Nervous system &

structure of Brain
Nervous system
Peripheral nervous system
O The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is the
part of the nervous system that consists of
the nerves and ganglia outside of
the brain and spinal cord. The main function
of the PNS is to connect the central nervous
system (CNS) to the limbs and organs,
essentially serving as a communication relay
going back and forth between the brain and
the body parts
O Unlike the CNS, the PNS is not protected by
the bone of spine and skull, or by the blood
brain barrier, which leaves it exposed
to toxins and mechanical injuries.
O The peripheral nervous system is divided
into the somatic nervous system and
the autonomic nervous system
 Somatic NS
The primary role of the somatic nervous system
is to connect the central nervous system to the
organs, muscles, and skin. The somatic neurons
carry messages from the outer areas of the body
having to do with the senses. It is like a
passageway from the environment to the central
nervous system. Somatic/afferent neurons carry
the impulses to the central nervous system and
the brain. After being processed by the central
nervous system, the somatic motor/efferent
neurons take the signal back to the muscles and
sensory organs.
Types of Somatic Nerves
O Spinal nerves: They are peripheral nerves that
carry sensory information into and motor
commands out of the spinal cord.
O Cranial nerves: They are the nerve fibers that
carry information into and out of the brain stem.
They include smell, vision, eye, eye muscles,
mouth, taste, ear, neck, shoulders, and tongue.
O Association nerves: These nerves integrate
sensory input and motor output numbering
thousands.
 Autonomic NS
O The autonomic nervous system (ANS), also
known as the visceral nervous
system and involuntary nervous system, is a
division of the peripheral nervous system that
influences the function of internal organs. The
autonomic nervous system is a control system
that acts largely unconsciously and regulates
the heart rate, digestion, respiratory
rate, pupillary response, urination, and sexual
arousal. This system is the primary mechanism
in control of the fight-or-flight response and its
role is mediated by two different components
 Autonomic divisions
O The autonomic nervous system has three
branches:
O The sympathetic nervous system
O The parasympathetic nervous system
O The enteric nervous system
 Sympathetic NS
O The sympathetic nervous system is often
considered the "fight or flight" system
O Increased heart rate
O Raise blood pressure
O Increased perspiration
O Goose bumps
 Parasympathetic NS
O The parasympathetic nervous system is
often considered the "rest and digest" or
"feed and breed" system
O Decreased blood pressure
O Pulse rate slows down
O Saves energy
 Brain
O The brain is a spongy organ made up of nerve and
supportive tissues. It is located in the head and is protected
by a bony covering called the skull. The base, or lower part,
of the brain is connected to the spinal cord. Together, the
brain and spinal cord are known as the central nervous
system (CNS). The spinal cord contains nerves that send
information to and from the brain.
Brain structure & Functions
O Three cavities, called the primary brain
vesicles, form during the early embryonic
development of the brain. These are
O The forebrain
O The midbrain
O The hindbrain
 Hindbrain
O The Hindbrain is located at the rear of the
skull and is the lowest portion of the brain.
Hindbrain parts include
O the medulla
O the cerebellum
O the pons
 Hind brain parts
O The medulla is where the spinal cord enters the skull.
It is responsible for controlling breathing, regulating
reflexes, and maintaining an upright posture of the
body.
O The cerebellum are two (2) rounded structures
located besides the medulla. It is responsible for
coordinating motor activity (movements of the body),
so that extensive damage of the cerebellum can
cause failure to even stand up.
O The pons serves as the bridge towards the midbrain.
It is and is responsible for monitoring sleep and
arousal by coordinating with the autonomic nervous
system.
 Midbrain
O The Midbrain serves to relay information
between the hindbrain and the forebrain,
particularly information coming from the
eyes and the ears. It is composed of two (2)
systems
O the reticular formation
O a cluster of neurons having dopamine,
serotonin and norepinephrine receptors.
 Mid brain part
O The reticular formation is involved with
stereotypical patterns of behavior such as
walking, sleeping, and other reflexes.
Parkinson's disease, a degenerative disease
of the brain that causes involuntary tremors
on affected body parts, damages a section
near the bottom of the midbrain.
 Forebrain
O The Forebrain is considered as the highest
region of the brain because it essentially
differentiates us humans from the rest in
the animal kingdom. This region is also
involved in processing complex information.
O The midbrain and hindbrain are similar with
other animals.
 Con.
O The forebrain is composed of
O the limbic system
O the thalamus
O the hypothalamus
O the basal ganglia
O the cerebral cortex.
 Parts of Forebrain
O The limbic system is made up of the
amygdala and the hippocampus. the
amygdala is responsible for processing
emotions how humans become aware of
them and how we express them. It is also
critical for our survival because it helps us
discriminate one object from another. For
instance, damage of the amygdala may
cause us humans to eat our own feces, fight
the wrong "enemy"
 Hippocampus
O The hippocampus, on the other hand, is
presumably involved in memory storage
because damage to the part actually results
to inability to store new information. Patients
with damaged hippocampus therefore live
the day without remembering yesterday.
Overall, the limbic system is involved in
memories and emotions by determining
which neuronal connections should be
strengthened and which should be rewired.
 Thalamus
O The thalamus sits on top of the brain stem.
It sorts and relays incoming information to
the different parts of the forebrain. For
example, information coming from the
cerebellum is oftentimes relayed to the
motor cortex in the cerebral cortex . The
thalamus also works with the reticular
formation on regulating states of sleep and
wakefulness.
 Hypothalamus
O The hypothalamus is located just below the
thalamus, hence the name. It monitors
pleasurable activities such as eating,
drinking and sex. It influences the endocrine
system, particularly the pituitary gland, in
secreting hormones in response to different
emotions, stress and rewarding feelings.
 Basal ganglia
O The basal ganglia is a cluster of neurons
sandwiched between the thalamus and the
cerebral cortex. It works with the cerebral cortex
and the cerebellum for coordinating voluntary
movements, particularly in forming habitual
behaviors, such as bicycle riding and typing. Just
like the bottom section of the midbrain, the
basal ganglia gets damaged with Parkinson's
Disease. This is the reason why Parkinson's
patients oftentimes produce slow and unwanted
movements.
 Cerebral cortex
O The cerebral cortex is the most recently
developed (or evolved) part of the brain. Like
a crumpled paper, it almost completely caps
the rest of the brain parts. It is also the
largest part of the human brain, making up
to 80% of the brain's volume. High-level
processing also takes place in this part of
the brain.
O The cerebral cortex is divided into two (2) hemispheres - the
left and the right hemispheres. The left hemisphere is
associated with verbal processing, such as speech and
grammar, and mathematics; while the right hemisphere is
involved with nonverbal processing, such as spatial
perception, visual recognition and emotion. The left
hemisphere processes information coming from the right
side of the body, while the right hemisphere processes
information coming from the left side of the body.
O The two hemispheres of the brain are connected with each
other by a bundle of axons called the corpus callosum. This
connection allows the left and the right hemispheres to
communicate and integrate information with each other.
 Lobes
O Aside from being divided into two
hemispheres, the cerebral cortex is also
divided into lobes
O occipital
O temporal
O parietal
O frontal
 Occipital Lobe
O The Occipital Lobe is located at the back of the
head and is involved in processing visual
information, such as color, shape and motion.
Accordingly, the visual cortex and visual
association cortex are located in this lobe.
Damage to the occipital lobe may cause cross-
eyeing and blindness partly or entirely of the
visual field. Siamese cats, for example, are
oftentimes born with defective visual cortex, so
that they have to consciously cross their eyes
just to see straight
 Temporal Lobe
O The Temporal Lobe is located just above the
ears and is involved in hearing, language
processing and memory. The auditory
cortex, auditory association cortex, and part
of the visual association cortex are located
in this lobe. Damage to the temporal lobe
leads to failure to store new information
 Parietal Lobe
O The Parietal Lobe is located at the top of the
head and towards the rear. It is involved in
attention and motor control, in processing
spatial location, and in perceiving pain,
touch and temperature. It is said that Albert
Einstein's parietal lobe is 15% larger than
average, probably the reason why he
oftentimes imagined objects in space while
formulating his theories. The sensory
association cortex is located in this lobe.
 Frontal Lobe
O The Frontal Lobe is located just behind the
forehead and towards the top of the head. It
constitutes 30% of the cerebral cortex in
humans, 17% in chimps, 3.5% in cats, and it
barely exists in rats. It is involved in the
control of voluntary muscles, intelligence
and personality.
O Its critical involvement with personality comes from the story
of Phineas T. Gage, a 25-year old foreman whose personality
was altered after an iron rod accidentally shot up and
pierced his frontal lobe. From being mild-mannered,
hardworking and emotionally calm, he became obstinate,
moody, irresponsible and selfish.
O The most important portion of the frontal
lobe is the prefrontal cortex. It is sometimes
referred to as the executive control system
of the body as it is involved in planning,
reasoning, and monitoring and organizing
thinking. Damage to the frontal lobe causes
failure to follow basic directions, distraction
from irrelevant stimuli, and personality
change. The somato-sensory cortex and
motor cortex are located in this lobe.