,
innovation and development of the current methods as well as
types of learning and teaching.
The skills of the planning and managing of learning and
teaching process, modeling of the learning situation;
Specialized knowledge and skills of the special domains of
the e-education, design, creation, implementation, delivering,
evaluation and management of the e-courses;
Qualification to use complex theory and interpretation, to
demonstrate practical knowledge and apply it in the online,
synchronous and asynchronous mode.
The student teachers and teacher educators would be able to :
Functionally explain the processes and dimensions of eeducation,
e-teaching and e-learning;
Research the basic principles of the learning base on the
multimedia, analyze interaction as well as synchronous and
asynchronous e-learning/e-teaching communication;
Select and apply the adequate technologies and tools in the
effective creation of different e-learning solutions;
Understand the functioning of the hardware, software and
260
communication e-learning infrastructure;
Create configuration and apply different multimedia devices,
software tools, video conferencing solutions in the process of
e-learning development and realization;
Design, develop and realize e-learning procedures based on
the specific educational needs of individuals, groups and
systems;
Develop assessment plan, e-assessment techniques, collect
data of the achievement, and interpret student performance in
the frame of the formal, informal and social learning;
Analyze and improve roles of e-educator, e-manager, eadministrator,
manage ones own learning and make plans for
professional development;
Resolve e-educational problems and innovate e-learning and
e-teaching process.
According to Kleiman (2004), e-learning can contribute to
addressing each challenge by enhancing the preparation of new
teachers, providing high quality and readily accessible professional
development opportunities for active teachers, and making the
teaching profession more attractive (e.g., by providing online
resources for teachers and new connections to colleagues and
mentors) to help address the teacher recruitment and retention
problem.
8.B.3 VALUE-BASED TEACHER EDUCATION :
Introduction :
Values are integral to the process of education. They are not
add-ons. All education is, in sense, value education. 'Value-less' or
'value neutral' education is a contradiction in terms, given the
meaning of 'value' and 'education'. Education is a process of bringing
about desirable changes in the way one thinks feels and acts in
accordance with one's concept of the good life. In this sense,
education necessarily involves the transmission of values. Our aims
of education development of personality, pursuit of knowledge,
preservation of culture, training of characterare no more than
statements of our value preferences. Towards realising them we
design a curriculum, a planned collection of desirable knowledge,
skills, attitudes and values that we wish to pass on to the younger
generation. And this we do in ways that do not violate the freedom
and autonomy of the learner. In other words, education, in its aims,
261
curriculum and methods, is inseparably linked with values. The
demand for value orientation of education (and teachers education),
therefore, needs to be considered visa-vis internal reform of the
objectives, content and processes of school education and teachers
education.
What does it mean to Value Educate?
Value education is a process of education. This means that it
is a process of inducing learning. Learning is not a passive process
of absorption. It involves thinking, reflecting, questioning, feeling,
doing, caring, experiencing. Value education, accordingly, is not a
process of authoritarian indoctrination of dogmas, exhortation or
propaganda. Nor is it the direct inculcation of a body of predetermined
'right' values in the learners through didactic approaches.
The goal is not to promote passive conformity and blind obedience
to whatever values are passed on, but to encourage critical and
reflective thinking, rational choice and responsible behaviour,
respecting the autonomy of the learner. When we are 'value
educating', we are putting the learners in situations that enable them
to think, to reason, to question, to reflect, to care, to feel concern, to
act. The purpose is to trigger discussions and reflections, and to
generate creative responses to value situations.
Value education is also education in the sense that it is
education for 'becoming '. It is concerned with the development of
the total personality of the individualintellectual, social,
emotional, aesthetic, moral and spiritual. It involves developing
sensitivity to the good, the right and the beautiful, ability to choose
the right values in accordance with the highest ideals of life and
internalising and realising them in thought and action. As such the
process calls into play all human facultiesknowing, feeling and
doing. Not only should the learner be enabled to know the right and
the good, but also to care, to feel the appropriate emotions, concern
and commitment and exercise the will to do the right thing. In other
words, to 'value educate' is to develop rational critical thinking, to
educate the emotions, to cultivate the imagination, to strengthen will
and to train character of the learner.
Value Education, as it is generally used, refers to a wide
gamut of learning and activities ranging from training in physical
health, mental hygiene, etiquette and manners, appropriate social
behaviour, civic rights and duties to aesthetic and even religious
training.
262
To some, value education is simply a matter of developing
appropriate behaviour and habits involving inculcation of certain
virtues and habits. In opposition to such a conception, it is pointed
out that value education has an essentially cognitive component in it
and that this should not be ignored. Actually the ability to make
moral judgement based on sound reasoning is a very important aim
of value education and has to be deliberately cultivated.
Moral development of a child, according to some, results
automatically from the social life of the school. The child as a
member of the group imbibes the attitudes, values and general
behaviour of the group and continually tries to mould himself
according to the group norm. Such adjustment to life constitutes his
moral development. Value Education is a process of aiding the
student in such adjustment. Such a view is contested on the ground
that although children learn the rules of group living from the social
life of the school, such learning does not constitute value education.
For morality, it is pointed out, is not concerned so much with `what
is' as with `what ought to be' and `what ought to be done'.
Value Education, according to one more view, is essentially a
matter of educating the feelings and emotions. It is the `training of
the heart' and consists in developing the right feelings and emotions.
It does not involve any cognitive abilities that can be trained. Like
poetry, it is `caught' rather than taught. It is essentially a matter of
creating the right atmosphere, imitation and learning by example
communion with nature or modelling one self after an ideal. Such a
view is countered by saying that mere imitation of a `good' person
and modelling oneself after an ideal does not confer any morality on
an individual. Morality is not a thing that simply `radiates' from one
person to another. Moral development includes both thinking
morally and behaving morally. Moral thinking is a distinct type of
thinking characterized by the exercise of rational choice. A moral
person is not only a person who does the `right' thing but also one
who does the `right' thing for the `right' reason.
What shall the teacher be trained in and for what?
This question has to be considered in the light of the purpose
of value education already discussed. The purpose is to kindle the
moral and aesthetic sensibilities of learners, to raise their level of
value consciousness, to stimulate them to think freely and critically,
to develop the ability to judge actions and events rationally, and to
choose and act courageously and with conviction for the sake of the
larger social good. Accordingly, the teacher has to be trained to
263
function as an agent who stimulates, provokes, informs and
sensitises the learners with reference to value situations in life.
Through involving the learners actively in discussion, dialogue and
practical activities, the teacher should make them think and reflect
on human actions and events. The teacher should also expose
students to works of art, beauty in nature, and in human relationships
and actions of moral worth, and develop their moral sensibilities.
The institutional processes in the training institution should help
teachers acquire these capabilities by providing concrete situations
and opportunities and actively involve them in appropriate learning
experiences.
The general tone and ethos of the school act as a powerful
source of value education. Children acquire sensitivity to values and
ideals by living in and coming into contact with the school
atmosphere. Such an atmosphere is not created overnight nor by
teachers or pupils alone. It needs the sustained, collective efforts of
all concerned with educationteachers, parents, community leaders
and students. Teachers have a major role in making the school what
it ought to be. They should help in creating an atmosphere of love,
trust, cooperation and security in the school conducive to the
development of high ideals and values. The teachers training
experience in its totality should lead to the motivation of teachers
towards the attainment of these ideals.
Value education is not a sphere of activity that is distinct from
the teacher's other professional activities teaching, guiding pupils
and interacting with them, organising co curricular activities and the
like. The very nature of teaching imposes certain obligations and
commitments on a teacher. Essentially, teaching is an act to bring
about learning. The primary obligations of a teacher are to the
learner and knowledge. These obligations of a teacher are
nonnegotiable. They imply that the teacher has to understand the
learner as a person as well as a learner. Regarding the former, the
teacher has to love the students and be genuinely interested in their
growth and development. To get them to learn, teachers have to
understand the way children learn, and equip themselves with all
necessary pedagogical skills to promote learning in them. They
should possess the right qualities of mind and heart necessary for the
pursuit of knowledgelove of knowledge, curiosity and desire to
know, sincere desire to keep on learning and update knowledge,
humility and honesty to admit ignorance. They should have a sound
social philosophy, characterised by social sensitivity, concern for
social justice and human rights. It is essential that they carry out
their professional obligations in accordance with the highest
264
standards and ethics of the teaching profession. Teachers education
should provide sample experiences for the trainees to understand the
professional code and its rationale, and ensure its honest observance
by teachers and teacher educators in the training institution.
Approaches to Value Based Teacher Education :
Currently various kinds of programmes, both pre-service and
in-service, are being conducted for the orientation and training of
teachers in value education. Under one scheme, identified 'lead
institutions' conduct 3-4 weeks long residential courses for teachers.
Shorter duration programmes for teacher educators are also
organised. Some observations on the format and content of these
programmes are given below:
These programmes carry nomenclatures like value-oriented
teachers education, value education for teachers and so on. Their
focus is on personal development of the subjects through mindimprovement
techniques, prayer, yoga, meditation and relief from
stress, although different value themes like scientific attitude and
environment also find a place. Messages are delivered through
lectures, discourses, benedictions and exhortations. The residential
atmosphere adds to the tone of the programme whose main objective
is to inspire the subject to live a life of peace, moral purity and
spiritual development. Although such programmes contribute in
their own way to the development of the trainees, from the point of
the philosophy of value education enunciated in this paper, they fail
to address the essential elements of value education training. First,
the typical programme (as can be made out from its contents)
addresses teachers and teacher educators as individuals and not as
professionals having specified roles to carry out. It sidelines the
value educating functions of the teachers and teacher educators and
treats them as individuals seeking spiritual perfection. It is true that
the two aspects are related, but a teacher education programme in
value education should be primarily concerned with the roles and
functions of teacher educators as 'value educators'. It is expected to
aim at the development in the trainees understandings, skills and
attitudes as would equip them to discharge their functions as value
educators.
Secondly, it misses the nub of value education, that it is a
learning experience that induces one to think, reflect, feel, question,
criticise, care, judge and act, and not a prescription for personal
peace, tranquillity and happiness, a kind of an intellectual sedative.
If we expect teachers to function as providers of such learning
265
experiences to children in schools, it behoves on trainers of teachers
(and teacher educators) to provide similar experiences to their
trainees. Attempting to 'train' teachers and teacher educators through
discourses and exhortations will not go far in making them effective
teachers of value.
Teachers and teacher educators are to be prepared as value
educators with reference to the concrete realities in which they have
to function. These may be: the state of school education and
teachers education; the curriculum and the manner in which it is
transacted; the goals and values that the schools pursue and their
compatibility with educational aims; the role expectations from
teachers and teacher educators; the actualities, the atmosphere of the
school and the training institution; and the processes of management,
administration and a host of other factors that go to make the school
and the training institution what they are. It is important to note here
that all the committees and commissions have referred to value
education in the concrete context of national goals on the basis of
analysis of the educational and social situations. The point is that a
programme of teachers training in value education should be rooted
in the realities of school and teachers education, with greater
emphasis on values like justice, equality, compassion, cooperation
and human rights.
The methods and strategies of value education are many and
varied the selection of, which depends much upon the values chosen,
sources of development of these values and many other limiting
factors. The entire curriculum functions as important sources of
value education. The democratic practice and activities sponsored
though a student self government contributes effectively for value
learning. Values education, therefore, is effected though direct,
indirect, incidental methods. Values get transmitted via both the
implicit or hidden and planned curriculum.
The point emphasized is that the entire process of value
education is a highly comprehensive and complex one that involves
a wide range and variety of learning experiences. All forms of
learning cannot be provided though single source or teacher should
draw form a variety of learning resources either independently or in
combination. With this analysis and understanding background, the
following methods and techniques may be suggested.
1. Classroom learning activities methods/approach
2. Practical activities method
3. Socialized techniques and activities
266
4. Incidental learning method
1. Classroom Learning Activities Method :
A very basic purpose of value education is to develop the
moral autonomy of the learner and also sensitivities of value content
of school and classroom activities. The methods and activities
should be free from attempt to indoctrinate the learner. Capacity for
value judgment and internalization are to be achieved by exposing
students to a variety of experiences and activities. This may include
reading, listening, discussions, narration, direct presentation of ideas
by the teacher and other strategies. These strategies should be used
with any of the following sources of value education (a) Biographies
(b) Stories (c) Extracts form essays, articles, classics and news paper
(d) Parables, proverbs, quotations and poems (e) value/moral
dilemmas (f) classroom incidents/anecdotes/ conflicts. These sources
can be used in many different ways to involve the learner in thinking
and reasoning about values. The classroom teachers can prepare
action plans/lesson plans using these sources, a few illustrations of
which are discussed here.
(a) Biographies: A biography is a written document on the life
history of an eminent personality. Biographies of scientist, social
reformers and spiritual leaders acquaint one personality.
Biographies of scientist, social reformers and spiritual leaders
acquaint one with their life, thoughts, and actions and various
forces which moulded their lives as depicted by biographer. For
being used as material for value education it should be condensed
in such a way as to highlight the virtues and their development in
the life of the eminent personality. The entire biography may be
retold after rearranging the content bringing together all the
related events depicting each one of the values hidden in it.
(b) Stories: Stories of various kinds are attractive to students of
varied age groups. Stories may be presented by the teacher or
presented by students themselves, followed by discussions and
on questioning and analysis. The teacher should use his direction
in selecting the story appropriate to the developmental level of
the learner. Simple and short stories such as fairy tales and fables
are better suited to elementary level children. Stories could be
used to develop value awareness of different kinds. Fables and
fairy tales could be used to develop values of kindness, love for
living beings, environmental awareness and courage. (The step
involved in story telling with illustrations are given in
appendix II)
267
(c) Extracts from Essays. Articles, Classics and Newspapers:
Non-fictional writings dealing with value themes, such as essays,
articles and news paper reports may be used for value education
purpose. These may be scholarly writings on issues of social and
national concern appearing in books and journals. Students may
be asked to collect articles and writings form various sources,
encouraged to write articles on a chosen value theme. Teachers
can frame questions that provoke in the learner to think and
reflect on many issues of the values covered. (Illustrations form
famous works are given appendix III).
(d) Value / Moral Dilemmas for Discussions: Value or moral
dilemmas may be used as important instructional strategies in
value education. They present very effective situations for
learners to think, to reason and to make moral judgment and
arrive at a decision after considering all issues involved in the
moral dilemma. The dilemmas constructed may be on issues like
environmental conservation, scientific temper, social justice and
equality. A teacher can prepare a lesson or initiate discussion on
a dilemma indicating all the essential steps involved. In view of
the great potential of dilemmas in developing the capacity for
moral judgment moral dilemmas are used as research tools in the
study of moral development and judgment in children. The
teacher can initiate discussion on the dilemma chosen by giving
the pros and cons of the issues involved. The student may be
asked to react to each issue with reason. There may be a student
leader to monitor/record the proceedings of the discussion (The
moral dilemmas and illustrations are given in appendix IV).
2. Practical Activities Method / Approach :
Value education merely by cognitive precept is not enough even
though it is essential. Children should engage themselves in life
related practical activities which will promote the application of
principles and values in daily life. The essence of practical
approach is that they provide the learners with suitable
opportunities to practice and live their lives according to the
principles and values they have perceived and understood. Under
the rubric of practical activities a wide range of activities may be
organized. Practically, all subjects of school curriculum lead to
project or practical work and this may be designed as to make it
relevant to value education. A sound program of value education
may include a combination of a few or all activities mentioned
belowa.
Social and ethical values, examples from day-to-day situations,
extracts from sayings of great men, incidents and problems
268
which develop value judgement among pupils, dramas,
dialogues, simple poems(Kavya Vachana) and scriptures from
world religions could form the major part of the content along
with the biographies of great men.
b. Personal, neighbourly and community values should be taught in
the classroom and thoroughly discussed with the students.
c. A variety of learning resources can be used for value education
ranging from biographies, scriptures, proverbs, hymns and
sayings of great men to current social and political events, stories
from religion and mythology, moral dilemmas and schools
events.
d. Yoga and other activities that develop self-discipline among
students could be included.
e. Group activities like cleaning the campus, visiting slums, visits to
hospitals, visits to places of worship of different faiths should
form part of content in value education. Discourses on the lives
of spiritual leaders can bring out values like self-sacrifice,
collective happiness, love for truth and ultimate values of life for
which the great leaders lived.
f. Personality Development Retreats' could be held to enable the
students to develop self-control, punctuality, sharing and caring
respect for other faiths, cooperation and the value of
silence(inner peace).
g. Prayer, meditation and `Shramadan' could form part of the
content of value education. They can help the students cultivate
inner poise and an attitudinal shift, and develop the quality of
`dignity of labour'.
h. Observing `Jayanthis' ie., birthdays of great national and spiritual
leaders and organizing youth organizations for character
development can go a long way in the inculcation of values in
students.
Organizing value related practical activities poses some
practical problems to the school. Great care should be taken in
planning and organizing practical activities mentioned above.
3. Contrived Incidents/ Socialized Techniques approaches
A variety of group oriented techniques may be used in value
education. The learner in socialized techniques is involved in
activities and experiences which best represent functions and
269
problems of agents of socialization. The experience the learner gets
here is not the same type of experience deriving from direct
encounters with reality, nor is it completely indirect and abstract as
in the case of cognitive area. They are the simplified versions of real
social experiences and one necessary and useful when the reality is
too abstract and obscured. These include social role playing enacting
and modeling.
The effectiveness of the social experiences planned to
promote healthy development among children could be increased
with the better understanding of social role playing. Children in
various social situations assume some roles. One can understand the
interrelationship between the expectations of other and the
identification of the self in the social role playing the learner should
be guided properly to understand the role behavior and enactment.
Role playing activities should be organized based on the life
experiences and age level of students. Expected role of an ideal
student, teacher, parent, patriot should encourage student to take role
taking activities voluntarily. Negative precepts are to be discouraged
in role playing.
In simulation activities the learner pretends to be in real
situation and portrays events and characteristics in the situation.
Modeling is a strategy in which qualities of an individual who is
considered to posses desirable or ideal values worth emulating are
presented to the learners as a model a broad indication of the kinds
of activities possible under the heads of socialized strategies for
value education purpose are listed belowa.
Dramatization activities like staging play, dramas, both of
traditional folk and modern on value themes.
b. Enacting opportunities to take up and practice the role of
different kinds, taking the role form epics/scriptures.
c. Modeling exercise, the ideal persons and groups on themes such
as
1) Gender inequality
2) Problems pertaining to women's role and education
3) Caring animals and human beings
4) Problems related to environmental protection
5) Consequences of air water pollution
270
(Constructing the image through discussions, questioning and
developing awareness about the specific problems in the above
mentioned areas).
Phases to be followed in the use of Contrived Incidents:
Orientation; In this phase, the participants are given a detailed
description of the strategy, and its purpose. This is done to create
a readiness for the class..
Participant briefing; In this phase, the participants are briefed
about the performance expected of them.
Participant performance; In this phase, the participants perform
and act as required by the incident.
Participant debriefing; Here the teacher educator asks questions
to relate the incident to real life situations, thus leading to
learning.
4. Incidental Learning Method :
An incident is an episode or experience in the life of an
individual or group. The incidental approach has a very good point
in its favor in that it can be used both inside as well as outside the
classroom for value education purposes. It consists in identifying the
wrong or right actions of an individual or group, either pre-planned
to occur or observed by accident, and reprimanding or rewarding
those concerned. This approach is psychologically effective since it
is like striking the iron while it is hot. Episodes or incidents centered
around experience of everyday occurrence in the life of children can
help children identify themselves with them and understand their
own thought powers and feelings. Incidents are to be recorded
properly and discussed to promote better insight into human
problems.
Several attempts have been made to evolve methodologies
suitable to the development of values in children and youth.
Douglas Supreka (1976) outlines eight different approaches to
value Education, which may be briefly stated as under :
1. Evocation Approach: The students are encouraged to make
spontaneously free, non-rational choices, without thought or
hesitation. It provides an environment which allows maximum
freedom for students, and provide a provocative situation for
which spontaneous reactions are elicited eg. The reaction to a
picture of starving children.
271
2. Inculcation Approach: Students are forced to act according to
specific desired values. A positive and negative reinforcement by
the teacher helps value inculcation. This can be done by a
teacher's natural actions and responses. This time honored
method has been notably unsuccessful.
3. Awareness Approach: This approach helps students to become
aware and identify their own values. The students are encouraged
to share their experiences. The teacher presents value laden
situations or dilemmas through readings, films, role playing,
small group discussions and simulation. Students thus engage
themselves in the process of making inferences about values
from the thoughts, feelings, beliefs or behavior of themselves and
others.
4. Moral Reasoning Approach: Kohlberg's theory of six stages of
moral development is the framework most frequently used in this
approach. The teachers setup learning experiences which will
facilitate moral development. These experiences fall under the
general category of what Kohlberg calls role taking. The critical
factor in role taking is empathy. Through placing themselves in a
role and experiencing the process of deciding, students can begin
to see moral decisions in a larger framework than their single
point of view. It consists of the students discussing a dilemma
and by reasoning they attain a higher level of knowledge. In this
way by discussion and reflection students are encouraged to
express a value position rather than compromise on a consensus.
5. Analysis Approach: the group or individuals are encouraged to
study social value problems. They are asked to clarify value
questions, and identify values in conflict. They are encouraged to
determine the truth and evidence of purported facts, and arrive at
value decision, applying analogous cases, inferring and testing
value principles underlying the decision.
6. Value Clarification Approach: It helps students to use both
rational thinking and emotional awareness to examine personal
behavior patterns and classify and actualize values. This
approach has been detailed by Raths et al (1966) and Simon et at
(1972) where the child is made to jot down a self - analysis
reaction work sheet, consisting of drawings, questions and
activities.
The Value Clarification Approach :
272
Of the various approaches to value education, the most
commonly discussed and most influential approach is the values
clarification approach espoused by Raths, Harmin and Simon in their
book, Values and Teaching. Raths et al. hold that a wide range of
conflicting values present themselves to each person. In view of this
medley of conflicting values, individuals seem to be confused in
values. Those children who experience value confusion are often
identifiable by idiosyncratic behaviour patterns inconsistency,
drift, over-conformity, over-dissension, and chronic posing; and
frequently, underachievement (Raths, 1966).
Raths, the originator of values clarification, encouraged
students to think for themselves about their value confusion in an
effort to enable them to be more self-directing in lifes confusions.
Merrill Harmin (co-author with Raths) notes that Raths view was
built on Deweys suggestions that reflection on life experiences
would serve integration of sense, need, impulse and action (1979).
This reflection, then, would lead to clarity in values. The following
statement of Harmin(1979) provides a summary of the aims of value
clarification, Values Clarification is merely meant to do what it is
meant to do, which is to assist people to think through lifes
confusions so they might be less confused and so they might learn
skills of self-direction that will serve them in the future.
In approaching value education this way, Raths and his
colleagues are concerned not with the content of peoples values, but
with a process approach to values i.e., they are concerned with the
process of valuing rather than the nature of values themselves. This
approach advocates that there are no absolute values.
The process of Value Clarification may be defined in terms of
specific patterns of language which students use and from which the
teacher may reasonable infer that valuing is occurring. This
approach is based on the principles of values relativity (that we
should not judge the worthiness of each others values), and that we
should strive to classify those values that are personally meaningful,
that is, the values that make us more purposeful, productive and
socially aware, and better critical thinkers.
According to values clarification, values are based on three
processes (Raths et al): 1) Choosing; 2) Prizing; and 3) Acting.
Accordingly, value is defined as that which results when and only
when all seven of the criteria given below are satisfied:
Choosing :
273
1) Freely
2) From alternatives
3) After thoughtful consideration of the consequence of each
alternative
Prizing :
4) Cherishing, being happy with the choice
5) Willing to affirm the choice publicly
Acting :
6) Doing something with the choice
7) Repeatedly; in some pattern of life
These processes collectively define valuing. Unless
something satisfies all seven of the criteria, then it is not regarded as
a value. The basic strategy involved in values clarification is called
the clarifying response. The clarifying response is (Raths et al,
1966): a way of responding to a student that results in his
considering what he has chosen, what he prizes, and or what he is
doing. It stimulates him to clarify his thinking and behaviour and
thus to clarify his values; it encourages him to think about them.
The utilization of values clarification as a therapeutic
process should include guiding the client through three phases. The
three phases are as follows:
1. The Discovery/Awareness Phase:
The client is encouraged to identify certain primary values
that may be acceptable to him/her. The value is determined to be
primary if the client believes that it definitely represents what is
good or worthy of cherishing. During this phase, the client begins to
accept particular values through a cognitive growth process. The
client must cognitively grow to comprehend the value in action.
After the conceptualization of the value is good, then it can be
emotionally embraced.
2. Claiming/Reclaiming Values Phase:
At this point in the process the values being considered move
more into the emotional realm and are more than mental constructs.
The values become more than an intellectual rule, model, spiritual
principle, moral principle, or desirable guide for self, significant
274
others, family, community, society and the world. The values being
examined becomes the focus of an internal struggle to integrate
something new or something that is missing, into the personality
system. As the individual claims or reclaims a particular value,
she/he must be encouraged to examine past experiences. The process
includes (1) how others treated the individual, (2) how the individual
treated others, (3) what was the meaning of the social interaction, (4)
how does the value relate to goals, pleasures and opportunities.
3. Acceptance:
The particular values that are examined will be referred to by
the client as now central to the clients world view and lifestyle. The
client will be able to refer to tangible expressions of the value
through daily interaction. The particular values that have been
accepted will be expressed as having a clear prominent position in
the individuals hierarchy of ideals and ideas.
Typical Value Clarifying strategies are as follows;
Y-chart: Students develop a list of actions that demonstrate a
value by listing them respectively in the three segments formed
by the Y, namely, what the value looks like, sounds like and feels
like.
SWOT Analysis: Students identify the Strengths, Weaknesses,
Opportunities and Threats relating to a particular issue.
Ranking: Students are given a list of statements related to a
particular issue and they are asked to rank them in accordance to
the statements that they value the most.
PMI: Students are required to list the positive (Plus), negative
(Minus) and interesting (Interest) aspects of a nominated issue,
thereby articulating their own values.
Consequences chart: Students record the likely consequences of
decisions and actions based on the values that individuals or
groups hold. The chart assumes the appearance of a branching
graphic organizer.
The Report on the UNESCO APIED on Education for
Affective Development has identified the following approaches that
can be used for teaching values in character building activities.
1. Telling : A process for developing values that enables a pupil to
have a clear picture of a value-laden situation by means of his
own narration of the situation.
275
2. Inculcating : An approach geared towards instilling and
internalizing norms into person's own value systems.
3. Persuading : the process of convincing the learner to accept
certain values and behave in accordance with what is acceptable.
4. Modeling : A strategy in which a certain individual perceived as
epitomizing desirable/ideal values is presented to the learners as
a model.
5. Role playing : Acting out the true feelings of the actor(s) by
taking the role of another person but without the risk of reprisals.
6. Simulating : A strategy in which the learners are asked to pretend
to be in a certain situation called for by the lesson and then to
portray the events and also by imitating the character's
personality.
7. Problem solving : An approach wherein a dilemma is presented
to the learners asking them what decisions they are going to take.
8. Discussing situations, stories, pictures, etc : This technique asks
the learners to deliberate on and explain the details in the lesson.
9. Studying biographies of great men : This is an approach that
makes use of the lives of great men as the subject matter for
trying to elicit their good needs and thoughts worthy for
emulation.
10.Moralizing : The process of working out a sense of morality
through active structuring and restructuring of one's social
experiences (e.g. moral reasoning and analysis)
11.Values clarification : Values clarification as a strategy for values
development may be considered as learner-centered. It relies
heavily on the pupils ability to process his beliefs, behave
according to his beliefs and to make a decision whenever
confronted with a value dilemma.
1. What is E-teacher education?
2. Explain the strategies for E-teacher education
276
3. What are the outcomes of E-teacher education?
4. Explain the Value Clarifying approach to value based teaching.
5. How would a teacher use contrived experiences for value based
education?
277
Teacher preparation courses need to consider the changes in
society in order to produce quality teachers. This unit focused on Eteacher
education and Value based teacher education as innovations
in teacher preparation. It highlighted the various strategies and
approaches therein and their outcomes. The two innovations would
serve to make teacher education in keeping with the needs of the
present society.
The challenge for teacher educators is to assist both pre and
in-service teachers by providing a deeper understanding of how to
implement values education. Because the approaches have different
methodologies they defy a uniform teaching model. Teachers also
need to know how seemingly disparate approaches can be integrated
into lessons, and how they can be incorporated into evolving models
of constructivist learning and teaching.
References :
1. Awouters, V., Jans, R., Jans S., (2008). E-Learning
Competencies for teachers in Secondary and Higher Education,
Conferencia International e-learning, Zaragoza, April 2004,
retrieved May 2, 2010 from
2. http://edict/documenten/Paper_Zaragoza_Valere_Awouters. pdf.
3. Beckett, E.C., Marques-Chisholm, I., Wetzel, K. (2003).
Preparing Technology competent Teachers, Technological
Horizons in Education Journal ONLINE, Retrieved April 30,
2010, from
4. http://www.thejournal.com/magazine
5. Hall, B. (1973) Values Clarification as a Learning Process: a
guidebook. New York: Paulist Press.
6. Harmin, M. and Simon S. (1973), Values, Readings in Values
Clarification, ed. Simon S. and Kirschenbaum H. (Minneapolis,
MN: Winston Press)
7. Harmin, M. (1979), A Review of Values Clarification, The Phi
Kappa Phi Journal, 69: 23, Winter.
8. Krneta, R., Bjekic, D,. Milosevic, D. (2007). Competencies of eteaching
in the system of Teachers competence, ETAI 2007,
September, Ohrid- Macedonia, Book of Abstracts, 29. Retrieved
on April 30, 2010, from
9. http://www.etf.ukim.edu.mk:/SCM_CO21A06/conference/E3-
2.pdf
10.Raths, L., Harmin, M. and Simon S. (1966), Values and Teaching
278
(Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill)
11.The Role of e-Tutor, Retrieved April 30, 2010, from,
12. http://www.unesco.org/en/competency-standards-teachers.
Websites :
http://www.tojet.net/articles/9122.pdf
http://www.allacademic.com//meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation
/0/3/6/2/6/pages36268/p36268-4.php
9
RESEARCH IN TEACHER EDUCATION
Unit Structure :
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Nature & Purpose of Research in Teacher Education
9.3 Scope of Research in Teacher Education
9.4 Areas of Research in Teacher Education
9.4.1 Problems of Research in teacher education
9.5 Trends in Research in Teacher Education
279
9.6 Importance of Networking and Collaboration in Teacher
Education
9.7 Implications of Research for Teacher Education
9.8 Let Us Sum Up
9.0 OBJECTIVES :
After reading this unit, you will:
Become aware of Purpose of Research in Teacher Education.
Become aware of Scope of Research in Teacher Education.
Become aware of Problems of Research in Teacher Education.
Become aware of Trends in Research in Teacher Education.
Become aware of Importance of Networking in Teacher
Education.
9.1 INTRODUCTION :
Educational research is that which develops new knowledge,
which is then applied to the improvement of educational practice.
Same is true for Teacher Education. The contributions of research to
educational knowledge are easy to demonstrate through reviews of
related literature. However, it is difficult to determine whether the
accumulation of research findings has made an impact on the
practice of education. Even when research knowledge attracts the
attention of policy makers in education, they generally consider it
just one source of information to use it in shaping a particular policy,
or use it to justify a unpopular decision, or cut funds, or may dismiss
the research findings which are contradictory to their beliefs.
In spite of this research in education in general and teacher
education in particular continues to grow and make its contributions
to the body of knowledge.
9.2 NATURE & PURPOSE OF RESEARCH IN
TEACHER EDUCATION :
Essentially there are two broad purposes of research in
Teacher Education.
(1) To understand the educational phenomenon and
280
(2) To transform it.
Understanding the Educational Phenomenon implies that it
should fit into a theoretical framework. This helps to conceptualize,
explain, control and predict the dynamics of a given phenomena. For
example, to explain the phenomena of teaching means arriving at a
conceptual framework of relationships with regard to teaching,
explaining the nature and extent of relationships among the variables
and controlling the effect of certain variables related to teaching on
certain other variables. Prediction would then give a comprehensive
understanding of the phenomena. Conceptualizing means arriving at
interrelated set of variables. Conceptualizing may not involve
verification since many paradigms are hypothetical in nature. A
well-articulated framework applicable to many contexts based on
systematic perspective is the presage-process-product paradigm of
teacher education. Prestage variables would include the personality
variables, process variables would imply curriculum transaction i.e.
mode of teaching students and product variable would be a
performance of students on a test. Explaining relationships among
variables in teacher education is important. There is a relationship
among variables is one thing but explaining why they have a
relationship is another. Thus it is essential to know the forces that
influence the relationships and at the same time understand the
underlying unobservable processes acting on theses relationships.
Controlling variables in a network of relationships among variables
operating in teacher education is essential. It is highly difficult to
study the dynamics of a variable in isolation. For example
Performance of a teacher trainee in practice teaching may depend on
several factors such as mental make-up, personality, language
fluency, communication skills, training received, experience,
motivation, the grade level of students taught, subject matter and
classroom conditions. The researcher wishes to study how the new
method of training the teacher affects the performance of teacher
trainees in practice teaching he/she probably has to control many of
the variables listed above. Other wise the researcher will not be able
to reach a precise conclusion about the effectiveness of the training.
Thus the influence of the intervening variables has to be controlled if
nor experimentally then at least statistically. Prediction i.e. the
researcher should be able to foresee the nature of changes that would
occur in dependent variables based on his/her knowledge of the
relationships of this variable with another variable which is
independent in its influence on the given variable.
Transforming the Educational Phenomenon means
incorporating changes in the phenomena as it exists because of some
281
dissatisfaction with it. In order to improve it. This is true of teacher
education too. When there is dissatisfaction with the existing
practices in teacher education changes may be required in the
structure as well as the processes of teacher education. Research
provides necessary ground for any changes to take place because
changes based on research are sound and effective.
1. What are the main purposes of research in Teacher Education?
understand the educational phenomena?
transforming the educational phenomena?
9.3 SCOPE OF RESEARCH IN TEACHER
EDUCATION :
The system of Teacher Education has several sub-systems.
There is constant interaction among them. As such the components
282
of the system, the inputs, processes and the outputs lend themselves
to research.
Inputs include the goals of Teacher Education, characteristics
of the teacher educators, characteristics of the students teachers, and
infrastructural facilities.
Processes include the classroom interactions among teacher
educators, student teachers and pupils. Interactions consist simulated
learning experiences in order to provide learning of various skills
such as teaching and evaluation.
Outputs are the immediate outcomes as well as delayed
outcomes. Immediate outcomes include the gaining of theoretical
knowledge, acquisition of the required skills and attitudes. Delayed
outcomes are the retention of the theoretical knowledge, skills,
attitude and developing teacher effectiveness.
Research Methodologies adopted are mainly descriptive
surveys, experimental studies, developmental studies, as well as
relational studies. Action research is also conducted by teacher
educators to improve classroom practices. Descriptive surveys are
used to procure data in teacher education or describe the
characteristics of teacher education. Experimental studies are
conducted mainly to study the effect of intervention strategies or
training programmes. Relational studies try to study relationships
between the input and process, process and output, or input, process
and output. Developmental studies put forth the historical
developments in teacher education in order to explain the status of
teacher education at a particular time or changes over a period in one
or more sub systems of teacher education. This gives a systemic
view of the temporal dimensions of teacher education.
9.4 AREAS OF RESEARCH IN TEACHER
EDUCATION :
There is a wide spectrum of variables related to teacher
education. For example, selection procedures, development of
battery of tests for selection and then try to predict success based on
the selection criteria. Research areas would include personality of
student teachers, teacher educators, different types of training such
as pre service and in service training, or the different levels of
teacher education i.e. teacher education for elementary level or
secondary level. Most of the researches are isolated and there seems
no connection between them As such, super imposing of a
283
classificatory system helps to identify cluster of variables. A cluster
of variables thus identified may be called an area of research.
During the seventies researches in teacher education were
classified in five areas such as selection criteria, abilities and
qualities of a teacher, pre and in service training of teachers, work
load, job expectations and difficulties expressed by teacher,
procedures and practices of teacher education in India and
personality variables of teachers. In the later years researches were
classified under context, input process and output variables. During
the eighties context, presage, process, product were the categories.
The context variables include student-teacher characteristics,
institutional characteristics related studies and on classroom context.
Student-teacher characteristics means student-teachers formative
experiences, academic qualifications, abilities, personality factors,
intelligence, etc. Institutional characteristics include climate of
teacher education institutions, administrative set up, classroom
climate, curriculum framework.
The presage variables include teacher-educator characteristics
i.e. formative experiences of teacher educators, their education and
training, motivation, abilities, personality factors, intelligence, and
teaching and training skills.
The process variables such as classroom interactions,
classroom transactions and mediating processes that lead to learning.
Such variables are attending, practicing, task persistence, active
learning time and student teacher engagement with learning task.
Teacher behaviour in the classroom and supervisory behaviour of
teachers relating to student teaching too are some of the research
variables.
The product studies on outcome of teacher education include
two types of variables. One, those describing immediate outcome of
teacher education i.e. student-teacher outcomes such as their
achievement, attitudes and skills, and two long term outcomes
describing level of professional skills and teaching success or
teaching effectiveness.
1) Explain the context, presage, process and product variable that
need to be researched in Teacher Education.
284
9.4.1 Problems of Research in Teacher Education :
There has not been much headway in research since the
researchers face a number of problems. More research is needed in
the area of teacher education and there needs to be qualitative
improvement too. Problems of research are both intrinsic and
extrinsic to the researcher. Following are some of the glaring
problems of research in teacher education.
Lack of Qualified Personnel :
Researchers lack the minimum abilities, skills, Acquiring
these is a deliberate process. It is important that besides acquiring
the qualifications researchers gain knowledge of the theory of
teacher education, skills of scientific inquiry, ability to analyze and
interpret data and make rational judgments.
Lack of Motivation :
This happens when researcher has no qualification and no
inclination to do research. The system fails to encourage them and
utilize their abilities. There are no proper incentives to do research.
Lack of Resources and Facilities :
Many a times there is lack of several adjunct conditions
influencing undertaking of research. For example unavailability of
expert advice for proper planning, or statistical procedures for
analyzing the data, or proper reporting of findings. Lack of material
facilities such as hardware, stationary can also cause hindrances.
Problems of Finance :
There is less research done due to lack of finance. Fund
agencies such as UGC, NCERT and ICSSR at times fail to provide
funds.
Arbitrariness :
285
Arbitrariness in research means lack of meaningful relation
among studies. Any research should be based on previous research
for its assumptions, hypotheses and theoretical background. Only
then will there be hierarchical growth in the discipline. Therefore it
is important to establish proper linkage among studies to develop a
coherent understanding of the phenomenon after a certain number of
studies. This avoids duplication in research and enhances the
possibility that all aspects and variables involved are attended to
properly. Prediction becomes difficult and it becomes difficult to
establish as to the direction in which research in teacher education is
going. Instead of paradigmatic set of hypotheses getting tested,
individual hypotheses are tested. As a result the growth of
knowledge is slow or zero. Thus it is important to have long term
plans for research.
Lack of Consensus :
There are as many views and priorities in education as there
are researchers involved in it. Concurrence of views in a point of
time will help researchers to work within common theoretical
purpose.
Lack of Coverage :
Lack of attention to some of the areas of teacher education or
differential attention form researchers to some areas of research
comes in the way of covering a large number of areas needing
attention. At some period of time certain areas come into
prominence. As a result many researches get done in the area, while
other areas get receded. For example there are many studies on test
construction or on teacher behaviour, or only on micro-teaching.
What is required is thematic research for balanced and uniform
progress.
1) What are the problems of conducting research in Teacher
Education?
286
9.5 TRENDS IN RESEARCH IN TEACHER
EDUCATION :
Quantitative Leap :
The first study reported in Teacher Education was by Banerji
in 1956. After the first study was reported the First Survey reported
45 studies on Teacher Education upto 1973. The Second Survey
during the next five years i.e. up to 1978 reported 65 studies. During
the period 1978 to 1983, 116 studies were reported. The growth of
researches in Teacher Education indicates that the researchers were
getting attracted towards this area. Some of the reasons cited for this
attraction were easy accessibility of sample for the studies,
availability of ready-made tools and expertise.
Systematization of Instruction :
Instruction dominated by lecture method, which is usually a
one way interaction and often unstructured was called the traditional
method. Research on instruction show a shift of emphasis from
lecture method to structured methods such as programmed learning,
instructional model-based teaching or structured lectures. The
purpose of research was to make instruction at Teacher Education
level a systematic activity. The main intention was to make
instruction reproducible. Further, the purpose was to develop
instructional strategies for Teacher Education.
Larger Coverage of Objectives :
Attempts to cover a larger number of objectives was seen.
These included classroom interaction analysis for objective
evaluation of lessons to achieve the objective of understanding
dynamics of classroom teaching. Micro-teaching studies aimed at
developing skills of teaching. Programmed learning for imparting
theoretical knowledge. Discussion as an alternative method for
developing social interaction skills and higher order cognitive skills,
and simulation for development of application and decision making
skills and abilities were also areas of research. The trend which
emerges indicates that objectives of teacher education were
researched.
Alternative Model :
287
Earlier researches on the Harbartian model as a method of
teaching, Flanders interaction model, micro-teaching were seen as
the behaviouristic models. However, recent researches indicated a
different trend wherein other behaviouristic models such as Concept
Attainment, Inquiry Training, Advanced Organizer Models. This
was indeed a welcome change.
During the current period researches on the context, presage,
process and product variables highlighting the importance of areas of
teaching and learning styles of teachers and students, cognitive
styles, student and teacher characteristics, management of education
and technology of education and technology in education are gaining
importance and attention of researchers.
1) According to you what are some of the areas of research which
need immediate attention of researchers?
9.6 IMPORTANCE OF NETWORKING AND
COLLABORATION IN TEACHER EDUCATION:
One of the reviews made on the status of Teacher Education
at the time of the formulation of the NPE (1986) and its POA was
concerning isolation of institutions of Teacher Education. It was
observed that institutions of Teacher Education are isolated from
each other and from schools. There is limited communication
between institution at one level and another. Institutions of Teacher
Education were found to be isolated from state and national level
agencies. In order to ensure efficiency and smooth functioning
appropriate networking of Teacher Education institutions as well as
state and national level agencies is therefore needed. Following are
some of the advantages of networking.
Advantages of Networking :
288
Resource Utilization :
Resource material and facilities at district, regional and state
levels can be mobilized for optimum utilization. This will avoid
duplication and wastage. Several agencies provide men and material
need by schools.
Development of Teachers :
Networking will facilitate development of required teacher
capabilities for qualitative improvement of the teaching learning
process. This developed and available expertise can be then utilized
to meet needs of teachers working in remote areas.
Improvement of Quality :
Networking will lead to rationalization of programmes of preservice
and in-service courses and thereby help develop a system of
quality teacher education which in turn will affect school education.
Feedback for Improvement :
Efficient and effective monitoring and evaluation of teacher
education programmes can be done through networking.
Structure of Networking :
Horizontal linkages among institutions of Teacher Education
is essential to enable the institutions to assist one another by sharing
educational resources Institutions need linkage to rationalize the
pre-service training programmes and the in service programmes of a
continuous nature to develop a national system of Teacher
Education. DIETS at the district level will have academic linkages
with District Boards of Education, have direct linkage with
secondary schools and have on its complex elementary schools.
Vertical linkages are needed to remove isolation with state
level agencies such as State Departments of Education, SCERTs,
State Institutes of Education, State Institutes of Science Education,
State Educational Technology Units.
Linkages are to be established between regional agencies
such as Regional Institute of English, Regional Technical Teacher
Training Institute, Regional Collages of Education and other support
institutes.
289
9.7 IMPLICATIONS OF RESEARCH IN TEACHER
EDUCATION :
Teaching, like other professions, has a developing knowledge
base that serves to guide practitioners. Knowledge generated by
research is an important component of this knowledge. Teacher
education and staff development programme might be considered to
be a central avenue of knowledge dissemination on one hand, and of
practicing its use in varied contexts on the other hand. The
curriculum of teacher education and the text books they use,
determine what aspects of research knowledge will be brought to the
attention of becoming teachers. The practicum and teacher
induction programmes might serve student teachers and novices in
learning how to use this knowledge base. Research findings
constitute a regular feature of teacher education courses in the
foundation disciplines, like psychology, and in method courses, but
the translation of the findings into class-room action is usually left to
the student teachers who find this an extremely difficult or even
impossible task.
Teacher education is an important field for research since the
quality of teacher education has been regularly questioned. At the
same time as teacher quality is increasing being identified as crucial
to educational outcomes and pupil gains. Consequently teacher
education researcher need to work together in order to
Share emerging research findings.
Develop innovative research methodologies within teacher
education.
Disseminate innovative pedagogical methods within teacher
education.
Find new publishing outlets within an overcrowded academic
field.
Support colleagues in institutions with under developed research
profiles.
Develop important emerging themes to give teacher education
research a distinctive positive.
Networking should be established with central level agencies
working in the area of Teacher Education. They are Teacher
Education unit in the MHRD, National Council for Teacher
Education (NCTE), National Council Educational Research and
Training (NCERT), University Grants Commission (UGC). There
290
are other supporting institutions like National Institute of
Educational Planning and Administration (NIEPA) now known as
National University of Educational Planning and Administration
(NUEPA), Central Hindi Institute (CHE), Central Institute of
English (CIE), Central Institute of Indian Languages (CIIL),
Directorate of Adult Education (DAE), National Institute for
Handicapped (NIH).
1) Why is networking between Teacher Education institutes at
different levels important?
9.8 LET US SUM UP :

This unit covers the nature & purpose of research in Teacher
Education, which is to understand the educational phenomenon and
transform it. The scope of research in Teacher Education
encompasses the whole system of i.e. the inputs, processes, the
context, presage, and process variables in Teacher Education.
Problems of research in Teacher Education are many. They are lack
of qualified personnel, lack of motivation, arbitrariness, lack of
resources and facilities, problems of finance, lack of coverage, and
lack of consensus among researchers. Trends in research in Teacher
Education indicate a quantitative leap in the number of researches
conducted, systematization of instruction, larger coverage of
objectives and alternative methods and models available. Finally
importance of networking between teacher education institutions,
and district, regional, state and central agencies has been
highlighted. Special importance has been given to its implications
in the field of teacher education.
1. Discuss the trends in research on Teacher Education in India.
Based on the findings of this research, what suggestions will you
291
make to transform the structure and process of Teacher
Education?
2. Discuss the tends in research in teaching and teachers. How can
the findings of research in this area be used for overhauling the
system of Teacher Education?
3. Research on Teacher Education should change the quality of
teacher and teaching. How far is this achieved through current
research on teachers?
4. Describe the research trends in Teacher Education in India with
reference to the variable studied and research designs and
methodologies used. What improvements can you suggest to
make research on Teacher Education more rigorous and
meaningful?
1. Borg, W.R. and Gall, M.D. (1983) Educational Research: An
Introduction New York, Longman Inc.
2. Biddle, B.J., Good, T., Goodson, L.I.F. (Eds.) International
Handbook of Teachers and Teaching Vols. I & II, Dordrechet,
Kluwer, Academic.
3. Dunkin M.J. (Ed.) (1985) The International Encyclopedia of
Teaching and Teacher Education, Oxford, Pergamon.
4. Gupta, A.K. (1984) Teacher Education: Current and Future
Prospects New Delhi, Sterling.
5. Kerawalla. G.J. (Ed.) (1990) Redesigning Teacher Education: A
Systems Approach Department of Education, University of
Bombay.
6. NCTE (1998) Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education
NCTE, New Delhi.
7. NCTE (1998) Policy Perspectives in Teacher Education, NCTE,
New Delhi.
8. Sharma S. Teacher Education in India.
Book, NCERT, New Delhi.
292
10A
TEACHER EDUCATION AS
A PROFESSION
Unit Structure :
10.A.0 Objectives
10.A.1 Introduction
10.A.2 Concept of Profession
10.A.3 Concept of Professionalism
10.A.4 Developing Professionalism for Teacher Educators
10.A.5 Developing Professional Ethics and Professional Code of
Ethics for Teacher Educators
10.A.6 Let us sum up
10.A.0 OBJECTIVES :
After reading this unit you will be able to :
Know about the concept of profession.
Relate and differentiate between profession and professionalism.
Explain how to develop professionalism for teacher educators.
Explain how to develop professional ethics and code of ethics for
teacher educators.
State the components of teacher effectiveness.
educators.
293
Teaching is a profession-indeed a noble one, conceptually and
ideally. It is also different from other professions because of its
multitude of dimensions. Teachers are the largest professional group
engaged in human development activities. It is only in the case of
teaching there is much more that is required to be accomplished than
in the case of other professions. Training of the practitioners is
considered to be one of the important characteristics of a profession.
Therefore, in order to befit the teachers to their roles, a sound
professional training is needed. Induction training and continuous
education thereafter equips the teachers with adequate knowledge
and skills to perform their professional functions. Hence, the
training of the teachers assumes special importance. Professional
training of a teacher implies his mastery in knowledge of the subject,
in pedagogy and teaching techniques.
Training of teachers is an important component of teacher
education. Teacher education covers in its ambity the whole gamut
of activities involved in the accomplishment of the teaching
profession. Teacher education denotes a real and holistic perception
of teacher for that task they are required to perform and to
continuously upgrade their professional skills. Therefore, in this unit
we will discuss about profession, professionalism and how to
develop professionalism, professional ethics and professional code
of ethics for teacher educators. We also discuss about teacher
effectiveness, its components and how to enhance and evaluate
teacher effectiveness through performance appraisal.
10.A.2 CONCEPT OF PROFESSION :
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A profession is a vocation founded upon specialized
educational training, the purpose of which is to supply disinterested
counsel and service to others, for a direct and definite compensation,
wholly apart from expectation of other business gain.
History :
Classically, there were only three professions : Divinity,
Medicine, and Law. The main milestones which mark an occupation
being identified as a profession are :
1. It became a full-time occupation;
2. The first training school was established;
3. The first university school was established;
294
4. The first local association was established;
5. The first national association was established;
6. The codes of professional ethics were introduced;
7. State licensing laws were established.
Just as some professions rise in status and power through
various stages, so others may decline. This is characterized by the
red cloaks of bishops giving way to the black cloaks of lawyers and
then to the white cloaks of doctors. With the church having receded
in its role in western society, the remaining classical professions
(law and medicine) are both noted by many as requiring not just
study to enter, but extensive study and accreditation above and
beyond simply getting a university degree. Accordingly more
recently-formalized disciplines, such as architecture, which now
have equally-long periods of study associated with them.
Although professions enjoy high status and publics prestige,
all professionals do not earn the same high salaries. There are
hidden inequalities even within professions.
Examples of Professions :
Professionals include, for example : Lawyers, Engineers,
Professors, Military Officers and Non-Commissioned Officers, and
Qualified Teachers, Architects, Accountants, Notaries, Advocates,
Actuaries, Dentists, Midwives, Pharmacists, Medical Technologists,
Nurses and Physicians.
Formation of a Profession :
A profession arises when any trade or occupation transforms
itself through the development of formal qualifications based upon
education, apprenticeship, and examinations, the emergence of
regulatory bodies with powers to admit and discipline members, and
some degree of monopoly rights.
Regulation :
Professions are typically regulated by status, with the
responsibilities of enforcement delegated to respective professional
bodies, whose function is to define, promote, oversee, support and
regulate the affairs of its members. These bodies are responsible for
the licensure of professionals, and may additionally set examinations
of competence and enforce adherence to an ethical code of practice.
However, they all require that the individual hold at least a first
295
professional degree before licensure. There may be several such
bodies for one profession in a single country.
Autonomy :
Professions tend to be autonomous, which means they have a
high degree of control of their own affairs : Professionals are
autonomous insofar as they can make independent judgements about
their work. This usually means the freedom to exercise their
professional judgement.
Professional autonomy which is an essential characteristic of
the concept of professional ideology is based on three claims.
First, the work of professional entails such a high degree of skill
and knowledge that only the fellow professionals can make
accurate assessment of professional performance.
Second, professionals are characterized by a high degree of
selflessness and responsibility, that they can be trusted to work
conscientiously.
Third, in the rare instance in which individual professionals do
not perform with sufficient skill or conscientiousness, their
colleagues may be trusted to undertake the proper regulatory
action.
However, it has other meanings. Professional autonomy is
often described as a claim of professionals that has to serve primarily
their own interests this professional autonomy can only be
maintained if members of the profession subject their activities and
decisions to a critical evaluation by other members of the
profession. The concept of autonomy can therefore be seen to
embrace not only judgement, but also self-interest and a continuous
process of critical evaluation of ethics and procedures from within
the profession itself.
Status and prestige :
Professions enjoy a high social status, regard and esteem
conferred upon them by society. This high esteem arises primarily
from the higher social function of their work, which is regarded as
vital to society as a whole and thus of having a special and valuable
nature. All professions involve technical, specialized and highly
skilled work often referred to as professional expertise. Training
for this work involves obtaining degrees and professional
qualifications (see Licensure) without which entry to the profession
296
is barred (occupational closure). Training also requires regular
updating of skills through continuing education.
Power :
All professions have power. This power is used to control its
own members, and also its area of expertise and interests.
A profession tends to dominate, police and protect its area of
expertise and the conduct of its members, and exercises a
dominating influence over its entire field which means that
professions can act monopolists, rebuffing competition from
ancillary trades and occupations, as well as subordinating and
controlling lesser but related trades. A profession is characterized by
the power and high prestige it has in society as a whole. It is the
power, prestige and value that society confers upon a profession that
more clearly defines it.
Characteristics of a Profession :
The list of characteristics that follows is extensive, but does
not claim to include every characteristic that has ever been attributed
to professions, nor do all of these features apply to every profession :
1. Skill based on theoretical knowledge : Professionals are
assumed to have extensive theoretical knowledge (e.g. medicine,
law, scripture or engineering) and to possess skills based on that
knowledge that they are able to apply in practice.
2. Professional association : Professions usually have professional
bodies organized by their members, which are intended to
enhance the status of their members and have carefully controlled
entrance requirements.
3. Extensive period of education : The most prestigious
professions usually require at least three years at university.
Undertaking doctoral research can add a further 4-5 years to this
period of education.
4. Testing of competence : Before being admitted to membership
of a professional body, there is a requirement to pass prescribed
examinations that are based on mainly theoretical knowledge.
5. Institutional training : In addition to examinations, there is
usually a requirement for a long period of institutionalized
training where aspiring professionals acquire specified practical
experience in some sort of trainee role before being recognized
297
as a full member of a professional body. Continuous upgrading
of skills through professional development is also mandatory
these days.
6. Licensed Practitioners : Professions seek to establish a register
or membership so that only those individuals so licensed are
recognized as bona fide.
7. Work autonomy : Professionals tend to retain control over their
work, even when they are employed outside the profession in
commercial or public organizations. They have also gained
control over their own theoretical knowledge.
8. Code of Professional conduct of ethics : Professional bodies
usually have codes of conduct or ethics for their members and
disciplinary procedures for those who infringe the rules.
9. Self-regulation : Professional bodies tend to insist that they
should be self-regulating and independent from government,
Professions tend to be policed and regulated by senior, respected
practitioners and the most highly qualified members of the
profession.
10.Public service and altruism : The earning of fees for services
rendered can be defended because they are provided in the public
interest, e.g. the work of doctors contributes to public health.
11.Exclusion, monopoly and legal recognition : Professions tend
to exclude those who have not met their requirements and joined
the appropriate professional body. This is often termed
professional closure, and seeks to bar entry for the unqualified
and to sanction or expel incompetent members.
12.Control of remuneration and advertising : Where levels of
remuneration are determined by government, professional bodies
are active in negotiating (usually advantageous) remuneration
packages for their members. Though this is sometimes done in
sometimes done in good intention but can be proven good when
the partner, family or mentor recommend something contrary to
the general norms. This was further buttressed in the world bank
essay paper written by Idiaro Abdulazeez Paper Challenges and
associated solutions for companies working together in collective
action to fight corruption. This has caused for global audience
and even the worldbank launched an international competition in
it people are used to Some professions set standard scale fees, but
298
government advocacy of competition means that these are no
longer generally enforced.
13.High status and rewards : The most successful professions
achieve high status, public prestige and rewards for their
members. Some of the factors included in this list contribute to
such success.
14.Individual clients : Many professions have individual feepaying
clients. For example, in accountancy, the profession
usually refers to accountants who have individual and corporate
clients, rather than accountants who are employees of
organizations.
15.Middle-class occupations : Traditionally, many professions
have been viewed as respectable occupations for middle and
upper classes.
16.Male-dominated : The highest status professions have tended to
be dominated although females are closing this gender gap
Women are now being admitted to the priesthood while its status
has declined relative to other professions. Similar arguments
apply to race and class : ethic groups and working-class people
are no less disadvantaged in most professions that they are in
society generally.
17 Ritual : Church ritual and the Court procedure are obviously
ritualistic.
18 Legitimacy : Professions have clear legal authority over some
activities (e.g. certifying the insane) but are also seen as adding
legitimacy to a wide range of related activities.
19 Inaccessible body of knowledge : In some professions, the body
of knowledge is relatively inaccessible to the uninitiated.
Medicine and law are typically not school subjects and have
separate faculties and even separate libraries at universities.
20 Indeterminacy of knowledge : Professional knowledge contains
elements that escape being mastered and communicated in the
form of rules and can only be acquired through experience.
21 Mobility : The skill knowledge and authority of professionals
belongs to the professionals as individuals, not the organizations
for which they work. Professionals are therefore relatively
299
mobile in employment opportunities as they can move teacher
employers and their talents with them. Standardization of
professional training and procedures enhances this mobility.
Teacher Education as a Profession :
Teachers play a vital role in the improvement of the quality of
education. In any assessment of the educational system, it is
important to know whether there are enough teachers, who are not
only well qualified to each different subjects, but are also able to
cope with the changing curriculum and growth in knowledge. It is
important to know about the facilities that exist for upgrading their
knowledge and improving their skills of teaching.
The professional development of teachers has received a great
deal of attention in all countries, including India, The volume of
professional and research literature on in-series education and
professional development is also considerable. In comparison, the
attention that teacher education has received is marginal. Even when
research and policy initiatives are directed towards teacher
education, the focus is on curriculum reform, programme structure,
institutional development, instructional resources, and the like. The
content of teacher educators professional development is rarely
examined and critiqued. More specifically, the concept of an
identifiable body of Knowledge a knowledge base for teacher
education does not seem to have been addressed so far in any
meaningful way.
Eraut draws a useful distinction between prepositional
knowledge and personal knowledge. The former owes its origin to
institutions of higher education where it is developed, organized and
codified. It acquires academic status and legitimacy. It becomes
public knowledge, available for further research and testing.
Personal knowledge is that which resides within the working
professional. It is obtained over many years from observation, social
interaction and experience, and gets reflected in the persons
performance. In fact, it forms an important part of a persons
competence. Erauts map of professional knowledge provides
useful guidance for those about to engage in the difficult task of
determining the knowledge base of a profession. Such a map is
needed for teacher education for several reasons :
i) To correct wrong notions about teacher education that are in
circulation.
ii) To illuminate the debate about theory-practice links and the role
of experimental learning.
300
iii) To highlight aspects of knowledge that have been somewhat
neglected in the teacher education programmes.
iv) To shed light on the growing debate about competence based
approaches to professional standards and qualifications.
The term professionalism is used to describe the methods,
manner, and spirit of a profession and of its practitioners. Each
profession has its own culture derived from the role of its
practitioners and the expectations the society at large has with
respect to the professional service.
If teacher education is to become a truly professional
enterprise fundamental changes are needed in the way teachers,
colleges and departments of education operate. The bureaucratic
administrative model needs to be replaced by a professional
managerial model. The following comparison of the two models is
intended to help visualize the needed change.
The Administrative bureaucratic model :
Largely a legacy of the British rule in India, the
administrative bureaucratic hierarchical model has taken deep roots
in our country and is reflected, in varying, degrees, in almost all
types of organizations, public as well as private.
The Managerial Professional Model :
By contrast, this model derives its characteristics from two
sources, the body of knowledge called management developed in the
context of business and industry but by no means limited to them, as
well as from the values inherent in professionalism.
Table 1 : Comparison of Characteristics of the
Administrative-Bureaucratic Model and Managerial Model
The Administrative
bureaucratic Model
The Managerial-professional
Model
Input orientation Output orientation
Accountability for maintenance
and control
Accountability for growth and
outcomes
Relationships based on authority
and jurisdiction
Relationships based on expertise
and autonomy
Rigidity in rules and procedures Flexibility in rules and
301
procedures
seniority
performance
The Image of Teacher Education :
It would be useful to review the basic assumptions and reality
of teacher education in order both to understand the image problem
in its historical perspective and to create an appropriate agenda to
deal with it. Some of the basic assumptions underlying university
based teacher education programmes are as follows :
i) That there is a common body of knowledge theory and skills
associated with teaching that must be acquired by every
prospective teacher;
ii) That universities are the repositories of this professional
knowledge;
iii) That universities tend to be future oriented with respect to
professional needs and development;
iv) That colleges and departments of teacher education enjoy
congenial relationship with academic departments and research
activity in higher education;
v) That teacher education programmes are best managed when
associated with professional research and development and
service activities;
How does reality (the prevailing situation in teacher
education generally) fit with these assumptions? Critics point out
the following.
i) Preparation of public school teachers is viewed by many as a low
level academic enterprise, counter to the intellectual traditions of
the university;
ii) Teacher education departments have not developed adequate
programmes for knowledge synthesis. We do not have a
coherent theory for the utilization of academic disciplines in
preparing teachers;
iii) Students in teacher education programmes are generally a
theoretical and practice-oriented, and show little confidence in or
felt need for research and theory;
iv) Research provides conflicting evidence regarding the influence
of university based teacher education programmes in shaping
302
the professional perspective of students. It is described as liberal,
conservative, or non existent;
An analysis of these assumptions and reality leads to two
fundamental problems for teacher education.
i) Unlike in the more mature professions, such as medicine and
law, there is little consensus among teacher educators as to
whether a prescribed body of professional knowledge is really
necessary in order to prepare a practitioner and if so, what the
ingredients of this knowledge are, or should be.
ii) Although teacher education institutions, public schools, and state
departments and agencies of education are the principal partners
in preparing and certifying teachers, there seem to be major
differences in their role concept, convictions, and values.
Healthy Practices in Teacher Education :
Theoretical aspect of professional management of teacher
education is clarified and glorified in all its dimensions. When it
comes to practical reality in teacher education institution it is a
matter of divine glory of the time. There has been knowledge
explosion in very discipline. A college / university teacher has to
continuously update his / her knowledge in his / her chosen field of
expertise, or run the risk of becoming totally outdated in a very short
period of time.
While the really motivated and industrious teachers use their
own resources to keep themselves abreast of new knowledge and to
train themselves in the latest processes, methodologies and
techniques of teaching, it is necessary to provide systematic and
organized orientation programmes for the large number of teachers
at the college and university level.
The Academic Staff Colleges developed by University Grants
Commission under the National Policy on Education (1986) has the
main philosophy to keep in mind that teacher is central to the
system. While it is universally accepted that the teacher is the pivot
of the educational system, our system does not provide adequate
opportunities for their professional development. It is, therefore,
necessary to develop inbuilt mechanisms to provide opportunities for
teacher within the framework of knowledge society. It is also
accepted that a teacher must not be confined only to transmitting
information, she / he must also orient students to meet the challenges
303
of life, to not merely becomes a trained professional, but also a
better citizen.
It was believed in the past that a college / university teacher
learnt the art of teaching on the job by emulating outstanding
models such as his / her own teachers or senior colleagues. The
stock in trade of the college / university teacher has always
motivated the students. Today, it is no longer possible to expert a
newly appointed teacher to acquire the art of teaching by emulating
his / her peers.
The concept of an orientation programme emphasizes
teachers as agents of socio-economic change and national
development. As per the guideline issued by UGC it is intended to
inculcate in young lecturers the quality of self reliance throw their
awareness : inner and outer. In order to achieve this objective, the
curriculum for the orientation course includes the following four
components with minimum of 144 contact hours, that is six hours
daily for a four week programme.
Component A : Awareness of linkages between society,
environment, development and education.
Component B : Philosophy of education, Indian education
system and pedagogy.
Component C : Resource awareness and knowledge generation.
Component D : Management and personality development.
The above components are illustrative in nature depending
upon the requirements of lectures and their academic background,
the Academic Staff College is empowered to select the number of
topics and methodologies of teaching.
One of the major criticisms of teacher education as a
profession, or perhaps as one claiming professional status, is the lack
of an identifiable body of knowledge that is established by a
consensus as a prerequisite of effective performance as a practicing
teacher. While the criteria that distinguish the profession from other
occupations are subject to continuous revision and refinement, the
validity of at least some of these has never been questioned.
Foremost among these relates to the knowledge base. As Eraut
points out, The power and status of professional workers depend to
304
a significant extent on their claims to unique forms of expertise
which are not shared with other occupational groups and which are
valued by society.
1. Define profession
2. Give example of some Profession
3. Explain any three characteristics of Profession.
4. Explain the managerial Professional model.
305
10.A.3 CONCEPTS OF PROFESSIONALISM :
It is sometimes difficult to identify the true meaning of
professionalism. Many individuals use professionalism as a faade
to cover their lack ability to perform their job effectively. Others use
it to for intimidation to gain power. Still others use it as a way to
impress the unknowing. However, it seems that very few individuals
use it for its original intent to provide a foundation for effective
communications and efficient performance.
Different people have different opinions about the term
Professionalism. We will now discuss different views about it.
This can cause considerable confusion for someone trying to define
professionalism in their own career. But, you should always keep
one point in your mind that the core definition of Professionalism is
always the same. A general, raw view is professionalism is a
focussed, accountable, confident, competent, motivation toward a
particular goal, with respect for hierarchy and humanity, less the
emotion. What this means is that you leave out the outbursts and
emotional thralls that accompany stressful situations and success.
You maintain focus, with a sense of urgency, and accept
responsibility on a path towards a specific goal. In the process, you
maintain respect for your superiors, peers, and subordinates as well
as respect them as human beings.
Dictionary meaning of professionalism is the expertness
characteristics of a professional or the pursuit of an activity as an
occupation. We often talk about the quality of what we do and
measure the professionalism of our work against others. Although
we often use different terms, the overall meaning is the work of x
is more professional than y. Some views are given below for
getting more idea about it.
Professionalism is the expertness characteristic of a Professional
person.
306
Professionalism is following the rules and regulations and have
the courage to change them.
Professionalism is balancing the personnel and professional life.
It means to be practical and professional in life. One who has
skills, knowledge and attitude and uses them is called a
professional. The attitude which a professional shows is called a
professionalism.
Professionalism is all about attitude towards work i.e. the
dedication, sincerity with which you approach to your work, the
work which makes you earn money.
To get clear idea about Professionalism you should agree on
something that just because one is professional, he or she
automatically does not exhibit professionalism. A very general, raw
idea of Professionalism is a bundle of the following concepts :
A focused approach
Pride in what one is doing
Confident
Competent
Motivation towards a particular goal
Accountability
Respect for people irrespective of rank, status and gender
Responsibility whole on the path to a particular goal
Commitment to word and deed and
Control of emotions well
From the above discussions you may got idea about
Professionalism. It is anything done with lot of common sense. It is
something done with end result in mind. It is something that is done
with planning. It is something where person shows forward
thinking.
It means it is not important that what types of work you are
doing but important that how you are doing it. To develop
professionalism you should follow the following criteria.
Have pride in yourself and confidents in your abilities
Do your best and be your best
Achieve your full potential
Be on time no matter what
307
Dress for the job
You should follow the quotes Professionalism is knowing
how to do it, when to do it and doing it.
In short, professionalism are language, behaviour, act, dress
and work. It has to do with how to handle ourself in situations. It is
the character, spirit and competencies demonstrated by the standing
practice of the profession. The challenge of maintaining
professionalism involves subscribing to the ideal behaviours and
values shared by colleagues.
10.A.4 DEVELOPING PROFESSIONALISM FOR
TEACHER EDUCATORS :
Teacher professionalism has relevant significance in
education in that it affects the role of the teacher and his or her
pedagogy, which in return affects the students ability to learn
effectively. It can be defined as the ability to reach students in a
meaningful way, developing innovative approaches to mandated
content while motivating, engaging, and inspiring young adult minds
to prepare for ever-advancing technology. However, this definition
does little to exemplify precisely how a professional teacher carries
himself or herself. Due to the growing autonomy being given to
educators, professionalism remains one of the most influential
attributes of education today. Teacher professionalism contains
three essential characteristics, competence, performance and
conduct, which reflect the educators goals, abilities, and standards,
and directly impact the effectiveness of teaching through the
development of these qualities.
To begin, the characteristic of competence is fundamental in
an educators pursuit of excellence. A discussion on competence
focuses on three important ideas : preparation, knowledge of subject
area, and defined pedagogy. The first, preparation, prepares the
professional for the adversity of the classroom. From language and
cultural barriers to socio-economic differences, all educators face
deterrents in the classroom that must be broken down by
individualized techniques. Decision making by well-trained
professionals allows individual clients needs to be met more
precisely and promotes continual refinement and improvement in
overall practice (Darling Hammond, 1988, p. 59). Thus, by
bridging these barriers, the educator will be better prepared for
classroom management and create an effective learning
environment. Furthermore, by doing this, the professional teacher
308
leads students by his or her example: one who is prepared for
difficulties will be able to overcome them.
Along with preparation, a professional educator with a strong
knowledge of his / her subject area has the opportunity to concern
themselves with preparing innovative techniques to teach material
rather than spending significant amounts of time studying the
material. With the advantage of knowing ones curriculum material
well, the educator has more confidence in their teachings, having
already placed significant though on the material being taught.
Thus, a professional is able to dwell on how to relate subject matter
to the students and their cultures in an original method.
The final portion of competence is discovering and assuming
a defined pedagogy. A professional teacher who has a defined
pedagogy has already journeyed through several trials to discover
which pedagogical techniques are more effective. According to
Lunenburg and Ornstein (2000), Hiring teachers by subject and
skill presumes that curricular priorities have been established, which
means that decisions have been made about how much time will be
devoted to each segment of the curriculum. Although this may take
years to fine-tune, a professional is willing to self-evaluate his or her
pedagogy as s/he develops it, revise their edification when deemed
necessary, and apply ones ideas to a practical situation.
Furthermore, by acquiring a defined pedagogy, a professional
creates more autonomy for him or herself, allowing for a partial
release from the constraints constructed by the administration,
school board, or parents.
Although competence is essential to teach professionalism, it
is only useful if the educator is able to perform. Performance is the
ability to effectively teach the concepts of a curriculum. However,
this is performance defined at its most fundamental level. As
individuals, professionals have the right to perform their work as
they see fit, based on knowledge acquired through specialized
training (Newman, 1998,p. 121). Such a quote demonstrates the
essentiality of performance, which derives from both premeditated
and improvisational techniques. A professional teacher educates so
that students learn concepts and apply them to their lives. Although
this undermines the schools emphasis on state test results, a quality
educator prepares for the tests through this unique style of applying
to his / her students lives. Thus, the application of these concepts
must be inside the bounds of students lives. Furthermore, an
educator that has a high standard of performance is reliable and
dedicated. This type of educator becomes an active teacher rather
309
than a passive teacher, showing the students a genuine interest in
their progress as a student.
The final characteristic of teacher professionalism, conduct, is
equally as significant as the first two. The manner in which an
educator carries himself or herself is a reflection on ones classroom,
school, community, and educational system. Conduct is a
representation of how well one takes care of himself or herself, from
aesthetics to language and behavior. However, these are minor
qualities of conduct. Conduct also includes ones ability to initiative
and maintain quality communication with all the parties involved in
education : students, fellow teachers, school board, administration,
and parents. It is through energetic communication by a professional
that initiates understanding, whether it be a student grasping their
potential or the professional voicing their displeasure on a newly
implemented regulation. A professional teacher desires to locate
effective communicative skills to achieve preferred educational
goals.
In conclusion, a completed definition of teacher
professionalism far exceeds the simple notion that a teacher be
prepared in a certain manner. A professional is trained to handle all
situations, as most episodes in the classroom require quick thinking.
Also, teacher professionalism extends beyond ones ability to
understand content; the educator must discover if the students are
being reached in an effective way. With the role of teacher
becoming more autonomous, an educator must be competent in their
studies, perform well under the eye of the administration and
parents, while maintaining good conduct to facilitate quality
communication.
1. What is Professionalism?
2. How can you develop Professionalism as a teacher educator?
310
10.A.5 DEVELOPING PROFESSIONAL ETHICS AND
PROFESSIONAL CODE OF ETHICS FOR
TEACHER EDUCATORS :
Every profession is expected to evolve a set of ethical
principles to guide the conduct and behaviour of its professional
members. The Ethical principle provides the base to differentiate
between desirable and undesirable conduct of behaviour.
Ethics are trends in away which has been established and
maintained over the years. It is time tested and socially accepted. It
deals with moral principles usually accepted voluntarily by an
individual or a group. The code of professional ethic may be defined
as a set of self imposed professional ideals and principles necessary
for the attainment of self satisfaction and professional excellence.
Professional ethics refers to the principles, guidelines or norms of
morality which a teacher has to follow in teaching profession while
dealing with students, parents, community and higher authorities.
Every profession has different work culture and work climate
and accordingly the professional ethics are decided. Professional
ethics are decided by the society and it is also the contribution of
great exponents of the same profession. It is mainly to provide a
guideline and also to judge any professional individual. The
definition and parameter of professional ethics varies from society to
society and from time to time, it is dynamic in nature. With change
in social set up, pattern and dimension of the society the ethics also
change. In fact at the same time professional ethics will differ from
place to place and hence there is no distinct line to distinguish ethic.
What govern any ethic are social benefit, moral correctness, truth,
value and progress of mankind.
Need of Professional Ethics :
For self correction : Man and his thinking keep changing. It is
human to tend towards comfortability, selfishness, laziness and
311
money. It is difficult to follow and abide by truth, hard work, simple
living, honesty etc. As a result individual turns towards the easier
ways of life without thinking what effect will it have on him, his
family, profession and society. Man slowly turns selfish and
unethical without realizing. In present time we all are affected by
such factors and feelings to some extent. Professional ethics correct
us if we are doing any wrong or intending.
For self satisfaction : Self satisfaction is more related to our inner
self, our feelings and thought process. When we follow the ethical
code of society and profession we are regarded as hard working,
honest, dutiful, righteous etc. All this makes us more respectable
and more prominent than others. Whenever anyone is
acknowledged for a right job, he starts governing respect and liking,
all this gives self satisfaction. Professional ethics enable a person to
judge himself and decide and not accept what others decide for him.
To guide the conduct and behaviour : The behaviour of students is
moulded by the teacher and the teachers behaviour by professional
ethics. Professional ethics in education is supported by philosophy
and psychology of teaching. By following professional ethics, the
teachers conduct and behaviour becomes respectable and socially
acceptable.
To shape the personality : Teacher keeps developing his
personality by adding to his knowledge and by refining his actions.
The professional ethics in teaching profession emphasize the teacher
to follow pre-established norms in his thought and in actions, even in
ones dressing up, speaking, etiquettes etc. By following similar
ethics, the personality of an individual is reshaped and he becomes a
teacher in real sense.
To set up Ideals for Students : Students come to school not just to
study the subjects and books but also to learn to behave and polish
their personality. Everyday students come in contact with different
teachers and are influenced by them. If a teacher is behaving in a
very positive and appropriate manner, the students follow him and
want to become like him. Hence by behaving in ethical manner
teacher becomes ideal for students.
Improvement of Human Relation : Professional ethics guide to
keep in mind the social betterment, respect for others, sense of
brotherhood, tolerance, co-operation etc. Individual guided by
professional ethics helps others to the maximum, by doing so there
312
develops positive feeling. Positive feelings improve human
relations.
When human relations improve the school becomes the best
place for teacher, students and parents to work and co-ordinate. All
this ultimately gives better result and improves over all standards.
Development of Society : School is the outcome of social
necessesity, the society makes the school then the school makes the
society. It is a cycle which grows bigger and bigger with time. If
the professional ethics are forgotten the individual as well as the
society starts moving in wrong direction. By following Professional
ethics teacher takes the society in right direction and make it a better
place to live in.
The Professional Excellence : Every profession has a unique work
culture and work climate. The work culture is strengthened when
the professionals of the profession act and interact in professionally
ethical manner i.e. so they do not cross each others way or contradict
bluntly instead cooperate and motivate. All this develops a smooth
co-ordination and effective functioning thereby bringing
professional excellence.
To improve the Professional Environment : Professional
environment includes the people, infrastructure, working conditions
and working hours. Professional ethics ensure that due place and
respect is given to the seniors, to the higher authorities,
responsibility and working hours. When we follow such ethical
codes of a profession the environment remains calm, congenial and
relaxed for effective working.
To follow norms and principles of the profession : Norms and
principles of a profession are nothing but rules and regulation
already framed in advance for effective functioning. These rules
change with time and situation. Professional ethics binds us to our
job and helps us to differentiate between professional development
and self interest. It also prepares us for extra responsibility which we
have to shoulder from time to time. Professional ethics are selfbinding
for better professional output.
Professional Obligations :
Obligation is a responsibility which an individual imposes on
himself. It is ethical and in the line of duty. A professional when
follows rules and regulation and correctly interprets it for the
313
progress of humanity. It creates a sense of brotherhood which
makes others respect that individual and his profession. All this is
done selflessly without any pressure. Teacher has obligation
towards :
I. Obligation towards Students :
Students and teachers are integral part of educational process.
Teacher teaches whereas student learns. Unless there is dedication
on the part of teacher and sincerity on the part of students the whole
educational process ca not be effective. It is expected that teacher of
today will go beyond limit for the betterment of child.
1. Sincerity in Teaching : It is obligatory on the part of the teacher
to teach effectively and to the fullest in the best possible way in
required time with the help of available resources. Teacher also
ensures that the students are gaining as desired.
2. Motivating the Students : Teacher should motivate the student
not only to study subject but also for life. Without motivation,
achievement decreases drastically. Motivation succeeds in
difficult times and hence, the teacher should encourage students
in all the possible ways.
3. Providing Emotional Stability : Students are highly emotional
by nature and very often situation comes where a normal student
may also get emotionally unstable. In such situations teacher has
to comfort the students in the best possible manner.
Professional
Obligations
Towards
Higher Authorities
Profession
Patents
Students
Society
314
For example : After closely missing or losing inter school / state
level football competition etc.
4. Psychological Handling of Students Impulses : In day-today
activities students may display very strange habits or actions. The
teacher should make an attempt to understand the motives and
feelings behind particular action and deal with it psychologically
so that the action of the student gets positive direction.
5. Conscious Workers : There are various works which a teacher
has to perform besides teaching. These works appear suddenly in
day to day affairs which is important for the school as well as the
student where as, no such work is mentioned in the duty book of
profession. When the teacher does all the required work for the
improvement and development of school and students he fulfills
his obligation towards the students and school.
6. Help the Students in taking decisions : Teachers educate and
inspire students for better life, development and progress. All this
is very much related to what students think and decide in day
today routine. The decisions which students take should have
logical base and aim in view. Teacher guides the student in
taking such decisions.
For Example : Opting for right subject after Xth keeping in view
the aim, aptitude and attitude of the students.
7. Development of Leadership Qualities : Every student when
prepared for life has to act as a leader in different situation.
Teachers provide such opportunity to the students by making
them participate in stage activities, morning assembly etc.
Teacher also demonstrates leadership qualities by exhibiting it
himself.
II. Obligation Towards Parents :
Parents send their children to school with a hope that their
children will do better, learn every required language and ability
along with the subjects. It is the teacher who helps the child in
achieving the desired goals of society as well as of parents. Hence, it
becomes obligatory on the part of the teacher to remain in touch with
the parents for the well being and educational growth of the child.
Some of the obligations towards parents are as follows:
315
1. Providing Regular Information about Childs Performance :
Parents usually do not come to know how their ward behaves and
performs in the class in routine manner. Teacher should inform
the parents about the general behavior and performance in
relation to, attention towards studies, paying respect to seniors
teachers etc. The teacher should discuss all this during parentteachers
meet so that if any problem is corrected it is corrected
in the very beginning.
2. Guiding Parents in Deciding the Childs Future : Patents
usually have knowledge of only a few fields / profession which
they have acquired personally or from friends of relatives.
Parents tend to decide the option for their children on the basis of
their limited personal experience and knowledge. The reality is
that professional arena is expanding every day. Hence, a teacher
should guide parents about the professional / educational options
available for better future of child keeping in mind the caliber of
student and current trend prevailing among the students of
present generation.
3. Informing about the Attitude and Aptitude of Child : In
present time parent are not able to judge the attitude and aptitude
of their child owing to busy schedule of lack of awareness.
Whereas, the teacher observes the children every day,
individually, as well as in group where child reveals all his
aptitude and attitude, which is of great importance in
understanding the personality of child. Teacher should share all
his findings with parents so that parents are able to understand
their children in a better manner.
4. Help Parents in Providing Conducive Home Environment :
At some point of time students face some of the other problem
which has its origin at home or which can be solved at home
only. Students find it difficult to share their problems with
parents due to various reasons. In such situations when a teacher
learns of such problems he / she should call the parents and share
the situations and suggest them various ways to improve the
home environment.
5. Counselling of Parents : Parents generally treat their children as
they were treated during their childhood or as per their own
assumptions. They impose their mind set on their wards without
considering the change of time and situation because of which
children start turning away from parents.
316
When a teacher does counselling of parents he discusses all such
matters keeping in mind the changing situation and mind bent of
present generation, so that parents, teachers and students are able
to make education more meaningful.
6. Giving Proper Direction to Hobbies and Interest : Parents find
hobbies and interests as wastage of time. Teacher gathers such
information of hobbies and interests of individual student and
shares it with parents. Teacher convinces the parents on the
pursual of different hobbies and interest as it is of great
importance and benefit for all round development of Childs
personality. Teacher suggests parents to give better dimension to
such outlet of feelings so that students become more creative and
talented.
7. Establishment of good relationship between School and
Parents : It is obligatory on the part of the teacher to keep
informing parents about the ways of working of school and also
about the achievements of school, new activities introduced in
the school etc. All this makes the parents feel closer to the school
and a better relationship is built.
III. Obligation Towards Society :
School is the outcome of the need of the society. It aims at
helping the younger generation in improving. The school is also said
to be the society in miniature. It is the teacher who as a craftsman
craves the future of society and nation.
Following are the obligations of teacher towards the community:
1. Providing good citizens : When a child is sent to school he
becomes a student who is taught various subjects and also the
ways of life. During his stay in school he learns how to become a
useful member of society by attending to his duties in an honest
manner. The teacher has to install all the desired qualities by
means of education which makes the students a good citizen.
2. Making a student responsible towards rights and duties :
While living in a society one has to interact regularly with the
members of the community. All the interactions should be based
on ethical norms which are guided by the legal rights and duties.
All such rights and duties ensure that no one interferes in the
personal sphere or liberty of other individual and performs ones
317
own duty in the best possible manner. The correct training of
practicing rights and duties have to be conducted by the teacher
for smooth functioning of the society.
3. To follow social norms : Every society is governed by social
norms which have been developing since the society originated.
These social norms are established for the smooth and effective
functioning of the society. Young children initially do not agree
to established norms of society and want to change the setting or
establish new norms.
Whenever the young generation is confused or influenced by
such feeling the teacher guides them by making the existing
norms very clear in all the ways. It develops respect for the
social norms and students become socially adjusted individuals.
4. Setting up of Ethical Standards : Ethical standard are the
standard which guides an individual and the society towards
betterment. Children of today are the citizens of tomorrow
unless they are ethically erect; we cannot assume the society of
tomorrow to be upright. Teacher can install ethical qualities in
the students by means of moral lecture, personal demonstration
and other related activities.
5. Development of Religious tolerance : India is multi religious
country with more than seven religions binding and dividing the
people. Unless the students understand and familiarize
themselves with the basics of all the religions they will not
understand it. This delicate task of unifying the community has
to be done by the teacher because people of all the religion trust
teachers. Teacher makes the students understand the similarity
of different religions by taking the students to worship places of
different religions and also by celebrating holly festivals of all
the religions in an appropriate manner.
6. Integration of National Feeling : A nation cannot progress
unless its people are integrated. In a country like India where
language and culture dominate the society along with other
differences. All these differences needs to be carefully
understood and tolerated or else the nation would disintegrate.
School is a society in miniature where teacher can develop the
feeling of National Integration by giving importance to all the
region, languages and religion by celebrating various national
festivals and National Integration Day in particular.
318
7. Balancing the community relationship : No individual or a
group of people can live in isolation. Despite being in majority
or at a socially, economically advantaged position.
When a teacher makes the students realize the importance and
contribution of every independent individual or a community and
its relationship with others a balance is created between all the
members of the society and students understand its importance
and try to balance the existing relationship.
8. Living in Harmony with nature : Every individual belongs to a
community and every community depends on natural
environment as a biological being. Hence, protecting the nature
and safe guarding it is the duty of every individual. Students are
taught about the advantages and the role of nature in leading a
healthy life by the teachers by means of education
(Environmental education) and activities like growing trees,
reducing pollution, spreading awareness etc.
IV.Obligation towards the Profession :
Teacher profession is considered as one of the noblest
professions. It is expected from a teacher to act, behave and display
excellent behaviour in the society so that the society gets new
dimensions and meaning in life. Since society considers teaching a
very noble profession therefore obligation on the part of the teacher
also increases to a great extent.
1. Safe-guarding and Enhancing the Professional Mechanism :
Teacher being the professional of the noblest profession has to
display a very noble behaviour in and outside the school. His
manners and appearance should always reflect simplicity and
wisdom. While interacting with students and individuals he
should display his concern for improvement of education and
overall progress of humanity.
2. Respecting the Profession : It is obligatory on the part of a
teacher to respect the profession even if he is in it by chance and
not by choice. By showing his respect for the profession he
makes others respect the teaching profession which ultimately
makes all the teachers respectable. The teacher should always
share the positive and bright side of the profession because
discussing negatives will only result in rejection and at the same
319
time one should not forget that every profession has negative as
well as positive.
3. To be open to professional growth : The teacher should always
make an effort towards the professional growth by attending in
service training, seminars, workshops etc. organized by
concerned educational board for educational enhancement.
Teacher can strengthen his growth by reading new books,
magazines, journals etc.
4. Contributing towards the growth of Profession : With
growing experience and knowledge the teacher realizes certain
facts concerning the students, education and educational process.
He should contribute his thoughts in the form of article and
research paper in various journals which will benefit all the
teachers, educators and policy makers through out the country.
There by resulting in growth of the profession.
5. Maintaining congenial atmosphere at work place : It is the
duty of every professional to maintain congenial atmosphere at
work place so that the profession is liked by each and everyone
involved in it. It can be done by being friend, guide and
philosopher to students, respectable and co-operative to
colleagues, obedient and courteous to seniors and also by
performing all the duties expected and delegated from time to
time.
6. Inspiring people to join the profession : Whenever a teacher
comes across an individual who is capable and interested in
joining the teaching profession. He should be guided to the
fullest and inspired, so that good people with required attitude
and aptitude join the profession. It is an indirect service rendered
to an individual and the profession.
7. Active Participation : Every teacher should become active
member of professional organization, consisting it as
professional obligation. At the same time he / she should
participate actively and contribute to the maximum in every
professional meeting and activity organized for the formulation
of policies and programmes. The teacher should also be keen to
strengthen the unity and solidarity of the professional
organization.
8. Maintaining Secrecy : Every profession deals with various
kinds of restricted information, it may be concerning policy
matters, students records, examination performance, setting up
320
of question paper, checking of answer sheets etc. All such
information should be guarded with maximum care. It should be
guarded with maximum care. It should not be discussed with any
unauthorized person except concerned authorities and neither be
disclosed before appropriate time. While maintaining ones own
secrecy teacher should not interfere in others affairs.
V. Obligation towards the Higher Authorities :
Higher Authorities is the section or the group of people
who have been entrusted with the task of formulating and managing
the rules, regulations and policies for the development of the
institution.
In a way if they are legislature than the teachers are the
executives who enforce or execute the programmes formulated by
the higher Authorities. For effective functioning and development
of any institutions, it is important that a teacher coordinates his
actions with the Higher Authorities as per the changing need and
situation.
1. Abiding by the rules and regulation : The teacher should abide
by the rules and regulations of an institution framed by the higher
authorities from time to time so that there is uniformity, even
growth and development throughout and discipline among the
staff, then only teachers will be able to enforce discipline among
the students. Without discipline progress is not possible.
2. Acting as a link between higher authorities and students :
From time to time higher authorities formulate educational as
well as non-educational policies for all round development of
students as well as institutions. These policies cannot bear fruits
until effectively communicated and administered. The
professional obligation of a teacher is to understand these
policies in true spirit and effectively propagate it for achieving
the desired result, for this the teacher has to act as an effective
link between higher authorities and students.
3. Providing strategic information : Higher authorities are not in
the direct contact with the students and the actual happenings.
Hence they depend greatly on the teachers to know about the
exact situation and information so that they are able to effectively
321
plan policies. Teacher should suggest and present a true picture,
whenever asked.
4. To effectively implement the policies and programmes :
Drawing or framing a programme or policy is a theoretical
aspect. The success of any policy depends completely on the coordination
of the policy makers, managers, evaluators and
teacher as executor. The teacher has a great role in it and has to
act as a helping hand in effective implementation of various
programmes and policies to the above mentioned authorities.
5. Being respectful (courteous) to higher authorities : It is often
observed that the teachers and the other staff members do not
show due respect to higher authorities when alone because they
implement changes which disturbs the existing equilibrium.
Staff members often discuss newly implemented policies or
programmes and criticize the higher authorities and sometime
even share it with students. The teacher should remember that
higher authorities bring in changes for betterment because it is
their duty. In any cases due respect should be maintained in and
out of the institution.
Apart from the above mentioned obligations there are
innumerable obligations which a teacher has to take care of. These
obligations change their face with time, situation and people.
A teacher can become a professional in real sense if he fulfills
all the obligations and remembers that a Profession is above the
professional and in no case he should allow his human instincts and
feelings to come in the way of his profession. So all over we can say
that a teacher has greater duties and responsibilities to perform for
the betterment of the society. Professional ethics and mannerism
should go hand in hand so that the teacher is able to move ahead as a
real professional in changing time.
1. Write short notes on
a) Professional ethics
b) Professional obligations
322
In this unit we have studied that :
Teaching is a profession. Teachers training is an important
component of teacher education. Profession is a vocation founded
upon specialized educational training. Some examples of
professionals are lawyers, Engineers, Professors, Military officers
and qualified teachers. Some of the important characteristics of
professions are :
Skill based on theoretical knowledge
Professional association
Work autonomy
Code of professional conduct or ethics
High status and rewards and
Mobility
Professionalism is the expertness characteristics of a
professional person. It has to do with how to handle ourselves in
situations. A professional teacher desires to locate effective
communicative skills to achieve preferred educational goals.
Like every profession, in teacher education also teacher
educators should develop professional ethics and code of ethics to
correct himself and get self satisfaction by developing his conduct,
behavior and personality. Teachers and teacher educators develop
professional ethics by imposing responsibility on himself by
showing obligation towards students, parents, society, higher
authority and profession.
1. What is Professional Obligation? Why it is necessary?
2. What is Professionalism? How can one develop it?
3. Differentiate between Profession, Professionalism and
Professional Ethics.
References :
1. www.google.com
323
2. University News
10B
TEACHER EFFECTIVENESS
Unit Structure :
10.B.0 Objectives
10.B.1 Introduction
10.B.2 Meaning and components of Teacher Effectiveness
10.B.3 Enhancing and evaluating Teacher Effectiveness through
Performance Appraisal of Teacher Educators
10.B.4 Let us Sum up
10.B.0 OBJECTIVES :
After reading this unit you will able to :
State components of teacher effectiveness.
educators.
This section explores those factors that make a teacher
effective. Recent research reveals that must variation in overall
school effectiveness is due to class-room level factors rather than
school level factors. For these reasons if is important to try to
identify what makes an effective teacher.
324
10.B.2 MEANING AND COMPONENTS OF TEACHER
EFFECTIVENESS :
Teacher effectiveness is the result of effective teaching.
Aspects of effective teaching include :
Having a positive attitude
The development of a pleasant social / psychological climate in
the classroom
Having high expectations of what pupils can achieve
Lesson clarity
Effective time management
Strong lesson structuring
The use of a variety of teaching methods
Using and incorporating pupil ideas
Using appropriate and varied questioning.
However, effective teaching methods are context specific. What is
needed for a teacher to be effective can vary depending upon factors
such as :
The type of activity in the lesson
The subject matter
The pupil backgrounds (such as age, ability, sex, socio-economic
status and ethnicity)
The pupils personal characteristics (such as personality, learning
style, motivation and self-esteem)
The culture / organization of the department, school.
From the above discussion we can conclude teacher
effectiveness as follows.
Teacher effectiveness is the impact that class-room factors,
such as teaching methods, teacher expectations, class-room
organizations and use of class-room resources, have on Students
performance.
Teacher effectiveness is the power to realize socially valued
objectives agreed for teachers, especially, but not exclusively, the
work concerned with enabling students to learn.
325
Teacher effectiveness is the attribute of a teacher who has
the capability or potential of having a positive impact on student
learning, behaviour and attitudes.
10.B.3 ENHANCING AND EVALUATING TEACHER
EFFECTIVENESS THROUGH PERFORMANCE
APPRAISAL FOR TEACHERS AND TEACHER
EDUCATORS :
Teachers become public figures when something goes wrong
with education systems or when they are needed to implement
reforms. They acquire public status also when they negotiate
salaries and working conditions or take a stand in relation to some
issue. Most of the times, teachers work in their classrooms and
schools ignorant of the discussions about their functions and
performance. Many policies on teachers are being framed to assess
their conceptual knowledge as well as their practicality in producing
expected results.
Today, a drastic change in education system leads to change
in performance of teachers. In present times, teachers build up an
invaluable armoury of long-term strategies and quick fixes that every
novice would give a right arm for. Present teachers are busier than
ever. Thus, the problem before us is to regulate the quality of
teaching through setting of standards and at the same time, evaluate
teachers performance. We all are working tooth and nail for setting
the standards, but we need less attention towards the appraisal or
evaluation of teachers performance.
Meaning of Performance Appraisal (P.A) :
P.A. is personnel evaluation method seeking the measurement
of employee work effectiveness using objective criteria. P.A.
systems hope to achieve higher productivity outcomes by delineating
how employees meet job specifications. A major challenge for
performance appraisal systems is to define performance standards
while maintaining objectivity.
P.A. is one of the important components in the rational and
systematic process of human resource management.
326
Appraisal may be defined as a structured formal interaction
between a subordinate and supervisor that usually takes the form of
a periodic interview. (Annual or Semi Annual)
Uses :
1) To identify the better performing employees who should get the
majority of available merit pay increases, bonuses and
promotions.
2) To manage performance.
3) To know how P.A. contributes to performance.
4) To review past behaviour and provide opportunity to reflect on
past performance.
From employee view point :
1) Tell me what you want me to do?
2) Tell me how well I have done it?
3) Help me improve my performance
4) Reward me for doing well.
Organizational view point :
1) To establish and uphold the principles of accountability.
Meaning of Teachers Performance Appraisal :
Teachers Performance Appraisal or Evaluation means a
systematic evaluation of the teacher with respect to his/her
performance on job and also, her potent development. Infact,
performance appraisal is formal, structured system of measuring,
assessing and evaluating a teachers job, her behaviour and judging
how he / she is presently performing the job. It also includes
forecasting how he / she can perform the job more effectively in
future.
Criteria for Teachers Performance Appraisal :
1) The evaluation of teacher should be linked to the mission of the
school.
2) The evaluation of teacher should be linked to the standards set up
by teacher for herself.
327
3) The evaluation of teacher should be viewed as a continuing
process. There should be alternative formative techniques used
as forms of evaluation and when one gets completed, implement
a new one.
4) The new evaluation system of teacher also emphasizes upon
summative evaluation, i.e. judgements of teachers made through
collaboration of students outcomes, opinions of peers,
administrators, parents.
Mission of the School :
Mission is a goal, an aim, a purpose or an objective. Every
school has its own mission. Infact, mission depends upon the vision
of the school. The effective teacher is expected to shoulder the
school in order to accomplish the mission of the school. The teacher
can be evaluated through the efforts he / she has made in
accomplishing the mission. For example The mission of Seventh
Day Adventist Higher Secondary School in Maninagar at
Ahmedabad is Committed to empower each student to achieve all
round development through Academic Excellence, Physical Fitness,
Mental and Spiritual Health and Social Consciousness.
Hence teacher can be evaluated not only on the basis of inclass
learning experiences that he / she provides, but also on the
basis of out-class and off-campus learning experiences. So, her
personality should not be like a veneer that can be applied to a
person by herself, nor something he / she can turn on and off like an
electric current, Rather, her personality needs to have its roots in
physical health, emotions, intelligence, knowledge, ideals,
spiritualism and sociability.
Standards set up :
The saying Teachers are born, not made is wrong. The
basic qualities of mind and personality that predispose an individual
to success in teaching are influenced greatly by the home and
community in which he is reared; also, such qualities can be
cultivated. The knowledge of desirable and undesirable qualities
help the teacher to set her goals for becoming an effective
professional person. The teacher can be evaluated through the
standards that he / she has set up for himself / herself.
In order to know what standards a teacher has set up for
himself / herself, a form known as Pre teaching Form can be filled
by teachers.
328
Pre-Teaching Form Sample :
1. What are the goals for your subject?
2. What are the goals for particular lessons?
3. What do you want students to learn?
4. How far do such goals accomplish the mission of the school?
5. How far do such goals support districts curriculum and
standards set-up by the state?
6. How far do such goals relate to broader curriculum goals?
7. How do you plan teaching work to accomplish those goals?
8. What instructional materials will you use?
9. What teaching-aids will you use?
10.How will you correlate theoretical knowledge to practical aspect
of your subject?
The responses in Pre Teaching Form can help to evaluate
the teachers performance in terms of her willingness to do hard
efforts, in preparing interesting hand-out materials, preparing
learning packages, organizing resource, managing time and making
learning process meaningful to students.
Formative Evaluation :
Teacher continuously steers the boat of education. He / she
constantly strives to help the students to recognize their vital
problems, to face their problems with confidence, skill and creative
imagination. He / she guides the students day and night to recognize
their desire and also nourish it in order to develop more adequate
understanding.
With a view of evaluate teachers constant efforts, formative
evaluation of teachers should be done. Formative evaluation can be
done through various techniques by bifurcating teachers
responsibilities into four main domains :
Domain 1 : Planning and Preparation
a) Demonstrate knowledge of content and pedagogy : This refers
to what planning has the teacher done to demonstrate her
knowledge of a particular subject by interrelating it with teaching
skills.
329
b) Select instructional goals : This refers what goals has the
teacher set for herself, her subject, her lessons and her students.
c) Manage Resources : This refers to how far has the teacher
planned her teaching-learning activities in limited available
resources.
d) Design Coherent Instructions : This refers to what has the
teacher planned in coordinating curriculum with extra activities.
Sample Unit Plan made by teacher
Sample Lesson Plan made by teacher
Teaching Artifacts planned by teacher
Domain 2 : The Classroom Environment :
a) Create an environment of respect and rapport : This refers to
how far the teacher has been successful in creating environment
of respect and rapport. This can be evaluated on the basis of
Table 2.
Table 2 : Creating Environment on Respect and Rapport
Sr.
No.
Teachers Behaviour Students Reaction
1 Teacher interaction with
some students is negative,
demeaning, sarcastic or
inappropriate.
Students exhibit disrespect
for teacher.
2 Teacher student
interactions are generally
appropriate but may reflect
occasional inconsistencies,
favoritism or disregard for
students cultures.
Students exhibit only
minimal respect for
teacher.
3 Teacher student interaction
is friendly and
demonstrates general
warmth, caring and respect
Students exhibit respect for
teacher.
4 Teacher demonstrates
genuine caring and respect
for individuality of every
Students make such
teachers their role models.
330
student.
b) Establish a culture for learning : The culture for learning can
be established by
Becoming an effective tutor
Getting pupils to talk to you
Helping pupils who do not believe in themselves
Coping with emotional pupils
Providing personal and pastoral care
c) Manage classroom procedures : The teacher can be evaluated
on the basis of how far he / she has been successful in managing
classroom procedures
Preparing herself well for the lesson
Preparing children for the lesson
Providing practical activities
Keeping children on task
Involving children
Displaying work
Preparing for consolidatory activities like worksheets,
experiments etc.
d) Manage Students Behaviour : The teacher can be evaluated on
basis of how far he / she could manage student behaviour. This
includes :
Dealing with upset children by being gentle but firm giving
them, more time and space and becoming their friends.
Dealing with bad behaviour through knowledge of
psychology.
Making Children feel secure and comfortable by being
consistent, fair, judicious and not being too rigid.
Helping children to build self esteem by praising them,
managing stressful situations and supporting their proper
decisions.
e) Organize Physical Space : The teachers evaluation can also be
done on the basis of how far he / she has provided satisfactory
331
seating arrangement in available classroom, cares for hygien and
sanitation and providing sufficient lighting facilities playground
facilities etc.
This domain can evaluated through
Direct observation of teacher in classroom by an expert
principal or supervisor
Teacher student relationship table
Student surveys
Samples of student work
Teaching artifacts
Domain 3 : The Classroom Instruction
a) Communicate clearly and accurately : The effective teacher is
expected to have good command over the spoken language of
school, speak in raised voice, with clarity in speech, proper
speech-patterns and neither too fast nor too slow.
This is necessary part of classroom instruction. One of the factor
to evaluate the teachers performance can be her clear and
accurate speech and communication skills.
b) Use various techniques : The effective teacher should make use
of various techniques like questioning, discussion,
demonstration, etc. to stimulate students and bring variety in
teaching.
Use of suitable techniques will make the lesson easy and
interesting for students. The teachers performance can be
evaluated on basis of her selection and implementation of a
particular technique in particular lesson.
c) Engage students in learning : The effective teacher develops
broad outlines, formulates objectives to be attained, selects
materials and teaching aids suitable to age and level of student,
uses appropriate teaching methods, does demonstration,
experimentation illustrations, projects, fieldworks to give
practical view of the subjects, develops and maintains pupils
interest in learning process, develops suitable study-habits in
pupils, develops sense of appreciation for subject among pupils,
evaluates pupils progress using various evaluation techniques.
332
Thus the effective teacher constantly strives to engage students in
learning. The teachers performance can be evaluated by
assessing how far he / she has been successful in engaging
students in learning.
d) Provide feedback to students : The effective teacher needs to
be a minute observer and evaluator herself. He / she is expected
to do formal and informal observation of her students and give
them appropriate feedback and also judge their potentials.
Direct observation of teachers class by an expert, supervisor
or principal
Teaching artifact
Samples of students work
Assignment provided by teacher
Domain 4 : Professional Responsibilities :
It is sometimes said that degrees do make a teacher, but it is
professionalism which develops a teacher. Indeed there is great deal
more to being a teacher than just teaching. Every teacher will be
faced with an array of additional duties. The effective teacher needs
to fulfill these duties also. Hence the teacher can be evaluated on the
basis of professional responsibilities.
a) Competence in the subject : The effective teacher, at whatever
level, should be thoroughly competent in the subject he / she
teaches. He / she should acquire from advanced study a much
wider and deeper knowledge of the subject matter that is directly
needed in the class. One cannot teach what one does not know,
nor can one teach with enthusiasm unless one know, so much
about his field of learning that he is confident and enthusiastic
about his specific subject. Facts, ideas and inspiration flow from
a mind that is full.
The teacher can be evaluated on the basis of her subject
competency.
b) Attending clinics, workshops, seminars, conferences : Such
professional gatherings are held on special topic of discussion.
The procedures are informal and the groups are small enough
that problems of individual teacher can be sorted. The teachers
333
who attend these sessions have greater opportunities to learn,
better ways of helping their students.
The Teacher can be evaluated on the basis of her visits to such
sessions.
c) Conducting experimentation and research : Teachers may
initiate their own experiments, or participate in large projects
which aim at discovering new and different techniques for
effective teaching.
This can also be one of the factors to evaluate teachers
performance.
d) Keeping Intellectually alert : Teacher should have daily
association with magazines and books professional and
recreational, and in addition, should hold discussions with friends
and colleagues to enliven his intellectual interest and deepen his
thinking.
This becomes one of the factors to evaluate teachers
performance.
e) Working with Outside Agencies : Teacher is expected to show
professional while working with outside agencies. The teacher
should maintain individual student records up to date, keep a case
diary of relevant incidents or occurrences, keep accurate notes
about any communication carried on with outside agencies and
be prepared to express her opinions on the basis of records
maintained.
The teachers performance can be evaluated on the basis of what
proportion of professionalism does he / she show in relation to
working with outside agencies.
f) Summative Evaluation : One of the evaluation technique to
correct ineffective behaviour of the teachers is to do subjective
evaluation i.e. evaluation by all live elements surrounding
teacher. This evaluation needs to be doe at the end of the
semester or academic year. Simple evaluation scale including
space for comments on the particular strengths and weaknesses
of the teacher can be asked to be rated by :
a) Students
b) Peers or Colleagues
c) Administrators
334
a) Rating by Students : In order to secure objective ratings, a
teacher should give her students the opportunity to rate her
anonymously and with complete impunity. Any feeling on
the part of the student that there may be an attempt to
discover his identity as a rater will, of course, influence his
rating and thus defeat the entire purpose of the procedure. In
order to prevent the handwriting from revealing the individual
students the comments should be typed. Single, isolated
comments may reflect a students weakness, rather than the
teachers; but when the same comment turns up a number of
times, it is likely to be a good indication of teachers
behaviour. Many research studies have indicated that
students opinions for their teachers behaviour in the
classroom are competent. Even children in the lower grades
seem to know what they are talking about when they
comment on teachers.
Again the teacher should have full opportunity to study the
comments made for her. Also, it is very important that he /
she not be offended by unfavorable ratings and comments or
sensitive about learning that her teaching is not totally
effective. On the contrary he / she should regard it as an
opportunity to improve his / her professional skills.
b) Rating by Peers : Working in a school or college can be
really miserable if the people around you are not supportive
and helpful. It is very essential that colleagues around you
are helpful and supportive. Infact fellow teachers can better
help to evaluate the teacher. But here, the fellow teachers
who are raters should keep in mind that they are rating one
another for one anothers development. Hence, too much
friendship or animosity should not become the hurdle. Again,
all the peers should avoid to join together to rate one another
high. Further, the rating scale should not create conflicts
among them.
c) Rating by administrators : One of the important jobs of the
teachers is to comply with the rules made by administrators,
try to tackle them by working on his / her own terms and at
the same time by not offending them, acting as a bridge
between administrators and students and making sure that
protocols as defined are respected cordially. Also, the teacher
should exhibit co-operation in his / her behaviour with non
teaching personnels and peons. They being the helping hands
of the organization, the teacher should not take undue
335
advantage of his / her status. Besides, novel ideas, leadership
qualities, punctuality are additional qualities that
administrators expect from a teacher.
Hence a teacher can also be evaluated through administrators.
Problems of Rating :
Teachers Performance Appraisals are subject to a wide
variety of inaccuracies and, biases which can be termed as rating
errors occurs in the raters observation, judgement and can seriously
affect assessment results.
The most common occurring rating errors are :
a) Leniency or severity : Leniency or severity on the part of any
rater makes the assessment subjective. Subjective assessment
defeats the very purpose of performance appraisal.
b) Central Tendency : This occurs when teachers are incorrectly
rated by the raters near the average or middle of the scale. Here
the attitude of the rater is to play safe.
c) Halo Error : A halo error takes place when one aspect of an
individuals performance influences the evaluation of entire
performance of the individual. For a teacher, a halo error occurs
when a teacher who stays late at school to guide students might
be rated high on content and method of teaching. Similarly, an
attractive or popular teacher might be given a high overall rating.
d) Rater Effect : This includes favoritism, stereotyping and
hostility. Excessively high or low scores are given only to
certain individuals based on raters attitude towards the ratee, not
on actual outcomes.
e) Perceptual Set : This occurs when the raters assessment is
influenced by previously held beliefs. E.g. If the administrator
has a belief that teachers hailing from one particular region are
intelligent and hardworking his subsequent rating of the teacher
hailing from that region tends to be favourably high.
f) Performance Attributes Order : Two or more attributes on the
rating-scale follow or closely follow each other and both describe
or rotate to a similar quality. The rater rates the first dimension
accurately and then rates the second dimension similar to the first
336
because of the proximity. If the attributes had been arranged in a
significantly different order, the ratings might have been
different.
g) Spill over Effect : This refers to allowing past performance
appraisal ratings to unjustifiably influence current ratings. This
may happen in case of ratings done by Administrators or Peers.
If the above mentioned problems are overcomed while rating,
summative evaluation can give a clear picture of teachers present
performance and also can judge her potential development.
Teachers Performance Appraisals are never welcomed.
They can seem a bit daunting, but if teachers prepare for it.
(Trainees of B.Ed. colleges can be for this, too) they aim at
improving the performance. Now when affective teaching has
become prominent and that the role of individual is undermined,
there is necessity of teachers to reach not only intelligently but
affectionately and also, learn to work in attribution to system.
Hence it is a high time that as performance appraisals are
made compulsory in various other professions like Management,
Business, Medicine, Pharmacy. It should also be made compulsory
in the field of education also.
1) What is performance appraisal? What are its uses?
2) What is Teachers Performance Appraisal? Explain its criteria.
337
Teachers in the contemporary society need to be through
professionals fully equipped with both, high academic standards,
Pedagogical and practical skills and ethical and moral values.
However, it is unfortunate that teaching is still in a transitional stage
and is experiencing serious occupational identify crisis. The debate
on whether teaching can be called a profession dominates the
educational scene even at the fag end of twentieth century.
Teachers, often themselves are uncertain as to the nature of their
occupation and to which category they belong non-professional,
semi-professional or professional. There is a feeling among teaching
community that they have been accorded a second class status while
being given first class responsibilities.
Teacher educators as a world wide group also seem to lack
clarity on the professional identify of teaching and the preservice or
inservice levels. Such confusions may be damaging for the teachers
and their occupations. It may also create an obstacle in delineating
the professionalism expected from them for the emerging society.
Therefore, it is high time teaching is accorded the status which other
professions like medicine, law etc. enjoy.
Professionalism for a global society demands teachers to be
innovative in their attitude, flexible in their approach and inquisitive
and reflective in their mind always refreshing themselves with the
day today increase of knowledge in their subject area
Professionalism, therefore, implies professional preparation of
teachers and their professional development through the mechanism
of continuous inservice training programmes. The National Policy
on Education (NPE 1986) has rightly remarked that teacher
education is a continuous process and its preservice and inservice
components are inseparable. NPE also suggested complete
overhauling of the system of teacher education and establishment of
DIET and SCERT to bring qualitative improvement in both
preservice and inservice education of teachers. However, it is still a
distance drawn because of inadequate trained personnel and lack of
proper infrastructural facilities.
Teacher effectiveness depends on the Professional
accountability of the teachers. An individual teachers performance
is monitored by a principal or educational authorities of varying
levels of hierarchy. Teachers in the global world are considered as
338
moral agents of change and not merely technicians imparting
knowledge. The first accountability is the willingness to accept the
responsibility, second, the access and right of community to know
what is going on in school and third the teachers become the judge
of students improvement in teaching.
Teacher effectiveness can be enhanced and evaluated through
performance appraisal for teachers and teacher educators.
Therefore, performance appraisal in the field of education is the need
of the hour.
In sum, the dream of a learning society can become reality
only when the dream teachers are well equipped with moral,
professional intellectual, practical and communication skills to
convince the students through their efficient teaching. We can also
conclude with the quote: To be a good teacher, you have to have
heart for the kids, integrity to push for excellence and a lot of
creativity. And it takes stamina like you would not believe.
1) What is Profession?
2) Differentiate between Profession and Professionalism.
3) What is Professional Ethics? Why it is necessary?
4) Explain the meaning and components of teacher effectiveness?
5) What is P.A.? What are its uses?
6) What is P.A.? How can you enhance and evaluate P.A. for
teachers and teacher educators development?
P.A. Performance Appraisal
References :
Prasad, Himadri and Prasad Dharmedra, (2005) Towards
Professionalism in Education, University News, 43(18) May 02-
08.
www.google.com
339
Syllabus
Paper IV : Teacher Education
Course Objectives :
To develop an understanding of
Concept, development and agencies of Teacher Education.
Teacher Education programmes at Different Levels Their
Objectives, Structure, Curriculum, and Role and Competencies
of the Teacher
Need for Teacher Education at Tertiary Level
Issues, Problems and Innovative Practices in Teacher Education
Research and professionalism in Teacher Education
Module I: Teacher Education : Concept Development and
Agencies
1. Concept of Teacher Education
(a) Meaning and Nature of Teacher Education
(b) Need, Scope and Objectives of Teacher Education
(c) Changing Context of Teacher Education in the Indian
Scenario
(d) Changing Context of Teacher Education in the Global
Scenario
2. Development of Teacher Education in India
(a) Teacher Education in Pre Independence India
(b) Teacher Education in Post Independence India
(c) Teacher Education in U.K. and U.S.A.
(d) Teacher Education in China and
3. Agencies of Teacher Education
(a) Agencies of Teacher Education at the State Level and their
Role and Functions State Institute of Education (SIE),
SCERT, State Board of Teacher Education (GBTE),
University Departments of Education.
(b) Agencies of Teacher Education at the National Level and
Their Role and Functions UGC, NUEPA, NCTE, NCERT.
340
(c) Agencies of Teacher Education at the International Level and
Their Role and Functions UNESCO.
Module II : Teacher Education at Different Levels : Objectives,
Structure, Curriculum and Role and Functions.
4. Teacher Education at Pre Primary and Primary Levels
(a) Objectives of Teacher Education Programme at Pre Primary
(b) Structure of Teacher Education Programme at Pre Primary
Programme at Pre Primary and Primary Levels as
(d) Role and Competencies Required of the Teacher at the PrePrimary
and Primary Levels
5. Teacher Education at Secondary and Higher Secondary
Levels
(a) Objectives of Teacher Education Programme at Secondary
and Higher Secondary Levels as Recommended by the
NCTE.
(b) Structure of Teacher Education Programme at Secondary and
Higher Secondary Levels as Recommended by the NCTE.
Programme at Secondary and Higher Secondary Levels as
(d) Role and Competencies Required of the Teacher at the
6. Teacher Education at Tertiary Level
(a) Need for Teacher Education for Preparation of Teachers in
Higher Education
(b) Objectives of Teacher Education Programme at Tertiary
Level
(c) Structure of Teacher Education Programme and Institutions at
Tertiary Level
(d) Curriculum for Teacher Education Programme at Tertiary
Level
(e) Role and Competencies Required of the Teacher at the
Tertiary Level
341
Module III : Issues, Problems and Innovations in Teacher
Education
7. Major Issues and Problems of Teacher Education
(a) Maintaining Standards in Teacher Education Admission
Policies and Procedures, Recruitment of Teacher Educators
(b) Service Conditions of Teacher Educators
(c) Quality Management of Teacher Education
(d) Privatization, Globalization and Autonomy in Teacher
Education
8. Innovative Practice in Teacher Education
(a) Cooperative and Collaborative Teacher Education
(b) Constructivist and Reflective Teacher Education
(c) e-Teacher Education
(d) Methods of value oriented Teacher Education Value
Clarifying Discussions, Contrived Incidents.
Module IV : Research and Professionalism Teacher Education
9. Research in Teacher Education
(a) Nature and Scope of Research in Teacher Education
(b) Areas of Research in Teacher Education (Teaching, Teacher
Characteristics, Teacher Performance, Teacher Education,
Teacher Educators and Teacher Education Institutions)
(c) Trends in Research in Teacher Education
(d) Implications of Research for Teacher Education
10.Teacher Education as a Profession
(a) Concept of Profession and Professionalism
(b) Developing Professionalism, Professional Ethics and
Professional Code of Ethics for Teacher Educators
(c) Meaning and Components of Teacher Effectiveness
(d) Enhancing and Evaluating Teacher Effectiveness through
Performance Appraisal of Teachers and Teacher Educators
342
References :
1. Arora, G.L. (2002) Teachers and Their Teaching Delhi, Ravi
Books.
2. Chaurasia Gulab (2000) Teacher Education and Professional
Organizations Delhi, Authorspress.
3. Dillon Justin and Maguire Meg (1997) Becoming A Teacher :
Issues in Secondary Teaching Buckingham, Open University
Press.
4. Dunking, Michael, J. (1987) The International Encyclopaedia of
Teaching and Teacher Education Oxford, Pergamon Press.
5. Elahi, Nizam (1997) Teachers Education in India New Delhi,
APH Publishing Corporation
6. Kundu, C.L. (1998) Indian Year Book on Teacher Education
New Delhi, Sterling Publishers Privatization Ltd.
7. McNergney, Robert F. and Herbert, Joanne M. (2001)
Foundations of Education : The Challenge of Professional
Practice Boston Allyn and Bacon.
8. Misra, K.S. (1993) Teachers and Their Education Ambala Cantt.,
The Associated Publishers.
9. Mohanty Jagannath (2000) Teacher Education in India
10.Murray, Frank B. (Ed.) (1996) Teacher Educators Handbook;
Building A Base for Preparation of Teachers, San Francisco,
Jossey Bass Publishers.
11.National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) (1998) NCTE
Document New Delhi, Published by Member Secretary, NCTE.
343

1

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

1

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

1

CONCEPT OF TEACHER EDUCATION

4.6 ROLE AND COMPETENCIES REQUIRED OF THE

Need Based curriculum :

Curriculum Frame work :-

7.B.3.2 Features of Globalization :

9.8 LET US SUM UP :

4.6 ROLE AND COMPETENCIES REQUIRED OF THE

Need Based curriculum :

7.B.3.2 Features of Globalization :

9.8 LET US SUM UP :

Vous aimerez peut-être aussi