Melissa Broach

Assignment One

1. Define resting membrane potential and describe its electrochemical basis.

Resting membrane potential occurs across the membrane of a resting neuron when the
concentrations of ions are balanced inside the cell with the extracellular fluid located outside the
cell. Though it may seem not much is occurring in the membrane while it is resting, the resting
membrane potential cannot remain static due to leakage channels.

To create a resting membrane potential, there must be a difference in ionic levels between the
cytosol and the extracellular fluid surrounding the cell as well as a difference in permeability of
the ions (399). For example, there are more sodium and chloride ions outside of the cell while
there are more potassium ions inside the cell. The plasma membrane allows these potassium ions
to diffuse more easily out of the cell than it allows the sodium ions to enter the cell via leakage
channels. Regulating the difference in the ions are the sodium-potassium pumps. Containing a
higher concentration of potassium ions balanced by negatively charged proteins, the cell cytosol
is negative due to permeability of the membrane for potassium ions to diffuse more readily than
sodium ions can enter (399). The leakage channels allow the potassium ions to flow out, creating
a negative membrane potential, and the sodium ions to flow into the cytosol, making the negative
membrane potential slightly more positive. In order to maintain the resting membrane potential,
the sodium-potassium pump actively transports three sodium ions back out of the cell while
transporting two potassium ions back into the cell for equal concentrations of ions in the cytosol
and extracellular fluid (400).

2. Compare and contrast graded potentials and action potentials

While graded potentials and action potentials both change membrane potential, act as signals,
cause depolarization and hyperpolarization, and involve sodium ions there are many differences
between the two potentials.

Graded potentials occur at the cell body and dendrites acting in only short distances while
action potentials occur for longer distances at the axon hillock and the axon. One of the main
roles of graded potentials is to initiate or cause an action potential to occur. The action potential
serves as a nerve impulse and allows long-distance signaling. The graded potential can be
initiated by a neurotransmitter or sensory stimuli. The all-or-none phenomenon describes how an
action potential will occur or it will not, and if it does occur the action potential is always the
same size and will not decay with distance like graded potentials do (406). On the other hand,
graded potentials will vary because they are affected by the strength of a stimulus. If the strength
is strong then their magnitude becomes stronger. Graded potentials are also capable of
summation to increase its amplitude by adding multiple stimuli (416). Even though both
potentials are capable of repolarization, when a stimulus is no longer present with a graded
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potential then repolarization occurs, but repolarization occurs when potassium ion channels open
and sodium channels close after the action potential.

3. List the major lobes, fissures, and functional areas of the cerebral cortex and briefly
discuss the major functions of each lobe.

The frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes, as well as the insular lobe, are the five
major lobes of the cerebral hemispheres. The two cerebral hemispheres are separated by the
longitudinal fissure while the transverse cerebral fissure separates the cerebellum from the
cerebral hemispheres.

There are three functional areas of the cerebral cortex described as the motor areas, sensory
areas and association areas. Controlling voluntary movement, the motor areas are the primary
motor cortex, the premotor cortex, Brocas area, and the frontal eye field which are all located in
the frontal lobe (437). The primary motor cortex allows for precise movements of voluntary
muscle such as knitting. The premotor cortex of the frontal lobe stores motor patterns so it can
easily plan are muscles movements for different, more complex activities and sends impulses to
the primary motor cortex. The frontal lobe is also involved in speech due to the Brocas area
which controls tongue movements to formulate speech. The prefrontal cortex, known as the
anterior association area, of the frontal lobe stores memory, allows us to think and make
decisions which separate humans from animals.

The primary somatosensory cortex and the somatosensory association cortex are located in
the parietal lobe which allows us determine the location of a stimulus by interpreting our somatic
sensory receptors and proprioceptors to provide an understanding about the stimulus or object
(438). The occipital lobe contains the primary visual cortex and the visual association area
processing the information seen by the eye and interpreting what we have seen by past
experiences. The temporal lobe is involved in hearing. Located in the temporal lobe is the
primary motor cortex which interprets sounds heard and the auditory association area stores the
memory of the sound heard. The insular lobe contains the gustatory cortex which allows for the
perception of taste as well as the visceral sensory area where perceptions of visceral sensations
occur (439).

4. Describe and draw the spinocerebellar pathway, dorsal column-medial lemniscal

pathway, spinothalamic pathway, and the lateral (pyramidal) corticospinal pathway
for the transmission of information associated with the left foot. What information
is transmitted by each pathway? (All pathways should be clearly illustrated on the
same figure. You may take a picture of your artwork and paste it into your word
document.)

The spinocerebellar pathway coordinates skeletal muscles by sending proprioceptive

information about a muscle or tendon to the cerebellum. The proprioceptor information enters
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the dorsal horn on the same side and fibers continue without crossing sides until reaches the
cerebellum where it terminates (474).

The dorsal column-medial lemniscal pathway transmits inputs from sensory receptors such as
discriminative touch and vibrations through the dorsal white column, to the medulla oblongata
then to the thalamus where the second-order neurons terminate, and then the information is sent
to the somatosensory cortex.

Transmitting pain and temperature, stimuli that are hard to pinpoint, is the spinothalamic
pathway. From the sensory receptors, the information enters dorsal horn and crosses in the spinal
cord then travels up to the brain stem and into the primary somatosensory cortex (472).

The lateral pyramidal pathway originates in the precentral gyrus which then sends impulses
through the brain stem to the cervical spinal cord where the fiber crosses to the opposite side
then exits through the ventral horn. This pathway is important for precise voluntary movements
(474)