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Abstract
Microfacet models have proven very successful for modeling light reflection from rough surfaces. In this paper we
review microfacet theory and demonstrate how it can be extended to simulate transmission through rough surfaces
such as etched glass. We compare the resulting transmission model to measured data from several real surfaces
and discuss appropriate choices for the microfacet distribution and shadowing-masking functions. Since rendering
transmission through media requires tracking light that crosses at least two interfaces, good importance sampling
is a practical necessity. Therefore, we also describe efficient schemes for sampling the microfacet models and the
corresponding probability density functions.
Categories and Subject Descriptors (according to ACM CCS): I.3.7 [Three-Dimensional Graphics and Realism]:
Keywords: Refraction, Microfacet BTDF, Cook-Torrance Model, Global Illumination, Monte Carlo Sampling
Measured transmission for i " 0, 30, 60, 80 i Direction from which light is incident
o Direction in which light is scattered
n Macrosurface normal
5 m Microsurface normal
4 D Microfacet distribution function
G Bidirectional shadowing-masking function
3 G1 Monodirectional shadowing function
F Fresnel term
2 fr , frm Reflectance (BRDF) for macro and microsurface
fs , fsm Scattering (BSDF) for macro and microsurface
1 ft , ftm Transmittance (BTDF) for macro and microsurface
hr Half-direction for reflection
o
140 160 180 200 220 240 ht Half-direction for transmission
hr , ht Unnormalized half vectors
Figure 2: Measured transmission ( ft (i, o, n) |o n|) for a Fraction of incident energy scattered in a mode
rough surface (ground glass) at 0, 30, 60, and 80 degrees
!! Dirac delta function
incidence angle. Dashed lines are the refracted directions ! a !
! b ! Jacobian of the transform between a and b
predicted by Snells law for a smooth surface. Note that i Index of refraction of the media on the incident side
the transmitted lobe grows broader as the incidence angle o , t Index of refraction of media on the transmitted side
increases and is shifted significantly towards grazing com- pm (m) Probability of choosing microsurface normal m
pared to refraction through a smooth surface. po (o) Probability of choosing scattered direction o
+(a) Equal to one if a > 0 and zero if a 0
eral microfacet theory in Section 3. Appropriate expressions sign(a) Sign function (1 if a 0 and -1 if a < 0)
1 ,2 Uniform random numbers in [0, 1)
for the microsurface (smooth) reflection and refraction are
developed in Section 4. We then give the rough surface Figure 3: Table of symbols.
reflection and refraction models in Section 5 and discuss
choices for the microfacet distribution and related functions.
The closest work to ours is Stam [Sta01], who derived a
Section 6 describes our measurement apparatus and com-
microfacet model for refraction as part of his layered model
pares our measurements to the fitted microfacet models. Ap-
for the reflectance of skin, and also derived the Jacobian
pendix A reviews the Smith shadowing-masking approxima-
for refraction. Unlike the present work, however, Stam did
tion for arbitrary microfacet distributions.
not provide importance sampling or verify his model against
experimental data. He also omitted the shadowing-masking
2. Previous Work term and used a non-standard Beckmann distribution variant.
Microfacet models were introduced to graphics by Cook and Many approximations for the shadowing-masking term
Torrance [CT82], based on earlier work from optics [TS67], have been proposed (e.g., [TS67, San69, APS00]). We use
to model light reflection from rough surfaces. Many varia- an approximation due to Smith [Smi67], which was orig-
tions have been proposed (e.g., [vSK98,KSK01,PK02]). Mi- inally derived for gaussian surfaces and later generalized
crofacet models are widely used in graphics and have proven [Bro80, BBS02] for arbitrary microfacet distributions.
effective in modeling many real surfaces [NDM05].
Wave optics based reflection models have been proposed
Ward [Lar92] introduced a simplified version of the (e.g., [HTSG91]) that can simulate a wider range of surface
Cook-Torrance model and extended it to reflections from effects than microfacet models, but they are much more ex-
anisotropic materials. He also introduced a method for sam- pensive to evaluate and lack good importance sampling.
pling his model, and Beckmann distributions in general, but
Numerical simulations of transmission for various rough
see [Wal05] for the correct sampling weights. An alternative
surface models have also been performed and compared to
sampling method using fitted separable approximations was
measured results [RE75, Ger03, SN91, NSSD90].
proposed by Lawrence et al. [LRR04].
Notation. In this work we will use boldface lowercase letters
Schlick [Sch94] used rational approximation to create a
(e.g., i or v) to denote unit vectors or directions. Unnormal-
cheaper approximation to the Cook-Torrance model includ-
ized vectors will be written with an arrow (e.g., h ) to clearly
ing a widely adopted approximation to the Fresnel formula.
distinguish them. Sometimes we will describe directions us-
Ashikhmin and Shirley [AS00] introduced an anisotropic ing spherical polar coordinates (e.g., v = #v , v $). The po-
reflection model using a Phong microfacet distribution lar angle will always the angle between the direction and
including correct importance sampling. [APS00] created the macrosurface normal n, while the azimuthal angle is
energy-conserving reflection models from arbitrary micro- from some canonical direction perpendicular to n (which can
facet distributions, though this formulation involves numeri- be chosen arbitrarily for the isotropic cases we discuss). Al-
cally estimating integrals without closed form solutions. though we describe the BSDF in terms of radiance (i.e. light
m n m o
Microsurface i
Macrosurface Visible Blocked Visible
Figure 4: Micro vs. macro surface. Figure 5: Shadowing-masking geometry: Three points with
the same microsurface normal m. Two are visible in both the
i and o directions, while one is blocked (in i in this case). By
flow), the equations are identical when handling its dual, im- convention, we always use directions which point away from
portance (i.e. tracing from cameras [Vea96]). the surface.
3.3. Macrosurface BSDF Integral pute that normal as h(i, o), which we call the half-direction .
We can then rewrite the BSDF in terms of a delta func-
The macrosurface BSDF is designed to match the aggregate
tion between h and m. However, because a delta function
directional (single) scattering behavior of the microsurface.
is defined with respect to an integral, changing its associated
We can compute it by integrating (i.e. summing) the con-
measure requires an appropriate correction factor to preserve
tributions over all visible corresponding parts of the micro-
the value of the integral. Using the change of variables theo-
surface, each of which scatters light according to the micro-
rem, the equivalent of Equation 9 is:
surfaces BSDF, fsm . The product of the D and G gives the ! !
corresponding visible area of the microsurface for each mi- (h(i, o), m) !! h !
!
fsm (i, o, m) = (i, m) m ! (11)
cronormal m. We also need to apply correction factors to |o m| o !
first transform incident irradiance onto the microsurface and ! !
! h!
then transform the scattered radiance back to the macrosur- where ! o !
is the absolute value of the determinant of the
face, because both irradiance and radiance are measured rel- Jacobian matrix for the transform between h and o (using
ative to a surfaces projected area. The resulting integral for solid angle measures). For brevity, the latter is often simply
the macrosurface BSDF is: called the Jacobian.
Z "" " " "
" i m "" m "om" The Jacobian describes the magnitude relationship be-
fs (i, o, n) = " " fs (i, o, m) " " G(i, o, m) D(m)dm
in on tween small perturbations in the two spaces. We can com-
(8) pute it by creating a small perturbation in the solid angle
To apply this integral, we need equations for D, G, and of o, which we will denote as do , and finding the induced
fsm . We will assume that the microsurface is locally smooth solid angle perturbation in h, which we will denote as dh
so that fsm is a sum of terms for ideal (mirror) reflection The Jacobian is defined as:
and ideal (Snells law) refraction, with relative strengths de- ! !
! h ! dh
! !
scribed by a Fresnel term F. The appropriate expressions for ! o ! = dlim
o 0 do
(12)
fsm will be derived in the next section.
in the limit of infinitesimal perturbations. Solid angle corre-
sponds directly to area on a unit sphere and such infinites-
4. Microsurface Specular BSDFs imal areas can be treated as approximately planar. This al-
lows us to compute the reflection and refraction Jacobians
While any BSDF could be used for the microsurface BSDF,
geometrically in Figures 6 and 7. We create an infinitesimal
most microfacet models assume ideal specular reflection
solid angle perturbation do around o which is equivalent
where the microsurface acts like a collection of tiny flat mir-
to an infinitesimal area on the unit sphere about the base of
rors (i.e. the microfacets). In this work we include both ideal
o. We then project this area onto the the unit sphere about
reflection and ideal refraction terms.
the base of h which is then equivalent to the induced solid
A generic specular BSDF scatters a fraction of the inci- angle perturbation dh about h, and the ratio between these
dent energy from direction i into a single specular direction infinitesimal solid angles is equal to the Jacobian. The Jaco-
s, (where and s are functions of i and the local surface nor- bians can also be computed algebraically from the equations
mal). We can write such a specular BSDF as: relating h and o as in [Sta01].
o (s, o)
fsm (i, o, m) = (9)
|o m| 4.1. frm , Ideal Reflection
where o(s, o) is a Dirac delta function whose value is in- For ideal reflection, we denote the half-direction as hr and
finite when s = o and zero otherwise. Mathematically delta its unnormalized version, the half-vector, as hr (we will use
functions are not functions, but rather generalized functions. ht for the transmission case). We use the standard formula
They always have an associated measure (e.g., do , the solid for hr , except that we modulate it by the sign of (i n) so
angle measure for o) and are defined by their integral with that our equations will work for directions on either side of
respect to this measure: the surface (i.e. front or back). The reflection half-direction
Z # lies midway between i and o, and it and its Jacobian are:
g(s) if s
g(o) o(s, o) do = (10)
hr
0 otherwise hr = hr (i, o) = where hr = sign(i n) (i + o) (13)
( hr (
for any function g().
! !
To use such a BSDF in Equation 8, we need to express it ! hr ! |o hr | 1
! !
in terms of microsurface normals and their associated solid ! o ! = (
2 = 4|o h |
hr ( r
(14)
do no2 do
hr
o |o.hr|
dh = do ht
||hr||2 |o.ht| 2
hr n d = dh
i
hr o ||ht||2 o o
i ht
i
ht do
Surface Reflection
-noo
-nii
Figure 6: Geometry for ideal reflection with half-vector o
hr = i + o and normalized half-direction hr = hr /( hr (. To
Surface Refraction
compute the Jacobian we compute the solid angle perturba-
tion in the normalized half vector, dh , induced by an in- Figure 7: Geometry for ideal refraction with half-vector
finitesimal solid angle perturbation, do , in o. Solid angle ht = i i o o and normalized half-direction ht =
is directly proportional to area on the corresponding unit ht /( ht (. We compute the Jacobian by taking a infinitesimal
spheres. Only the 2D incidence plane slice through the full solid angle perturbation do in o, projecting into a pertur-
3D space is shown. bation in ht and then onto the unit sphere for ht . Only the
2D incidence plane slice through the full 3D space is shown.
This is exactly the same as the Cook-Torrance BSDF except Microfacet Distributions, D!m"
8
Smith Shadowing!masking, G1
1
that we have a factor of 4 in the denominator instead of . 0.8
6
However, the original paper used a different normalization 0.6
for D. Other more recent papers agree with our constant of 4
0.4
four (e.g., [Sta01]). 2 0.2
|i ht | |o ht | 2o (1 F(i, ht )) G(i, o, ht ) D(ht ) Figure 8: Left: Beckmann (red), Phong (blue), and GGX
ft (i, o, n) =
|i n| |o n| (i (i ht ) + o (o ht ))2 (green) distribution functions D(m) with b = 0.2, p = 48,
(21) and g = 0.2 respectively. Beckmann and Phong are nearly
We dont get as much nice cancellation of terms in the re- identical while GGX has a narrower peak with stronger tails.
fraction component, but it is still easily implemented and Right: Smith shadowing-masking term G1 (v, n) for same
evaluated. This completes our derivation of the basic BSDF Beckmann (red) and GGX (green) distributions. G1 is near
equations for the microfacet model of reflection and trans- one except at grazing angles and GGX has more shadowing
mission through rough dielectric surfaces. due to its stronger tails.
5.1. Choosing F, D, and G rough surfaces, but has since been extended to handle sur-
Using Equations 20 and 21, requires appropriate choices for faces with arbitrary distribution functions [Bro80, BBS02],
the F, D, and G, terms. The Fresnel term is the best under- though in some cases (e.g., Phong), the resulting integrals
stood, and exact equations are available in the literature. The have no simple closed form solution.
Fresnel term is typically small at normal incidence (e.g., 0.04 The Smith G approximates the bidirectional shadowing-
for glass with t = 1.5) and increases to unity at grazing an- masking as the separable product of two monodirectional
gles or for total internal reflection. A convenient exact for- shadowing terms G1 :
mulation for dielectrics with unpolarized light is [CT82]:
$ % G(i, o, m) G1 (i, m)G1 (o, m) (23)
1 (g c)2 (c(g + c) 1)2
F(i, m) = 1+ (22) where G1 is derived from the microfacet distribution D
2 (g + c)2 (c(g c) + 1)2 as described in [Smi67, Bro80, BBS02] and Appendix A.
&
t2 Smith actually derived two different shadowing functions:
where g = 1 + c2 and c = |i m| one when the microsurface normal m is known, and another
2i
averaged over all microsurface normals. Although the latter
Note that if g is imaginary, this indicates total internal reflec- is more frequently used in the literature (e.g., [HTSG91]), in
tion and F = 1 in this case. Cheaper approximations for F microfacet models, where we know the microsurface normal
are also sometimes used [CT82, Sch94]. of interest, the former is more appropriate and we use it in
this paper.
A wide variety of microfacet distribution functions D
have been proposed. In this paper, we discuss three different
types: Beckmann, Phong, and GGX. The Beckmann distri- 5.2. Specific Distributions and Related Functions
bution arises from Gaussian roughness assumptions for the
Below we give the equations for the Beckmann, Phong, and
microsurface and is widely used in the optics literature. The
GGX distributions D (see Figure 8), along with their associ-
Phong distribution is a purely empirical one developed in the
ated Smith shadowing functions G1 , and sampling equations
graphics literature; however, with suitable choices of width
to generate microsurface normals from two uniform random
parameters it is very similar to the Beckmann distribution.
variables 1 and 2 in the interval [0, 1). The probability of
The GGX distribution is new, and we developed it to better
generating any m using the given sampling equations is:
match our measured data for transmission. Equations for the
three distribution types and related functions are given at the pm (m) = D(m) |m n| (24)
end of this section.
Note that m is the angle between m and n, v between
The shadowing-masking term G depends on the distribu-
v and n, and +(a) is the positive characteristic function
tion function D and the details of the microsurface, so ex-
(which equals one if a > 0 and zero if a 0). These are
act solutions are rarely possible. Cook & Torrance used a G
all heightfield distributions (i.e. D(m) = 0 if m n 0), and
based on a 1D model of parallel grooves that guarantees en-
anisotropic variants exist but will not be discussed here.
ergy conservation for any distribution D, but we do not rec-
ommend using it because it contains first derivative discon- Beckmann Distribution with width parameter b :
tinuities and other features not seen in real surfaces. Instead tan2 m
we will use the Smith shadowing-masking approximation +(m n) 2b
D(m) = e (25)
[Smi67]. The Smith G was originally derived for Gaussian 2b cos4 m
Measured data vs. model for i " 0, 30, 60, 80 Measured data vs. model for i " 0, 30, 60, 80
5
5
4
4
3
3
2
2
1 1
o o
120 150 180 210 240 270 120 150 180 210 240 270
Relative distribution D!m": data vs. fitted Relative distribution D!m": data vs. fitted
1.4
1.5
1.2
1.25
1
1
0.8
0.75 0.6
0.5 0.4
0.25 0.2
m m
15 30 45 60 75 90 15 30 45 60 75 90
Figure 10: Ground glass sample. Top is BTDF fit and bottom Figure 11: Frosted sample. Top is BTDF fit and bottom is
is the fit to the empirical microfacet distribution D. Red line the fit to the empirical microfacet distribution D. Red line is
is Beckmann fit and green is GGX fit. Beckmann fit and green is GGX fit.
For this reason many of the features of these rough-surface these are easily affected by stray light. If the data fits a mi-
BTDFs are difficult to observe directly in a flat plate. As we crofacet model, then these points should all lie close to a
show next, our microfacet models predict this behavior well. curve which is the surfaces microfacet distribution function.
Note that in both plots the models have been scaled by the
fitted scaling factors to enable comparison with the relative
6.1. Sample Results measured data.
For each of our four samples we fitted our microfacet BTDF The data and model fits for the ground glass sample are
to our measured transmission data for normal incidence us- shown in Figure 10. We can see that the GGX distribution
ing both the Beckmann and GGX distributions (see Fig- provides an excellent fit to the data and is much closer than
ure 12). For all samples we assumed an index of refraction the Beckmann fit. The only significant differences occur at
of 1.51. This gives us two free parameters to fit: the distribu- near-grazing angles where the microfacet assumptions of ge-
tion width parameter (b or g ) and an overall scaling factor ometric optics and single scattering may be less valid. We
to map our measurements to an absolute scale.
To test our BTDF model, we show two plots for each sam- Beckmann Fit GGX Fit
ple. The first shows ft (i, o, n) |o n| as a function of the trans- Sample scale b scale g
mitted angle o . We show both the normal incidence case ground 0.542 0.344 0.755 0.394
(i = 0), where we performed the fitting, and three additional
frosted 0.629 0.400 0.861 0.454
incidence angles (i = 30, 60, 80 ) to test the models ability
to extrapolate to these angles. etched 0.711 0.493 0.955 0.553
antiglare 0.607 0.023 0.847 0.027
The second plot directly estimates points in the micro-
facet distribution function D from the data. Since the G Figure 12: Fitted coefficients for our four samples. We fit-
term is close to one except at grazing angles, if we only ted the measured data for normal incidence to our BTDF
use data points far from grazing (i.e. where |i n| > 0.5 and using both the Beckmann and GGX microfacet distributions.
|o n| > 0.5), and assume G(i, o, m) = 1 for these points, we In each case we fit both the distribution width parameter and
can solve Equation 21 for the corresponding values of D(ht ). an overall scaling factor (because we have relative rather
We also excluded points with very low measured values as than absolute measurements).
Measured data vs. model for i " 0, 30, 60, 80 Measured data vs. model for i " 0, 30, 60, 80
3.5 1200
3
1000
2.5
800
2
600
1.5
1 400
0.5 200
o o
120 150 180 210 240 270 120 150 180 210 240 270
Relative distribution D!m": data vs. fitted Relative distribution D!m": data vs. fitted
400
1
0.8 300
0.6
200
0.4
100
0.2
m m
15 30 45 60 75 90 15 30 45 60 75 90
Figure 13: Etched sample. Top is BTDF fit and bottom is Figure 14: Antiglare sample. Top is BTDF fit and bottom is
the fit to the empirical microfacet distribution D. Red line is the fit to the empirical microfacet distribution D. Red line is
Beckmann fit and green is GGX fit. Beckmann fit and green is GGX fit.
7. Conclusions
In this paper, we have provided a comprehensive review of
developed the GGX distribution specifically to fit this sam-
microfacet theory and shown how it can be extended to han-
ple after we discovered that the Beckmann distribution did
dle transmissive materials with rough surfaces. We have vali-
not match the inferred microfacet distribution as shown in
dated the resulting BTDF models against measured data and
the bottom plot.
shown that they can predict the refraction behavior of real
The plots for the frosted glass and etched glass samples surfaces. We developed a new microfacet distribution func-
are shown in Figures 11 and 13. For both samples, both the tion (the GGX distribution) and shown that at least for some
Beckmann and GGX fits do a reasonable job of matching surfaces it provides a closer match to the measured data than
the measured transmission pattern, but neither is able to ex- the standard Beckmann distribution. We have also described
actly match the empirical microfacet distribution functions how to efficiently importance sample the microfacet model
as shown in the lower plots. Most likely we could get even which is essential when rendering transmitted light. We be-
better matches by finding distribution functions with behav- lieve these techniques can prove useful in enabling simula-
ior somewhere between that of Beckmann and GGX. tion of a wider range of materials including improved mod-
els of translucent materials such as skin, marble, and paint.
The antiglare glass has a much lower surface roughness
than the other samples and consequently a much narrower Acknowledgments: This work was supported by NSF
lobe as shown in Figure 14. Because its so narrow, we get grants ACI-0205438, CNS-0615240, and CAREER CCF-
relatively few samples within the lobe and had more trouble 0347303, an Alfred P. Sloan Research Fellowship, and Intel.
in estimating its width. In this case both the Beckmann and
GGX fits perform equally well. References
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