DEVONIAN PALEOGEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH AMERICA

S.F. BARRETT1 AND P.E. ISAACSON2

ABSTRACT

Principal occurrences of Devonian rocks in South America are: (a) along the Andes, from Venezuela through Colombia, southern Peru, Bolivia,
Chile and Argentina; and (b) in the intracratonic basins of Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay and Argentina. Exposures of Devonian strata usually occur in
geographically limited areas widely separated from each other. Most of the Devonian rocks are dated as late Emsian to Givetian.
Lithofacies and faunal patterns suggest that sedimentation occurred around the Precambrian shield areas in an epeiric setting in central South
America (Amazon, Parnaiba and Parana Basins) and in an epeiric or marginal-basin setting along the western margin of the continent. Faunal
assemblages and lithofacies indicate that most of the Devonian sequences were deposited in subtidal marine environments. The faunas also delineate two
major marine biogeographic provinces: a northwestern area (Colombia-Venezuela) with affinities to eastern North America and a southern area
(Bolivia-southern Brazil-Argentina) with an endemic, probably cold-water fauna.
The Devonian paleolatitude of the northern part of South America was 30 to 40 degrees south; the southern part of the continent was in south-polar
latitudes. Evidence for these paleolatitudes includes paleomagnetic data from other parts of Gondwanaland (of which South America formed the western
margin), paleobiogeographic relationships and paleoclimatic indicators.
The tectonic framework of the Devonian western margin is unclear. South of central Chile a compressive margin may have existed, as indicated by a
history of intermediate-composition plutonism presumably produced by subduction. However, north of central Chile no evidence (plutonic or volcanic
rocks from a magmatic arc, subduction-accretion complexes or ophiolite sequences) exists for a compressive margin during the Devonian. A Late
Devonian unconformity, widespread throughout the Andean portion of South America and locally angular, may have a tectonic origin.

INTRODUCTION BIOSTRATIGRAPHY

The regional paleogeography of the Devonian of South
America integrates several different but related topics:
stratigraphy, distribution of lithofacies and sedimentary
basins, location of shoreline and continental margin, nature
and location of major plate boundaries, presence of
accreted terranes and the type and distribution of climatic
zones. The pre-Devonian geologic framework, including
primary features such as orogenic belts and depositional
basins, provided the setting for the development of Devo-
nian geography and thus also constrains paleogeographic
reconstructions for that time interval.
The purpose of this paper is to review the basic pal-
eogeographic information and to update previous summa-
ries of Paleozoic or Devonian South American geography
such as Harrington (1962; 1968), Copper (1977), and Norris
(1979). Several detailed studies of parts of South America
are included in the proceedings of the Second International
Symposium on the Devonian System (Melo, this publica-
tion; Isaacson et al., this publication and Barrett, this pub-
lication), and those of the First International Symposium
on the Devonian System, held in Calgary, Canada in 1967.
Paleogeographically useful information which has been
incorporated into the stratigraphic correlation chart (Fig.
1), and which provides the basis for the generalized pal-
eogeographic maps (Figs. 2, 3, and 4) includes the follow-
ing: (1) lithofacies (sedimentary lithology and stratigraphy);
(2) paleoenvironment (as inferred from paleoecology, geo-
chemistry, and lithofacies); (3) biostratigraphy (for strat-
igraphic correlation); and (4) dated igneous rocks
(stratigraphically dated volcanic rocks; radiometrically
dated plutonic or volcanic rocks).
Age of the South American Devonian sequences has
been a matter of debate, especially for sequences in south-
ern South America. The difficulties in correlation are
mainly the result of biogeographic differentiation between
northern and southern South America, with the endemic
faunas of the Malvinokaffric Realm (Boucot, 1975) domi-
nating the southern part of the continent. Most correlations
have used marine megafaunas (brachiopods, trilobites, cor-
als), but recent micropaleontologic work has refined signif-
icantly the stratigraphic framework of the Late Devonian
and, to a lesser extent, the Middle Devonian, particularly in
the intracratonic and Subandean basins (see below).
The Colombian and Venezuelan marine faunas are the
most easily correlatable because of their similarity to well
known faunas of the Eastern Americas Realm in the
Appalachian Basin (Caster, 1939; Boucot, 1975).
Brachiopods indicate an age of late Emsian or Eifelian,
equivalent to the Onandaga or Jeffersonville Limestones of
eastern North America (Caster, 1939; 1942; Benedetto,
1984). In a quantitative comparison the Colombian faunas
more closely resemble Eifelian faunas of the Appalachian
basin (Barrett, 1986). The Emsian-Eifelian age also is sug-
gested by the corals (Scrutton, 1973; Oliver, 1977).
Bolivian sections contain the most complete strat-
igraphic record of southern South American Mal-
vinokaffric fossils, providing a basis for correlation with
nearby sequences. Isaacson (1977) and Eldredge and Bra-
nisa (1980) have demonstrated two assemblages useful for
correlation in Bolivia and adjacent regions. The lowest
megafaunal zone is the assemblage zone of Scaphiocoelia,
probably of late Siegenian to Emsian age. The upper

'Amoco Production Co., Box 3092, Houston, TX 77253

2
Dept. of Geology, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID 83843

Copyright 2009 by the Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists.

Memoir655
14 (1988)
656 Barrett and Isaacson

C &S
E ECUADOR,
VENEZUELA COLOMBIA C PERU N ARGENTINA N CHILE N-C
BOLIVIA ARGENTINA N PERU
(Precordillera)
ma r i ne ca rb

?conform w/ S

Figure 1. Correlation of Devonian stratigraphy for representative basins and areas of South America. Within each area the stratigraphy has been
generalized. Sources of information for each column: (1) Sanchez and Benedetto, 1983; Benedetto, 1983; Bowen, 1972; (2) Barrett, this publication;
Barrett, 1986; (3) Megard, 1978; (4) Isaacson et al., this publication; Isaacson, 1977; McGregor, 1984; (5) Turner and Mon, 1979; Mingramm et al.,
1979; (6) Davidson et al., 1981; Ramirez and Gardeweg, 1982, Isaacson era/., 1985; Isaacson era/., this publication; Marinovic, 1978; Bahlburg et al.,
1986; Bahlburg, 1985; Breitkreuz and Bahlburg, 1985; (7) Furque and Cuerda, 1979; Gonzalez-Bonorino and Middleton, 1976; Baldis, 1975; Cuerda
Devonian Paleogeography, S. America

@
SE PERU, U AMAZON M AMAZON PARNAIBA PARANA C ARGENTINA SC FALKLANDS
N BOLIVIA BASIN BASIN BASIN BASIN ARGENTINA (MALVINAS)
cont. into Hiss cont into Carb Unconf: Lt Carb

ANANEA FM,
"CABAN1LLAS"
U. IQUIRI FM
100-600 m

LEGEND

Stage/age boundary

******** Upper or lower boundary of formation or member

('?' indicates uncertainty in age)

Range in posssible age of boundary

/ / Unconformity

ABBREVIATION
N - North cont - continues
S - South unconf - unconfromity
E - East, Early conf - conformi t y .
W- West conformable
Lt - Late sh - shale
Precamb - Precambrian mudst - mudstone
Ord - Ordovician s i t s t - si I t s t o n e
Si 1, Si" l u r - Si l u r i a n ss - sandstone
Oev - Devonian cgl - conglomerate
E Dev - Early Devonian qtzt - Quartzite
M Dov - Middle Devonian m-crs - medium- t o
Lt Dev - Late Devonian coarse-gra ined
Ged - Gedinnian
Si eg - Siegenian mar - marine
Ems - Emsian restr - restricted
Eif - E i f e l i a n non - normarine
Giv - G i v e t i a n shal - sha1 low
Fra, Frasn - Frasnian turbid - turbidite
Fam, Famenn - Famennian palyno - palynomorphs
Miss - M i s s i s s i p p i a n palynol - palynology
Carb, Carbonir - Carboni ferous
LLandov - Llandovery (Ea r l y
Silurian)

and Baldis, 1971; (8) Alvarado et ai, 1985; Soto Vargas and Vargas, 1985; (9) Aliaga Lopez, 1985; Martinez, 1980; (10) Melo, this publication; Daemon
and Contreiras, 1971; (11) Melo, this publication; Carozzi, 1979; Carozzi era/., 1975; Carozzi etal., 1973; (12) Melo, this publication; Carozzi etal., 1975;
Copper, 1977; (13) Melo, this publication; Copper, 1977; (14) Sierras Australes de Buenos Aires: Harrington, 1980; North Patagonian Massif
(Stipanicic and Methol, 1980; (15) Riccardi and Rolleri, 1980; (16) Turner, 1980.
658
boundary of the fossiliferous sequence is usually marked by
the occurrence of Tropidoleptus carinatus, probably of
Eifelian age.
Recovery of palynomorphs from Bolivia, Brazil and
Peru (Brito, 1971; McGregor, 1984; Wood, 1984) has offered
significant age refinement to the Devonian sequence.
McGregor (1984) has suggested that spore data confirm a
Middle Devonian (Eifelian) age as the youngest for the
upper part of the Huamampampa Formation in Bolivia.
Brito (1971) and Wood (1984), using acritarchs, have identi-
fied Frasnian and possible Famennian units in the eastern
Peruvian and Bolivian subsurface, as well as in the Ama-
zonas and Parnaiba basins of Brazil.
PALEOBIOGEOGRAPHY
Two distinctly different groups of marine faunas, dif-
ferentiated principally on the basis of brachiopods,
trilobites and corals, inhabited South America during the
Devonian: the Malvinokaffric Realm covered southern
South America, including the Parana Basin, as well as
South Africa, and Antarctica; the Eastern Americas Realm
covered northern South America and eastern North Amer-
ica (Boucot, 1975; Boucot et al, 1969; Oliver, 1977; 1980;
Copper, 1977). The distinctiveness of these biogeographic
groups was greatest during the Early Devonian and
decreased greatly throughout the Middle Devonian.
The Devonian faunas of Colombia and Venezuela are
qualitatively and quantitatively linked to the Eastern Amer-
icas Realm (Caster, 1939; 1942; Boucot, 1975; Benedetto,
1984, Sanchez, 1984; Barrett, 1986). Endemic Mal-
vinokaffric-Realm faunas occur in Argentina, Bolivia,
Chile and the Parana Basin of Brazil and adjacent coun-
tries. The faunas of the Amazon and Parnaiba Basins
appear to be transitional between Malvinokaffric and East-
ern Americas Realms, although they are most similar to
Eastern Americas faunas of Colombia and Venezuela
(Copper, 1977; Barrett, 1986).
The nature of barriers separating these two faunal
realms is not clear, but was probably a combination of
temperature gradient and narrow intermittent marine con-
nections limiting faunal dispersal (Copper, 1977; Barrett,
1986). Another faunal barrier, probably land, separated the
Eastern Americas faunas from a third Devonian faunal
realm (Old World Realm) in North Africa. However, this
barrier perhaps began breaking down during the Middle
Devonian, because Old World Realm faunal elements
began to appear in both Malvinokaffric and Eastern Amer-
icas faunas in South America (Isaacson and Perry, 1977;
Copper, 1977).
PALEOGEOGRAPHY
Devonian sedimentation, principally marine, occurred
in two domains in South America: the Andean and
sub-Andean area, and the intracratonic Amazon, Parnaiba
and Parana basins in Brazil and Paraguay. The eastern ends
of the Amazon and Parnaiba basins continued at least a
Barrett and Isaacson
short distance into Africa: South America and Africa were
juxtaposed across the line where the South Atlantic would
open much later.
Several prominent features and major events are identi-
fiable in the stratigraphy (Fig. 1) and shown on the sim-
plified paleogeographic maps (Figs. 2, 3, 4): a widespread
Early Devonian unconformity and subsequent transgres-
sion; a transgressive peak during the Eifelian or Givetian;
and a Late Devonian unconformity presumably related to
tectonism and restricted to the Andean region.
Throughout most of South America, the Early Devo-
nian Gedinnian and Siegenian Stages are missing and the
oldest Devonian rocks are Emsian or Eifelian (Fig. 1). In
these areas, the Devonian often lies on Cambro-Ordovician
sedimentary or metasedimentary rocks. In a few areas, such
as central Bolivia and northwestern Argentina, the oldest
Devonian rocks are conformable with Upper Silurian strata
and may be separated from younger Devonian strata by an
disconformity of Early Devonian age (Fig. 1).
The greatest coverage of South America by Devonian
seas was during the Middle Devonian, perhaps reflecting the
global sea-level rise (Vail et al., 1979; Dennison and Head,
1975). By Late Devonian marine waters had receded, but
probably as the result of tectonic activity and progradation
instead of eustatically controlled regression.
Sedimentation continued into the Late Devonian
throughout the intracratonic basins and Subandean zone.
However, in the Andean belt along the western margin of
the continent at least part of the Late Devonian is missing in
a major unconformity (Fig. 1). Throughout most of the
Andean belt Eifelian strata are overlain by Carboniferous
or younger rocks.
An east-west transect through central Peru shows a
striking example of this unconformity and its lateral rela-
tionships (Megard, 1978). In the westernmost outcrop belt
(Tarma-Tambo, between 11S, 76W and 13S, 74W)
highly deformed and slightly metamorphosed Middle
Devonian rocks are overlain by little deformed strata of
Early Carboniferous age (Early Mississippian: Megard,
1978). About 150 km farther east, at the northern end of the
Vilcabamba anticline (11S, 74W), unmetamorphosed
Middle Devonian rocks are overlain disconformably by
Early Carboniferous rocks. Roughly 400 km farther east
(about 12S, 71W), in outcrop and wells, the Late Devo-
nian is represented by at least 600 m of grey shale and
sandstone (Aliaga Lopez, 1985; Soto Vargas and Vargas,
1985). In the Peruvian Andes, Late Devonian deformation
clearly was restricted to a western area. Elsewhere along
strike in the Andean belt the time interval missing in the
unconformity is much greater and consequently the events
producing the unconformity cannot be so precisely dated as
Late Devonian.
The p a l e o g e o g r a p h i c m a p s for the E m s i a n ,
Eifelian-Givetian and Frasnian (Figs. 2, 3, 4) show gener-
alized shorelines and an estimate of the cratonward limit of
sedimentation for each time interval. In most cases the
Devonian Paleogeography, S. America
Figure 2. Generalized Emsian (late Early Devonian) paleogeography of
South America. Locations of shorelines are approximate. Areas of
probable nondeposition (random-V pattern) and the limit of nonmarine
deposition are only estimates; few Devonian nonmarine exposures
have been documented in South America. The "Chilenia Suture"
(Ramos era/., 1986) is shown for reference.
position of the shoreline is not well defined: marine pal-
eoenvironments occur at the present erosional limit of
Devonian rocks, so that the paleoshoreline can be placed
only arbitrarily cratonward of the erosional limit. There-
fore the position of the shoreline on any map is a conser-
vative minimum; the actual extent of the marine
environment may have been greater.
Distributions of lithofacies are not shown on the maps,
but the Devonian strata typically are sandstones, shales and
occasional conglomerates. Limestone and dolomite are
almost completely absent in Devonian strata in South
America. Like lithofacies, paleoenvironments are not
shown on Figs. 2, 3, and 4. Marine paleoenvironments are
659
Figure 3. Generalized Eifelian-Givetian (Middle Devonian) pal-
eogeography of South America. Locations of shorelines are approxi-
mate. Areas of probable nondeposition (random-V pattern) and the limit
of nonmarine deposition are only estimates; few Devonian nonmarine
exposures have been documented in South America. The "Chilenia
Suture" (Ramos ef a/., 1986) is shown for reference.
almost wholly subtidal but probably represent water depths
shallower than 200 m, judging from the faunal assemblages.
Identifiable nonmarine paleoenvironments are rare, occur-
ring principally in the Middle Amazon and Parnaiba Basins
and in Venezuela.
NORTHWESTERN SOUTH AMERICA (COLOMBIA,
VENEZUELA)
The Devonian sequences in the northern Andes consist
of shale and sandstone and range in thickness from 200 to
1300 m (Barrett, this publication; Barrett, 1986; Sanchez
and Benedetto, 1983; Benedetto, 1984; Sanchez, 1984;
660
Africa
FRASNIAN
Approximate shoreline
Limit of nonmarine
deposition
Figure 4. Generalized Frasnian (early Late Devonian) paleogeography
of South America. Locations of shorelines are approximate. Areas of
probable nondeposition (random-V pattern) and the limit of nonmarine
deposition are only estimates; few Devonian nonmarine exposures
have been documented in South America. The "Chilenia Suture"
(Ramos era/., 1986) is shown for reference.
Bowen, 1972). In central Colombia the term Floresta For-
mation has been applied to a stratigraphic sequence consist-
ing of about 600 m (200-800 m range) of marine shale and
sandstone, at least Emsian-Eifelian in age and possibly
younger (Barrett, this publication). In Venezuela the strat-
igraphic sequence is (from base to top) Cano Grande For-
mation (Siegenian-Emsian), 450 m of mudstone and fine
sandstone; Cano del Oeste Formation (Emsian-Eifelian to
Givetian), 510 m of marine deltaic mudstone and fine
grained sandstone; and Campo Chico Formation (Givetian
to Late Devonian), 700 m of nonmarine deltaic sandstone
and shale (Bowen, 1972; Sanchez and Benedetto, 1983, Ben-
edetto, 1984; Sanchez, 1984). To the east of the Andes, in the
Barrett and Isaacson
Llanos basin, a few exploratory wells reportedly have pene-
trated the Devonian, but in general the Silurian-to-Jurassic
interval is missing in that area (Bogota-Ruiz, 1988).
The marine basal sediments are Emsian in Colombia
(Barrett, 1986, Caster, 1939) and Siegenian in Venezuela
( B e n e d e t t o , 1983) a n d lie u n c o n f o r m a b l y on
Cambro-Ordovician rocks. Eifelian marine faunas, includ-
ing brachiopods, bryozoa, trilobites, crinoids, bivalves and
gastropods, are widespread (Barrett, 1986; Sanchez and
Benedetto, 1983; Morales, 1965; Caster, 1939). The
Emsian-Eifelian fauna is remarkably similar to faunas of
the Appalachian Basin and has been assigned to the Eastern
Americas Realm paleobiogeographic unit (Boucot, 1975;
Boucot et al., 1969). In Venezuela the Devonian sequence
continues into the Late Devonian, becoming less marine
upward, but in Colombia the post-Eifelian section has not
been dated.
N O R T H E R N P E R U , EASTERN E C U A D O R
The Sacha-1 well in northeastern Ecuador bottomed in
166 m of dark grey shale with quartzose sandstone ("Pum-
b u i z a F o r m a t i o n " ) r e p o r t e d to h a v e F a m e n -
nian-Tournasian palynomorphs (Alvarado et al., 1985).
Several wells in northeastern Peru also reportedly pene-
trated a Late Devonian shale-sandstone sequence
("Cabanillas Formation": Soto Vargas and Vargas, 1985).
In the Amotape Mountains, on the western side of the
Andes in northern Peru, the Cerro Negro Formation, 1300
m of sandstone and shale, is apparently Devonian with a
fauna of brachiopods, bryozoa, and crinoids (Montoya,
1985; Martinez, 1970). The brachiopod Australospirifer,
which is typical of the Malvinokaffric Realm, has been
reported in the Cerro Negro Formation, although the fauna
also has been characterized as "warm-water" Eastern
Americas type (Dalmayrac et al., 1980).
UPPER AMAZON BASIN OF BRAZIL
Dark shales and sandstones, and spiculites comprise the
Devonian strata of this area (Melo, this publication).
Thicknesses are 100-500 m and the age of the sequence is late
Emsian to Frasnian (Melo, this publication; Daemon and
Contreiras, 1971). This basin apparently was connected only
intermittently to the Middle Amazon Basin to the east;
Devonian rocks are missing on the Puriis arch which sepa-
rates the two basins. If Devonian rocks were never depos-
ited on that arch, then marine connections between the
Middle Amazon and western South American basins must
have existed elsewhere, as suggested by Melo (this publica-
tion).
MIDDLE AMAZON BASIN
The Devonian sequence in this basin consists of Emsian
through Famennian clastic units. The network of subsur-
face control has helped to define the stratigraphy and the
paleoenvironments (Carozzi, 1979; Carozzi et al., 1975;
Devonian Paleogeography, S. America
Carozzi et al., 1973). The basal unit, the Emsian Maecuru
Formation, overlies Early Silurian sandstone and shale and
consists of quartzose sandstones and shales, fluvial to
deltaic at the edges of the basin and marine in the center.
Marine faunas include a diverse group of brachiopods, plus
bivalves, gastropods, trilobites, bryozoans and cri-
coconarids (Copper, 1977). The Givetian to Eifelian Erere
Formation consists of siltstones, shales and sandstones,
with shallow-marine to nonmarine facies bordering the
basin to the north, west and south, and offshore marine
facies in the center. The marine faunas contain
brachiopods, bivalves, gastropods and rare trilobites (Cop-
per, 1977). The youngest Devonian unit is the Fras-
nian-Famennian Curua Formation, dominantly dark
shales with a Famennian diamictite (tillite) interval. Inver-
tebrate fossils are rare in the Curua, consisting mostly of
inarticulate brachiopods, nuculoid bivalves and rare gas-
tropods. The Curua Formation is overlain conformably by
the Visean-Tournaisian Faro Formation.
The distribution of lithofacies and inferred paleon-
vironments (Melo, this publication; Carozzi, 1979; Carozzi
et al., 1975; 1973) suggests that the primary connection to
marine water elsewhere was to the east; the western end of
the basin was at least occasionally nonmarine. However,
paleobiogeographic considerations similarity between
marine faunas in the Amazon basin and those to the west
and northwest indicates the existence of marine connec-
tions to the west (Melo, this publication; Barrett, 1986). The
Amazonian faunas are similar to the Appalachian-type
faunas in Colombia and Venezuela and have been placed in
the Eastern Americas Realm (Copper, 1977; Boucot, 1975).
The presence of fluvial or deltaic facies at the present edges
of the basin suggests that the width of the Devonian basin
was not much greater than the width of the present-day
basin; in other words, the Devonian strata are not a narrow
preserved segment of a much more extensive basin.
PARNAIBA BASIN
The Devonian section in this basin is known from out-
crop and subsurface data; paleogeographic details are
provided by Melo (this publication), Copper (1977), and
Carozzi et al. (1975). The sequence begins with Emsian
rocks which unconformably overlie Early Silurian strata
and continues into the Carboniferous. The Emsian is repre-
sented by sandstones and shales of the Jaicos and Itaim
Formations, the Eifelian-Givetian interval by the Pimen-
teiras Formation, and the Frasnian-Famennian interval by
part of the Pimenteiras and the Cabecas Formation (which
continues into the Carboniferous Tournasian-Visean).
Deltaic to nonmarine environments predominated around
the edge of the basin, while marine (prodelta and offshore)
environments were common in the central part of the basin
(Figs. 2, 3, 4). Plant remains are common in the Emsian
strata and marine invertebrate faunas include brachiopods,
bivalves, trilobites, ostracods, fish, eurypterids and cri-
coconarids. These faunas, like those of the Middle Amazon
661
Basin, are more similar to the Eastern Americas Realm
faunas of Colombia and Venezuela and less similar to the
Malvinokaffric faunas of the Parana Basin to the south
(Copper, 1977).
The greatest extent of marine facies occurred during the
Eifelian-Givetian; offshore and prodelta shales spread
eastward past the present outcrop limit at the eastern edge
of the basin. The distribution of facies suggests that marine
connections existed northward with the Middle Amazon
area, southward toward the Parana basin and northeast-
ward across the yet-unopened South Atlantic into Ghana.
The Devonian facies in Ghana (Saul et al., 1963; Wood,
1984) indicate the presence of a shoreline there, implying
that any intermittent marine connection with North Africa
was probably through the lower Amazon region and the
Bove basin in Mauritania.
The Jatoba-Tucano basins, lying to the southeast of the
Parnaiba basin, contain sandstone and shale with Late or
Middle Devonian marine faunas (Copper, 1977; Melo, this
volume).
PARANA BASIN
The Furnas Formation and the overlying Ponta Grossa
Formation are the two Devonian units here (Melo, this
publication; Copper, 1977). The Furnas is a sandstone up to
400 m thick and contains few fossils. Its age, consequently,
is inferred from its conformable relationship with overlying
Emsian marine strata. The Furnas is probably diachronous
and may be Middle Devonian in the southern part of the
basin (Copper, 1977). The overlying Ponta Grossa Forma-
tion has two members: the basal Tibagi (marine shale, of
Eifelian-Givetian age); and the Sao Domingos (dominantly
shale, of Givetian-Frasnian age). Brachiopods, bivalves,
trilobites and gastropods are the major faunal elements in
the Ponta Grossa Formation; these marine megafaunas
provide the biostratigraphic control and belong to the Mal-
vinokaffric Realm (Copper, 1977; Boucot, 1975).
SOUTHERN PERU A N D NORTHERN BOLIVIA
In the Subandean area of southeastern Peru and north-
eastern Bolivia marine sandstones and dark shales of Late
Devonian age occur in outcrop and wells ("Cabanillas"
Formation in Peru: Aliaga Lopez, 1985; upper Iquiri and
unnamed units in Bolivia: Martinez, 1980). Palynomorphs
(Frasnian to Fammenian) and acritarchs are common. The
Upper Devonian section in this area is at least 600 m thick
and may be as much as 2000 m thick (Martinez, 1980). Wells
apparently did not penetrate Devonian rocks older than
Late Devonian.
CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN BOLIVIA
The Devonian sequence here (Fig. 1) is 1000-2000 m
thick. The basal rocks are Gedinnian sandstones, the lower
Santa Rosa Formation and the upper Vila Vila Formation;
these strata are probably conformable with Silurian strata.
662
Unconformably above them are sandstones, siltstones and
shales of Emsian age, the Belen, Icla-upper Santa Rosa and
Gamoneda Formations of Eifelian or Givetian age, and the
Sicasica-Collpacuchu, Huamampampa-Cha-kjeri and Los
Monos-Iquiri Formations (Isaacson etal., this publication;
Isaacson, 1977; and McGregor, 1984).
NORTHERN CHILE
The only well dated sequence in this area is 1000 m of
shallow marine sandstone, the Zorritas Formation of
Eifelian-Givetian age (Davidson et al., 1981; Ramirez and
Gardeweg, 1982, Isaacson et al., 1985). The Lila Formation,
400 m of shallow-marine sandstones, may be of Early
Devonian age (Marinovic, 1978). A poorly dated 3000 m
thick sequence of turbidites, the El Toco Formation, con-
tains a possibly Late Devonian flora (Bahlburg et al., 1986;
Bahlburg, 1985; Breitkreuz and Bahlburg, 1985).
NORTHERN ARGENTINA
The Devonian strata in far northwestern Argentina
have been described by Turner and Mon (1979), Mingramm
et al, (1979), Turner and Mendez (1979), and Antelo (1981).
In the Cordillera Oriental and the adjacent Sierras Suban-
dinas (22-26S, 64-66W), the basal Devonian unit is the
Baritu Formation, which lies disconformably on Silurian
shales. The Baritu is dominantly sandstone, probably of
marine origin and contains brachiopods of Early Devonian
age. Total thickness may reach 800 m. Overlying the Baritu
is the Porongal Formation, 300-400 m of shale with a basal
conglomerate. The shales contain a marine fauna and are
Emsian to Eifelian in age. The upper unit is the Pescado
Formation, about 900 m of fine grained sandstone with
intercalated shales, possibly Eifelian. Carboniferous shales
of the Tupambi and Tarija Formations overlie the Devo-
nian, probably unconformably.
NORTH-CENTRAL ARGENTINA
Devonian rocks are exposed widely in the Precordillera
of La Rioja, San Juan and Mendoza provinces, about 29 to
33S, 69W (Furque and Cuerda, 1979; Gonzalez-
Bonorino and Middleton, 1976; Baldis, 1975; Cuerda and
Baldis, 1971). The Lower Devonian sequence consists of the
Talacasto Formation, up to 1000 m of shale and fine sand-
stone with rare conglomerates and thin fossiliferous lime-
stones. The base is apparently conformable with the
Silurian below. An abundant marine fauna of the Mal-
vinokaffric type is present, dating the formation as Early
Devonian. Lateral equivalents include the Hilario Forma-
tion (sandstones and shales) and overlying Lomitas Negras
Formation (shale), as well as the Mogotes Negros and upper
Rinconada Formations (shale and sandstone with occa-
sional conglomerates). Age-diagnostic fossils have not been
recovered from the Hilario and Lomitas Negras Formations
and correlation with Lower Devonian units is tentative. The
Mogotes Negros and Rinconada Formations contain Early
Barrett and Isaacson
Devonian brachiopods. The Hilario and Mogotes Negros
unconformably overlie Ordovician rocks.
Middle to Upper Devonian units include the Punta
Negra, Tontal and La Punilla Formations. The Punta
Negra conformably overlies the Talacasto and comprises up
to 2500 m of rhythmically bedded sandstone and shale,
possibly turbidites. The formation contains plant fossils
and is apparently Middle to Late Devonian. The Tontal
Formation conformably overlies the Lomitas Negras, con-
sists of sandstone and interbedded shale and is correlated
with the Middle to Late Devonian Punta Negra Formation.
La Punilla Formation is a sequence 1000 to 3000 m thick,
with shale and sandstone making up the lower part, con-
glomerate the middle part and shale and sandstone the
upper part. The upper part of La Punilla contains plant
fossils indicative of a late Middle Devonian age. In places
La Punilla Formation is overlain conformably by the Upper
Devonian Pircas Negras Formation, and in other areas
unconformably overlain by Carboniferous rocks.
Two formations of limited extent are assigned
exclusively to the Late Devonian: the Pircas Negras and
Chigua Formations, both, in part, of marine origin. The
Pircas Negras is 1000 m of shale and mudstone, with a
polymict conglomerate at the base and contains trilobite
and plant remains. The conformably overlying Chigua For-
mation is 700 m of shale with intercalations of sandstone
and limestone; it contains ammonites, trilobites and plants
of possible Late Devonian age. The top of the Chigua is
faulted.
SOUTHERN SOUTH AMERICA
Devonian rocks are not widespread in southern South
America (central and southern Argentina and Chile), and
the stratigraphy is poorly defined. In the Sierras Australes
de Buenos Aires (38.5S, 61.5W) about 1500 m of Devo-
nian strata exist (Harrington, 1980). The basal contact is an
angular unconformity with Silurian rocks. The lower part
of the section consists of three undated coarse clastic for-
mations: the lowest is the Bravard Formation, 200-250 m of
coarse grained sandstone with thin intercalations of con-
glomerate, followed by the Naposta Formation, 400 m of
cross-bedded sandstone, followed by the Providencia For-
mation, 200-300 m of sandstone with shale intercalations.
The uppermost unit is the Lolen Formation, 600 m of
sandstone, often cross-bedded, with thin interbeds of shale
and conglomerate. The lower half of the Lolen contains
brachiopods which indicate an Emsian age. The paleoen-
vironments are littoral to shallow marine. The Devonian
rocks are overlain unconformably by Late Carboniferous
strata.
In the North Patagonian Massif (42 S, 66W) marine
sandstones, siltstone, shales and ferruginous oolitic rocks
of the Sierra Grande Formation have been assigned to the
Lower Devonian, based on the presence of Conularia
quichua (Stipanicic and Methol, 1980). In the southern
Patagonian Cordillera of Argentina, near the Chilean
Devonian Paleogeography, S. America 663

border (about 48S, 73W), metamorphosed shale, silt- America, and Devonian data for the supercontinent of
stone and sandstone of the Rio Lacteo Formation may be in Gondwana, of which South America was the western part,
part Devonian (Riccardi and Rolled, 1980). About 100 km to are equivocal (Hailwood, 1974; Kent et al, 1984; Hurley and
the south (49S, 73W) Paleozoic rocks of the Lancha or Van der Voo, 1987; Salmon et al, 1987).
Bahia de la Lancha Formation include a palynologically Paleoclimatic indicators such as evaporites, reefs and
dated Upper Devonian section penetrated in two wells (Ri- tillites help to constrain the paleolatitudes of Gondwana
ccardi and Rolleri, 1980; Lesta et al, 1980). and thus of South America (Heckel and Witzke, 1979;
In coastal central Chile (about 46S) a poorly preserved Ziegler et al, 1981; Caputo, 1985; Barrett, 1985). The pres-
marine fauna in greywackes of the low-grade metamorphic ence of thick carbonates and reefs along the northern mar-
Potranca Formation indicates possibly Late Silurian to gin of Gondwana (for example, North Africa) indicates a
Early Devonian age (Miller, 1976). If these strata are Devo- low-latitude position there; lack of carbonates further
nian they may not be autochthonous to South America: south, plus the presence of possibly glaciogenic sediments
accreted microplates have been described along the west suggests that the southern part of Gondwana was at high
coast of southern South America (see discussion below). latitudes. Further suggestive evidence is the gradient in
marine fossil diversity; the Malvinokaffric faunas of south-
MALVINAS (FALKLAND) ISLANDS ern South America have low diversity, which may reflect a
The Devonian sequence is about 3000 m thick, divided cold climate (Copper, 1977). The consensus of most paleo-
into three formations (Turner, 1980). The basal unit, the continental reconstructions is that northern South America
Port Stephens Formation, is about 1500 m thick and consists (Colombia and Venezuela) was in 30-40 degrees south lati-
of sandstone with minor conglomerates and shales. This tude, and southern South America was in high south lati-
formation overlies Precambrian rocks of the Cape Meridith tudes, between 60 and 90 degrees.
Complex. Although no fossils have been described from the Two different approaches have been used to derive
unit, it is conformable with the overlying Emsian Fox Bay models of Devonian climates: use of geological data,
Formation and therefore has been assigned an Early Devo- including paleoclimatic indicators such as reefs, evaporites,
nian age. coals and tillites (for example, Heckel and Witzke, 1979,
The middle unit is the Fox Bay Formation, 800 m of and Witzke and Heckel, this publication); and theoretical
interbedded sandstones and shales conformably overlying modelling using paleocontinental reconstructions and basic
the Port Stephens Formation. Locally abundant climatic principles and parameters (for example, Ziegler et
brachiopods and trilobites of the Malvinokaffric Realm al, 1981; Barrett 1985; or Crowley et al, 1987). The general
identify the unit as late Early Devonian and indicate a consensus of most paleocontinental and paleoclimatic
marine paleoenvironment. models is that present-day northern South America would
The upper unit is the Monte Maria Formation, 800 m of have been too far south (30-40 degrees) to have been in the
interbedded sandstone and shale. Plant fossils in sandstones dry belt. From Venezuela down to Bolivia or northern Chile
in the lower part of the formation suggest a Middle Devo- (to a paleolatitude of 70 degrees) a cool-temperate wet to
nian age (Turner, 1980) but the age of the upper part is moist paleoclimate is probable. Farther south or southeast
unknown and may range into the Carboniferous. The (present geography), a drier subpolar paleoclimate is likely.
Monte Maria Formation is overlain unconformably by the Thus, given the probable paleolatitudes of South America,
Bluff Cove Formation, of probable Late Carboniferous age the paleoclimate probably was similar to the late Cenozoic
(Turner, 1980). climate of present Chile and Argentina or coastal western
Canada.
PALEOCLIMATE AND PALEOLATITUDE
PALEOTECTONICS
South America appears to have had a temperate to polar
climate during the Devonian. The general climatic setting of Magmatic history and location of convergent plate
South America during this time is suggested by the lack of boundaries
carbonates, indicating cool marine waters in mid to high The western margin of South America has had a history
latitudes; the presence of latest Devonian to Early Car- of plate convergence and resulting subduction-related
boniferous glaciogenic sediments in Brazil (Caputo, 1985) magmatism beginning as early as Ordovician (Forsythe,
and the Paleozoic polar-wander path, which puts southern 1982). An important concern for Devonian paleogeography
South America near the Devonian South Pole. then, is whether a convergent boundary and magmatic arc
Climate is in large part controlled by latitude, and data existed at that time.
on Devonian latitudes of South America might provide The evidence that indicates a former convergent bound-
insight to the paleoclimate. The major source of informa- ary includes ophiolite blocks and other accreted terranes,
tion about former latitudes of the Paleozoic continents is belts of subduction-related intermediate-composition
paleomagnetic data, but for the Devonian this source only igneous rocks and evidence of Devonian orogeny such as
poorly constrains the paleolatitudes of South America. No rapidly produced angular unconformities. The age of mag-
paleomagnetic data of Devonian age are available for South matism and the magmatic history can be constrained by
664
information such as volcanic flows datable by interbedded
fossiliferous sediments, and volcanic or plutonic rocks of
intermediate composition dated by radiometric techniques.
Despite a record of earlier Paleozoic convergence and
magmatism (Forsythe, 1982; Ramos et al., 1986; Barrett,
this publication) and later Paleozoic and Mesozoic con-
vergence and magmatism (Ziegler et al., 1979), there is little
compelling evidence suggesting that subduction and a resul-
tant magmatic arc existed during the Devonian. Pertinent
geological data for each segment of the western margin of
South America are presented below.
NORTHWESTERN SOUTH AMERICA
No Devonian volcanic rocks or radiometrically dated
plutonic or volcanic rocks of Devonian age are known from
Colombia or Venezuela. There is evidence for an Ordovi-
cian or Silurian magmatic arc and perhaps orogeny, but
during the Devonian this portion of the western margin
apparently was quiescent (Barrett, this publication).
Indeed, marine to nonmarine sedimentation may have con-
tinued locally into the Carboniferous.
PERU
No Devonian magmatism is recorded in Peru, although
in central Peru Early Carboniferous volcanic rocks have
been described (Megard, 1978). Thus the magmatic arc did
not appear until the end of the Devonian, or lay well to the
west of the present outcrop belt.
A major angular unconformity developed during Late
Devonian and earliest Carboniferous, restricted to the
Andean belt. The unconformity is most pronounced in the
west (Tarma area: 11.4S, 75.7W), where highly deformed
and slightly metamorphosed Middle Devonian sandstones
and shales are overlain in angular unconformity by possibly
Early Carboniferous sandstone and conglomerate. Farther
east (Vilcambamba area, about IPS, 74W), the Middle
Devonian and overlying Carboniferous are disconforma-
ble, and yet farther to the east strata of Late Devonian age
are present (Pongo de Conec and Puerto Primo-1 and Par-
iamanu-1 wells: 13.7S, 71.1W; 12.1S, 69.6W; and
12.2N, 70.0W, respectively: Aliaga Lopez, 1985).
BOLIVIA AND NORTHERN CHILE
NO arc-related plutons of Devonian age have been
identified nor are volcanic rocks present in the Devonian
sequence, except for clasts of andesite in the lower Zorritas
Formation in northern Chile. Therefore, if a convergent
margin with magmatic arc existed it must have been farther
to the west. Stratigraphic and sedimentologic evidence indi-
cate that a source area for clastic sediments lay to the west of
the present outcrop belt (Isaacson, 1975) but those sedi-
ments do not indicate the presence of a volcanic arc nearby.
However, Late Devonian tectonism is suggested by the fact
that, as in west-central Peru, the Upper Devonian is miss-
Barrett and Isaacson
ing, although to the northeast in the Subandean zone strata
of Late Devonian age are present.
CENTRAL ARGENTINA AND CHILE AND SOUTHERN SOUTH
AMERICA
This area was a west-facing convergent margin during
the Paleozoic (Forsythe, 1982; Ramos et al., 1986). How-
ever, convergence-related magmatism was not widespread
during the Devonian; plutonic activity peaked during the
Middle to Late Ordovician and then "declined during the
Silurian, and was minor during the Devonian". (Ramos et
al., 1986, p. 858).
An accreted terrane may exist in the Frontal Cordillera
of Argentina and Chile, and Ramos et al. (1986) have pro-
posed that accretion of this terrane, which they call
Chilenia, was Late Devonian. Deformation of Early Car-
boniferous or Late Devonian age is widespread throughout
this area; the severest deformation was in the west (Western
Precordillera, about 69-70W, between 29 and 33S),
dying out to the east.
The northward limit of this accreted terrane and the
accompanying suture zone is unknown. Devonian sedimen-
tary rocks or biota also have not been described from the
Chilenia terrane. The relationship between this terrane and
South America, and the exact timing of its accretion, are
still not well defined.
Farther south in western South America the presence of
accreted terranes has been suggested, but the accretion was
probably post-Paleozoic (Mpodozois and Forsythe, 1983).
The presence of terranes related to Chilenia and the exis-
tence of a mid-Paleozoic convergent margin have not been
documented.
CONFIGURATION OF NORTHWESTERN SOUTH AMERICA
Although the convergent margin at the western edge of
the Gondwana continent was in present western South
America, the northward continuation of that convergent
margin is a matter of conjecture. However, the present
northern edge of South America probably was not the mid-
Paleozoic continental margin.
In order to reconstruct the northernwestern margin of
South America we must first undo the effects of the younger
Hercynian-Appalachian-Alleghenian-Ouachitan collision
that sutured South America to North America. The major
continental pieces involved in this reconstruction are North
America, South America, the Florida-Bahamas block and
the Yucatan Block. In most Permo-Triassic reconstructions
(Pindell, 1985; Pindell and Dewey, 1982; or Scotese et al.,
1979, for example) Yucatan is fitted against the Gulf coast
of North America, filling part of the Gulf of Mexico. In
reconstructions employing a tight fit between North and
South America the other side of Yucatan therefore must
have been against Venezuela.
Between Yucatan and cratonic North America is the
Ouachita orogen, which very likely is the record of a conti-
Devonian Paleogeography, S. America
nent-continent or continent-arc collision of Middle to Late
Carboniferous age (Pindell 1985; Pindell and Dewey 1982).
Oceanic crust consumed between these colliding pieces was
not subducted beneath North America since there was no
subduction-related volcanism or plutonism in the
Ouachitas. The implication is that subduction was to the
south, toward and possibly beneath Yucatan. Therefore,
prior to the late Paleozoic collision, Yucatan was not part of
the North American continent, but moved northward
toward North America together with Gondwana, as either
(1) a microplate, separated from South America by oceanic
crust, or (2) part of Gondwana, attached to South America.
There is no evidence for the existence of a suture of the
appropriate age on either Yucatan or South America, sug-
gesting that there was no Carboniferous collision between
them. In addition, the Paleozoic basement of Yucatan can
be related to the basement of a part of Gondwana. Analysis
of age and type of early and middle Paleozoic basement in
Florida (originally a part of Gondwana) and in fault blocks
related to Yucatan, such as Catoche Knoll in the Yucatan
Channel, suggests similarities between those two areas, and
dissimilarities between those areas and the Appalachian
orogen (Dallmeyer, 1982, Buffler and Phair, 1982). Thus, a
link can be established between Yucatan and a former piece
of Gondwana. The above arguments suggest that during the
Devonian Yucatan lay against the northern margin of South
America.
The location of the mid-Paleozoic convergent plate
boundary between South America and North America must
have been between Yucatan and southern North America.
The exact location of the remains of the associated mag-
matic arc, including Devonian plutons or volcanic rocks,
and the polarity of the subduction zone are still conjectural.
The arc may be preserved under the Cretaceous-Tertiary
carbonate platform covering Yucatan and in blocks in the
subsurface of the northern Gulf of Mexico (Pindell, 1985).
The subduction zone most likely dipped generally
paleo-southward under northwestern Gondwana. This
mid-Paleozoic arc probably continued southward into pre-
sent northwestern South America, although as noted below,
no evidence for a Devonian magmatic arc exists there.
SUMMARY OF TECTONIC HISTORY
In the southern part of western South America a con-
vergent margin may have existed, with limited magmatism,
until a Late Devonian accretionary event. In the central
Andes no magmatic arc and presumably, therefore, no
convergent margin existed, unless it lay to west of the pre-
sent outcrop belt. However, there was a Late Devonian
deformation, locally strong, with low-grade meta-
morphism. In the northern Andes no arc existed, or it lay to
the west of the present outcrop belt. Deformation or uncon-
formities of Late Devonian or Early Carboniferous age are
also widespread throughout the Andean zone, but
665
especially in the central and southern Andes. No strong
evidence exists for Late Devonian deformation in the
northern Andes; Carboniferous strata supposedly confor-
mably overlie the Devonian but no marine or mar-
ginal-marine Late Devonian has been identified except in
the northernmost part of the northern Andes.
Judging from the magmatic record it seems that if,
during the Devonian, subduction took place against western
South America, then it occurred along the southern South
America margin but not along the central or northern mar-
gins. One possible paleotectonic scenario which would
explain this pattern is convergence in which relative motion
varied from dominantly perpendicular to the margin
(southern Andean belt) to dominantly parallel (northern
Andean belt). One sort of plate-tectonic interaction that
could have produced this scenario is southward motion of
the oceanic plate relative to a concave continental plate,
where the northern part of the continental margin was
oriented north-south and the southern part was oriented
more northeast-southwest.
Another paleotectonic scenario that could explain the
observed pattern is if the pole of rotation ("Euler pole")
between the oceanic and the Gondwanian plate was near
northern South America, with the oceanic plate rotating
counterclockwise relative to the continental plate. Much
less convergence would occur near the pole of rotation
(along the northern part of the margin) than farther away
(farther south along the margin).
The Late Devonian Andean unconformity may have a
tectonic cause; possible causes include collision, perhaps
with exotic terranes or a major change in relative motion
between the subducting oceanic plate and the Gondwanian
plate, or renewal of subduction after a lull.
The evidence presented here suggests that there was a
Devonian hiatus in magmatism along western South Amer-
ica, or at least a very pronounced diminution; the record of
pre-Devonian and post-Devonian convergence and mag-
matism of this margin is good (Forsythe, 1982; Ramos et ah,
1986; Ziegler etal., 1979; Irving, 1975). This hiatus probably
had a tectonic origin which may be related to a change in
plate motions during this time interval.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We especially thank J. Melo (Petrobras) for his contri-
bution of time and information, and P. Copper for his
critical review of the manuscript. We also thank C. Kazmer
for her thorough review and comments, and A.J. Boucot,
R. Blodgett, C. Scotese, J. Davidson, and V. Covacevich
for stimulating discussions. Isaacson wishes to thank the
National Geographic Society, the American Chemical Soci-
ety (Petroleum Research Fund) and Amoco Production
Company for partial support for his contribution; Barrett
thanks Amoco Production Company for permission to
publish this work.
666
REFERENCES
Aliaga Lopez, E., 1985. Palinoestratigrafia del Paleozoico: section Pongo
de Conec, Cuenca Madre de Dios, sureste del Peru. Quito, Ecuador:
Asistencia Reciproca Petrolera Estatal Latinoamericana (ARPEL),
Exploracion y desarrollo de hidrocarburas en horizontes precretacicos,
LV Reunion de ARPEL, v. 2.
Alvarado, A., Cisneros, J. and Santos, M., 1985. Modelos geologicos del
pre-cretacico del oriente ecuatoriano. Quito, Ecuador: Asistencia
Reciproca Petrolera Estatal Latinoamericana (ARPEL), Exploracion y
desarrollo de hidrocarburas en horizontes precretacicos, LV Reunion
deARPEL,v.2.
Antelo, B., 1981. Rasgos geologicos de los aprovechamientos hidrologicos
de San Jose y San Ignacio Rio Iruya-Provincia de Salta. Argentina,
Agua y Energia Electrical, Gerencia de Estudios y Proyectos, Piano
No. 14.338.
Bahlburg, H., 1985. Sedimentological aspects of the El Toco Formation
(Paleozoic; coastal cordillera) NW of Quillagua, northern Chile.
Antofagasta, IV Congreso Geologico Chileno, v. 1, p . 17-29.
Breitkreuz, C. and Zeil, W., 1986. Palaozoische Sedimente Nor-
dchiles. Berliner geowissentschaftliche Abhandlung (A), v. 66, p.
147-168.
Baldis, B.A., 1975. Valoracion de elementos faunisticos para una zonacion
y datacion de edades en el Devonico Inferior de la Precordillera de San
Juan. Tucuman, Actas, Primero Congreso Argentino de Paleontologia
y Bioestratigrafia, v. I, p . 219-240.
Barrett, S.F., 1986. Paleoecology and stratigraphy of Devonian sediments
in the northern Andes, Colombia: Paleogeographic implications. Chi-
cago: University of Chicago, unpublished Ph.D. dissertation.
, 1985. Early Devonian continental positions and climate: a frame-
work for paleophytogeography. In: Tiffney, B., (Ed.), Geological
factors and the evolution of plants, New Haven: Yale University Press,
p. 93-127.
Benedetto, J.L., 1983. La presencia de rocas de edad Siegeniana en la Sierra
Perija (Venezuela) y sus implicaciones paleogeograficas. Revista Tec-
nica de Yacieamentos Petroliferos Fiscales Bolivianos, v. 9, p. 59-69.
, 1984, Les brachiopods devoniens. Biostratigraphie du Paleozoi-
que, v. 1.
Bogota-Ruiz, J., 1988. Contribution al conocimiento estratigrafico de la
Cuenca de los Llanos (Colombia). Ill Simposio Bolivariano (Caracas,
March 13-16,1988), Memorias, v. 1, p. 308-346.
Boucot, A.J., 1975. Evolution and extinction rate controls. New York:
Elsevier.
Johnson, J.G. and Talent, J.A., 1969. Early Devonian brachiopod
zoogeography. Geological Society of America Special Paper 119, p.
1-107.
Bowen, J.M., 1972. Estratigrafia del Precretacico en el parte norte de la
Sierra de Perija. Congreso Geologico Venezolano, IV, Memoria. Car-
acas: Ministerio de Minas e Hidrocarburos, Boletin de Geologia, P u b -
licacion Especial, No. 5, p. 729-761.
Breitkreuz, C. and Bahlburg, H., 1985. Paleozoic flysch series in the
Coastal Cordillera of Northern Chile. Geologische Rundschau, Band
74, Heft 3, p. 565-572.
Brito, I.M., 1971. Contribuicao ao Conhecimento des Microfosseis Sil-
urianos e Devonianos da Bacia do Maranhao. In: Simposio de Paleon-
tologia, Anais, Academia Brasileira de Ciencias, Rio de Janeiro, v. 43
(Suplemento), p. 201-208.
Buffler, R.T. and Phair, R.L., 1982. Early geologic evolution of the deep
southeastern Gulf of Mexico. Geological Society of America Abstracts
with Programs, v. 14, p. 454.
Caputo, M.V., 1985. Late Devonian glaciation in South America. Pal-
aeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 51, p. 291-317.
Carozzi, A.V., 1979. Petroleum geology in the Paleozoic elastics of the
Middle Amazon Basin, Brazil. Journal of Petroleum Geology, v. 2, p.
55-74.
Falkenheim, F.U.H., Carneiro, R.G., Esteves, F.R. and Con-
treiras, C.J.A., 1975. Analise ambiental e evolucao tectonica sinsedi-
mentar da secao Siluro-Eocarbonifera da bacia do Maranhao.
Petrobras, Divisao de informacao tecnica e patentes, Cien-
cia-Tecnica-Petroleo, Secao Exploracao do Petroleo, Publicacao 7.
Carozzi, A.V., Pamplona, H.R.P., de CaStro, J.C. and Contreiras,
C.J. A., 1973. Ambientes deposicionais e evolucao tecto-sedimentar da
secao clastico-paleozoico da Bacia do Medio Amazonas. An. XXVII
Congr. Bras. Geol., v. 3, p. 279-314.
Barrett and Isaacson
Caster, K.E., 1939. A Devonian fauna from Colombia. Bulletins of Ameri-
can Paleontology, v. 24 (no. 83), p. 1-218.
, 1942. The age and relations of Colombian Devonian strata. Amer-
ican Scientific Congress, 8th, Proceedings v. 4, p. 27-67.
Copper, P., 1977. Paleolatitudes in the Devonian of Brazil and the Fras-
n i a n - F a m e n n i a n mass e x t i n c t i o n s . P a l a e o g e o g r a p h y , P a l -
aeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 21, p. 165-207.
Crowley, T.J., Mengel, J.C. and Short, D.A., 1987. Gondwanaland's
seasonal cycle. Nature, v. 329, p. 803-807.
Cuerda, A.J. and Baldis, B.A., 1971. Silurico-Devonico de la Argentina.
Ameghiniana, Buenos Aires, v. 8, no. 2, p. 128-164.
Daemon, R.F. and Contreiras, C.J.A., 1971. Zoneamento palinologico da
Bacia do Amazonas. Sociedade Brasileira de Geologia, Anais do XXV
Congreso (Sao Paolo, September, 1971), v. 3, p. 79-92.
Dallmeyer, R.D., 1982. Pre-Mesozoic basement of the southeastern Gulf
of Mexico. Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs, v.
14, p. 471.
Dalmayrac, B., 1977. Geologie des Andes Peruviennes: Geologie de la
Cordillere de la region de Huanuco. These, Academie de Montpellier,
Universite des sciences at techniques du Languedoc.
Davidson, J., Mpodozis, C. and S. Rivano, 1981. El Paleozoico de Sierra de
Almeida, al oeste de Monturaqui, alta cordillera de Antofagasta, Chile.
Santiago, Revista Geologica de Chile, No. 12, p. 3-23.
Eldredge, N. and Branisa, L., 1980. Calmonid trilobites of the Lower
Devonian Scaphiocoelia Zone of Bolivia, with remarks on related
species. New York, Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural
History, v. 165, Article 2, p. 185-289.
Forsythe, R., 1982. The late Paleozoic to early Mesozoic evolution of
southern South America: A plate tectonic interpretation. Journal of the
Geological Society of London, v. 139, p. 671-682.
Furque, G. and Cuerda, A.J., 1979. Precordillera de La Rioja, San Juan y
Mendoza. Cordoba, Segundo Simposio de Geologia Regional Argen-
tina, v. 1, p. 455-522.
Gonzalez-Bonorino, G. and Middleton, G.V., 1976. A Devonian sub-
marine fan in western Argentina. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v.
46, no. 1, p. 56-69.
Hailwood, E.A., 1974. Paleomagnetism of the Msissi Norite (Morocco)
and the Paleozoic reconstruction of Gondwanaland. Earth and Plane-
tary Science Letters, v. 23, p. 376-386.
Harrington, H. J., 1962. Paleogeographic development of South America.
American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 46, p.
1773-1814.
, 1968. Devonian of South America. In: Oswald, D.H. (Ed.), Inter-
national Symposium on the Devonian System. Calgary: Alberta Soci-
ety of Petroleum Geologists, v. 1, p. 651-671.
, 1980. Sierras Australes de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, Cordoba,
Segundo Simposio de Geologia Regional Argentina, v. 2, p. 967-983.
Heckel, P.H. and Witzke, B.J., 1979. Devonian world palaeogeography
determined from distribution of carbonates and related lithic pal-
aeoclimatic indicators. In: House, M.R., Scrutton, C.T., and Basset,
M.G. (Eds.), The Devonian System. London: Palaeontological Asso-
ciation, Special Papers in Palaeontology, v. 23, p. 99-123.
Hurley, N.F. and Van der Voo, R., 1987. Paleomagnetism of Upper
Devonian reefal limestones, Canning basin, Western Australia. Geo-
logical Society of America Bulletin, v. 98, p. 138-146.
Irving, E.M., 1975. Structural evolution of the northernmost Andes,
Colombia. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 846, p. 1-47.
Isaacson, P.E., 1975. Evidence for a western extracontinental land source
during the Devonian Period in the central Andes. Geological Society of
America Bulletin, v. 86, no. 1, p. 39-46.
, 1977. Devonian stratigraphy and brachiopod paleontology of
Bolivia. Part A: Orthida and Strophomenida. Palaeontographica,
Abteilung A, v. 155, p. 133-192.
and Perry, D.G., 1977. Biogeography and morphological conser-
vatism of Tropidoleptus (Brachiopoda, Orthida) during the Devonian.
Journal of Paleontology, v. 51, no. 6, p. 1108-1122.
Isaacson, P.E., Fisher, L.L. and Davidson, J., 1985. Devonian and Car-
boniferous stratigraphy of Sierra de Almeida, preliminary results.
Santiago, Revista Geologica de Chile, No. 25-26, p. 113-121.
Kent, D.V., Dia, O. and Sougy, J.M.A. 1984. Paleomagnetism of
Lower-Middle Devonian and Upper Proterozoic-Cambrian (?) rocks
from Mejeria (Mauritania, West Africa). In: Van der Voo, R., Scotese,
C.R., and Bonhommet, N. (Eds.), Plate reconstruction from Paleozoic
paleomagnetism. American Geophysical Union Geodynamics Series,
v. 12, p. 99-115.
Devonian Paleogeography, S. America
Lesta, P., Ferello, R. and Chebli, G., 1980. Chubut extrandino. Cordoba:
Academia Nacional de Ciencias. Segundo Simposio de Geologia
Regional Argentina, v. 2, p. 1307-1387.
Marinovic, N., 1978. Geologia de los cuadrangulos Cerro Lila y Cordon
Chinquilchoro, II Region Antofagasta. Santiago, Instituto Investiga-
ciones de Geologia (inedito).
Martinez, M., 1970. Geologia del basamento Paleozoico en las Montanas
de Amotape y posible origen del petroleo en rocas Paleozoicas del
noroeste del Peru. Congreso Latinoamericano de Geologia, 1st (Lima,
1970), Proceedings, vol. 2, p. 105-138.
Martinez, C , 1980. Geologie des Andes boliviennes. Travaux et Docu-
ments de l'ORSTOM, v. 119.
McGregor, D.C., 1984. Late Silurian and Devonian spores from Bolivia.
Cordoba, Argentina, Academia Nacional de Ciencias Miscelanea No.
69.
Megard, F., 1978. Etude geologique des Andes du Perou central: Contri-
bution a l'etude geologique des Andes No. 1. Paris: Office de la
Recherche Scientifique et Technique Outre-Mer (ORSTOM),
Memoires, no. 86.
Miller, H., 1976. El basamento de la provincia de Aysen (Chile) y sus
correlaciones con las rocas premesozoicas de la Patagonia Argentina.
Buenos Aires: Asociacion Geologica Argentina. Actas, VI Congreso
Geologico Argentino, v. 1, p. 125-141.
Mingramm, A., Russo, A., Pozzo, A. and Cazau, L., 1979. Sierras Suban-
dinas. Cordoba, Segundo Simposio de Geologia Regional Argentina,
v. 1, p. 95-137.
Montoya, A., 1985. Exploracion y desarrollo del precretaceo en la cuenca
Talara: Noroeste del Peru. Quito, Ecuador: Asistencia Reciproca
Petrolera Estatal Latinoamericana (ARPEL), Exploracion y desarrollo
de hidrocarburas en horizontes precretacicos, LV Reunion de ARPEL,
v. 2. Boletin Tecnico de ARPEL, v. 14, p. 145-159.
Morales, P.A., 1965. A contribution to the knowledge of the Devonian
faunas of Colombia. Universidad Industrial de Santander (Colombia),
Boletin de Geologia, v. 19, p. 51-109.
Mpodozis, C. and Forsythe, R., 1983. Stratigraphy and geochemistry of
accreted fragments of the ancestral Pacific floor in southern South
America. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 41,
p.103-124.
Norris, A.W., 1979. Devonian in the Western Hemisphere. In: Robison,
R.A., and Teichert, C , (Eds.), Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology,
Part A (Introduction). Boulder, Colorado, and Lawrence, Kansas:
Geological Society of America and University of Kansas, p. 218-253.
Oliver, W.A., Jr., 1980. Corals in the Malvinokaffric Realm. Munster.
Forsch. Geol. Paleont. v. 52, p. 13-27.
, 1977. Biogeography of Late Silurian and Devonian rugose corals.
Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 22, p. 85-135.
Pindell, J.L., 1985. Alleghenian reconstruction and the subsequent evolu-
tion of the Gulf of Mexico, Bahamas and Proto-Caribbean Sea: Tec-
tonics, v. 4, p. 1-39.
and Dewey, J.F., 1982. Permo-Triassic reconstruction of western
Pangea and the evolution of the Gulf of Mexico/Caribbean region:
Tectonics, v. 1, p. 179-212.
Ramirez, C. and Gardeweg, M., 1982. Hoja Toconao, Region de
Antofagasta. Santiago, Servicio Nacional de Geologia y Mineria, Carta
de Geologia, Chile, No. 54.
Ramos, V.A., Jordan, T.E., Allmendinger, R.W., Mpodozis, C , Kay,
667
S.M., Cortes, J.M. and Palma, M., 1986. Paleozoic terranes of the
central Argentine-Chilean Andes. Tectonics, v. 5, p. 855-880.
Riccardi, A.C. and Rolled, E.O., 1980. Cordillera Patagonica Austral.
Cordoba, Segundo Simposio de Geologia Regional Argentina, v. 2, p.
1173-1306.
Salmon, E., Montigny, R., Edel, J.B., Pique, A., Thuizat, R. and West-
phal, M., 1987. A140 Ma K/Ar age of the Msissi norite (Morocco): new
geochemical and paleomagnetic data. Earth and Planetary Science
Letters, v. 81, p. 265-272.
Sanchez, T., 1984, Etude paleoecologique du Paleozoique. Bio-
stratigraphie du Paioezoique, v. 1.
Sanchez, T.M. and Benedetto, G., 1983. Paleoecologia, communidades
benticas y sucesion paleoambiental en el Grupa Rio Cachiri, Devonico,
Sierra de Perija, Venezuela. Ameghiniana, v. 20, p. 163-198.
Saul, J.M., Boucot, A.J. and Finks, R.M., 1963. Fauna of the Accraian
Series (Devonian of Ghana) including a revision of the gastropod
Plectonotus. Journal of Paleontology, v. 37, p. 1042-1053.
Scotese, C.R., Bambach, R.K., Barton, C , van der Voo, R. and Ziegler,
A.M. 1979. Paleozoic base maps. Journal of Geology, v. 87, p. 217-277.
Scrutton, C.T., 1973. Palaeozoic coral faunas from Venezuela, II, Devo-
nian and Carboniferous corals from the Sierra de Perija. British
Museum (Natural History), Bulletin of Geology, v. 23, p. 223-281.
Soto Vargas, F. and Vargas, J.M., 1985. Posibilidades hidrocarburiferas
del precretacico en el oriente del Peru. Quito, Ecuador: Asistencia
Reciproca Petrolera Estatal Latinoamericana (ARPEL), Exploracion y
desarrollo de hidrocarburas en horizontes precretacicos, LV Reunion
de ARPEL, Boletin Tecnico de ARPEL, v. 14, p. 131-143.
Stipanicic, P.N. and Methol, E.J., 1980. Comarca Norpatagonica. Cor-
doba, Segundo Simposio de Geologia Regional Argentina, v. 2, p.
1071-1097.
Turner, J.C.M., 1980. Islas Malvinas. Cordoba: Academia Nacional de
Ciencias. Segundo Simposio de Geologia Regional Argentina, v. 2, p.
1503-1527.
and Mendez, V., 1979. Puna. Cordoba, Segundo Simposio de
Geologia Regional Argentina, v. 1, p. 13-56.
Turner, J.C.M., and Mon, R., 1979. Cordillera Oriental. Cordoba,
Segundo Simposio de Geologia Regional Argentina, v. 1, p. 57-94.
Vail, P.R. and Mitchum, R.M., Jr., 1979. Global cycles of relative changes
of sea level from seismic stratigraphy. In: Watkins, J.S., Montadert,
L., and Dickerson, P.W. (Eds.), Geological and geophysical investiga-
tions of continental margins. American Association of Petroleum
Geologists Memoir 29, p. 469-472.
W o o d , G . D . , 1984. A s t r a t i g r a p h i c , paleoecologic, and p a l -
eobiogeographic review of the acritarchs Umbellasphaeridium
deflandreiand Umbellasphaeridium saharicum. In: Sutherland, P.K.,
and Manger, W.L. (Eds.), Biostratigraphy. Compte Rendu, Ninth
International Congress on Carboniferous Stratigraphy and Geology,
Southern Illinois University Press, v. 2, p. 191-211.
Ziegler, A.M., Bambach, R.K., Parrish, J.T., Barrett, S.F., Gierlowski,
E.H., Parker, W.C., Raymond, A. and Sepkoski, J.J., Jr., 1981.
Paleozoic biogeography and climatology. In: Niklas, K.J. (Ed.), Pal-
eobotany, paleoecology, and evolution. New York: Praeger P u b -
lishers, v. 2, p. 231-266.
Ziegler, A.M., Scotese, C.R., McKerrow, W.S., Johnson, M.E. and Bam-
bach, R.K., 1979. Paleozoic paleogeography. Annual Reviews of Earth
and Planetary Science, v. 7, p. 473-502.