A Essential of Surface Drilling

Section A ESSENTIALS OF SURFACE DRILLINGAl. GENERAL In surface operations, drilling is per= formed for one of the following reasons ~ lw construet space in the rock, ~ lo exploit the rock material being excavated or ~ 10 use the drilled holes for purposes other than blasting, Construction operations — involve many types of rock excavation; they consist Of highway and railway cuts, trench and ditch blasting for pipelines, sub- murine blasting in-harbor ponds and channels, levelling in building founda- tions and contour blasting for smooth surfaces, Excepting large scale dam construction, the holes drilled are less than 127 mm (5°) in diameter because of the need for relatively even distribution of explosives and adequately fine fragmen- (ation Furthermore, the use of — small diameter blastholes reduces the amount of explosives per hole thus reducing the ground vibration problem. To provide sufficient drilling accuracy, the holes are normally drilled at bench heights of less: than 20 metr Operations, where rock is drilled in order to exploit its mineral content, are — quarries, ~ open pit mines, — open cast mines for coal and other minerals, In quacries all the material extracted is usuafly consumed as an end product. The area excavated is relatively unlimited, and the rock can be extracted where it is best available. Depending on the topo- graphy, quarry may be developed on the side of a hill, using conventional bench drilling and blasting, Where the area is hilly and the rock outcrops, the quarry will be developed by opening a face into the side of the hill. When the terrain is almost flat, it ts necessary to ramp down into the seam creating a quarty that is en- tirely below the surface of the surrounding terrain, In open pit mines the ore is limited toa certain bedrock type, and the removal of the surrounding rock is required for the continuence of mining on the actual orebody. Open pit mines are therefore somewhat deeper than quarries, and special bench drilling and blasting techniques and pit slope design must be ap- plied so that ore can be extracted. Alter the minerals of economic value have been removed from the ore, the remaining waste material must be disposed of. For both quarries and open pit mines the blasting pattern is determined by the geology of the material to be broken, the fragmentation required, the hole diameter and depth, and the type of e plosive. The technique of smooth blas ing is utilized as well as normal bench drilling and blasting, with holes 51...381 mm (2°...15") at bench heights between 10 and 30 metres.Drilling operations, where the hole is punched for other than rock extraction purposes, may include: — water well drilling, = anchor hole drilling — cable line drilling, — prospecting drilling, ~ oil drilling The task of the operation usually determines the size of the drillhole and the type of machinery needed Figure 1. A typical open pit operation.A2, ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF ROCK MATERIAL The ability to tell whether a rock will be casy or hard Co drill is still a matter of experience, often learned the hard way — through (rial and error. The various characteristics typical of any given rock type can be interpreted to indicate how the rock will drill, but there are still times when laboratory analysis is the only means of distinguishing one type of rock from another. ‘The specific technical properties of the rock, which must be considered in the planning and performance of rock excavation, depend on how the rock developed during its form: tion. This, together with the method used and the purpose of the excavation, deter mine the breaking characteristics of the rock material, A2.1 Origin of rocks The geological classification of rocks is based on their origin; rocks are generally divided into three major groups: — igneous, — sedimeniary, — metamorphic. IGNEOUS ROCKS Igneous rocks are emplaced in a molten state either deep in the earth’s crust or on the surface, through surface eruptions. The depth of emplacement determines the rate of cooling and thus the grain size. The slow cooling-rate of deep-seated intrusive magmas allows for the formation of large, well-developed crystals and a coarse grained texture results. Extrusive 14 magmas, which flow onto the earth’s surface from eruptions cool rapidly and are fine grained. Igneous rocks are generally hard, but massive; they are relatively casy to drill with the percussion method, provided they are not too badly fissured and/or de~ composed. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Sedimentary rocks are formed through the accumulation and successive layering of broken and decomposed rock ma- (terial. The materials may be derived from the eroding landmass and transported by water or wind to be deposited in layers. Sedimentary formations may also result Jrom the accumulation of shells or other organic material, or they may be composed of minerals precipitated by chemical reaction. As successive layers of sedi- ment accumulate, the buried layers lose water and are compacted. The mineral grainsare often cemented together by cir culating fluids. Almost all sedimentary rocks have a preferred fabric orientation and hence their properties are direction sensitive. METAMORPHIC ROCKS, Metamorphic rocks form when existing rocks are subjected to physical or chemical forces and new minerals and/or tex- tures are developed. Although sedimentary rocks (from which metamorphic rocks are partly derived) undergo minor changes during compaction, the original features are clearly preserved. However,if these origneous rocks become involved in major earth movements, where the temperature and pressure undergo dras- tic changes, new minerals are formed; at the same time other features, such as banding, with characteristics of the new environment, are imprinted on them. All of these changes occur without complete melting, and the new rocks, being dilfer- ent in origin from igncous rocks, are referred to as metamorphic (= changed) Metamorphic rocksare generally hard to very hard, and even grained: they usually require medium to heavy per cussive drilling All the common rocks are formed from silicate minerals, with the exception of limestones, which consist of calcium carbonate (calcite, CaCOs); but rock-for- ming minerals tend to occurin fairly well- defined associations. Quartz, feldspars and micas are common constituents in all three main rock groups, whereas amphi- boles and pyroxenes are rare in sedimentary rocks but common among both igneous and metamorphic rocks. Olivines and garnets are practically confined to igneous and metamorphic rocks respec- tively, and calcite is widespread among sedimentary and metamorphic rocks but is not_a major constituent of igneous rocks. Tables 1 and 2 list mineralogical and chemical correlations for common types of rock. While metamorphic rocks havechemi- cal compositions similar to igneous and sedimentary rocks, they may have quite different mineralogical compositions (the main exceptions are marbles and quarizites which are metamorphosed limestones and sandstones). Meta- morphism is primarily a recrystallization process, whereby elements are redis- tributed into new minerals; there is only very limited movement into or out of the rock, and so the chemical composition mains essentially the same as in the original rockfmevon | nemortie [selma Amphi- Sand- | Lime- Peieral Cirinite Nasal | bolite | Schist } Shate stone | stone arly 40) = 32 17 | 97 2 hall 60 S fot peso 1 1 i Sf 45 | a2 Is . = 0 | = = = = = sunipshibate: - = 50 = = ss me olivine 7 5 = oa = SS ss biotite 4 5 7] = - — Imuscovite = = ie 38 1 1 am neusnetite 1 5 3 3 1 1 i staurolite a = a 2 = os = chy minerals - ~ - oe | 0 1 [calcite = = + = 1 Seog. ‘Foal 100 100 100-100 100 100 400 Table |. Composition of common rock types in terms of mineralogy, _ ignenous [metamorphic sedimentary Amphi- Sand- | Lime Mineral Granite} Basalt bolite | Schist | Shale stone } stone SiO, 708 | 49.0 | 493 | 633 1 624] 944 | 52 TiO, 0.4 Lo 1.2 14 LL 0.1 0.1 ALO, 145 | 182 | 16.9 17.9 | 16.6 1 0.8 Fe,O; 16 32 3.6 3.6 3.2: 04 0.3 FeO. 18 6.0 68 2.6 21 02 0.2 MgO 0.9 76 70 16 25. OL 19 CaO 18 | ito 95 19 1,7 16 | 426 Na,O 33 25: 29 13, 0.9. 0.1 01 K,0 40 0.9 Lt 3 3.0 0.2 0.3 H,0 08 04 15 2.6 5.2 0.3 07 [CO; ~ _ - —_ 10 Ll | 416 Total 999 998 998 993 99.7 996 99.8 Table 2. Composition of common rack types in tems Of chemistryA2,2 Technical properties of rock material Important engineering properties of rock material, which have an overall effect on rock drilling, are: — hardness, — abrasiveness, — texture, — structure, — breaking characteristics. Hardness is the resistance of a smooth plane surface to abrasion. Itis often used asa measure of the engineering proper- tics of rock material,and can be classified in several ways. To the engineer who is trying to quantify rock behavior, a rock's hardness indicates how much ‘stress is ccessary £0 cause failure within the rock . the rock breaks). Table 3 shows de- ree of hardness as a function of Moh’s hardness and uniaxial compressive h (Protodyakonow classification). Moli’s test assigns numbers to different minerals to indicate their relative hardness. In Moh'sscale,a mineral will scratch all those with a lower rating, HARDNESS |Mol’s | MPa 2 (MN/m?) Extremely hard 200= I 120-200 Medium hard [60-120 | Quite soft 30-60 Soft 10-30 xtremely soft _-10 Table 3. Rock hardness and compressive strength. ABRASIVENESS, Abrasiveness is a time dependent parameter for drill bit wear; it depends on the mineral composition of the rock, which drill bit wear is propotional to. Thequartz contentis usually considered asa reliable. indicator of drill steel wear. Table 4 shows the quartz content of common rock types. Rock Quaryz | Rock Quartz content % type content % Amphibolite 0.5 Mica gneiss Anorthosite 0 Mica schist | Diahase 0...5 Norite | Diorite 10...20 Pegmatite Gabbro 0 Phyllite Gneiss 1 Quartzite Granite 2 Sandstone Greywacke 10. Slate Limestone 0. Shale | Marble 0 Taconite Table 4, Average qua content of common rock types:TOT Tealive teders to thegrain seuenmeotthe Fesch ansilean bie chevaificd by eneh proper Het ah palestiy, lnisenes, donstey und Hai eee All these hhnve o detinite rela Hevehdps ja tailing speed STRUCTURE Sttuctural properties such as faults, joints, hedding planes, schistosity and rock type contacts, dip and strike all influence the structural strength of the rock material and therefore affect drill hole straightness and drill bit penetration. Apuiclny. of fs, nts of sulitinies | little joi very finn (recently sound) liam (slightly wheatheres medium (wheathered) soll (deteriorated) | moderately os crushed to mylonitize intensively n ted J 1000 cm 100 B Medium rock spacing of joints A Strong rock BREAKING CHARACTERISTICS Breaking characteristics describe rock behavior when struck with a hammer; cach rock type has a typical manner and degree of breakage related to its texture, mineral composition and structure. 3. Structural properties and their effect on the 10 1 C Weak rock D Very weak rock surength of rock material 01 Breaking characteristics of different rock types are often described in terms of the Los Angeles co-efficient, which is a relative measure for determining the resistance of rock to crushing. Table Sgives Los Angeles values for common rock types. value* Rock type Rock type [LA value* Amphibolite Limestone Diorite Mica gneiss | Phyllite Mica schist Gabiro Quarizite Granite gneiss Pegmatite Grey granite Granite “average values for rock samples tested in Finland 1961 —65, Table 5. Los Angeles values for common rock types 18Table 6 shows important engineering properties of rock types according to their origin-based “classification. A Table 7. general grouping of rocks according to hardness and abrasiveness is shown in Rock type [Specific [Grain [Swell | Compressive gravity size factor | strength a tons/m> | mm MPa® Diorite 265-285 }15—3 |15 | 170-300 Intrusive | Gabbro 285-32 [2 16 |260-350 _— [Granite 27 01-2 [16 [200-350 IGNEOUS [andesite 27 or (16 |300=400 Extrusive | Basalt 28 01 15 | 250-400 Rhyolite 27 Ot {15° /120 — Trachyte 27 0.4 15 {330 Congomerate | 2.6 2 1s |s40 Sandstone [2.5 01-1 |15 | 160-255 SEDIMEN- | Shale. 27. 1 1.35 10 TARY Dolomite 27 1-2 |16 | 150 Limestone | 2.6 1-2 iss }120 Limerock 15-26 |1-2 {1-16 |30-100 Gneiss 27 2 is [140-300 Marble 27 01-2 |16. | 100-200 Ouarizite 27 04=2 |155- [160-220 Schist 27 O11 j16 {60-400 Serpentine }2.6 = 14 |30-150 State 27 0 15 150 1 MPa = L MN/m? = 10 kg/em? = 142.2 psi Iuble-6, Properties of rock types according to origin-based classification. HARDNESS AND ABRASIVENESS Igneous rocks Hard and abrasive | Intermediate Less abrasive | Decomposed Rhyolite Olivine basalt Andesite Serpentine Aplite Dacite Basalt =Red” basalt Felsite Danite Trachyte Kaolinized Granodiorite Olivine gabbro ‘| Dolerite granite Popmatite Quartz diorite Diorite Quartz porphyry Gabbro Granite Syenite it)Sedimentary rocks SNR Hard and abrasive _| Intermediate Granulite Hornblendeschist | Slate Qua Mica schist Phyllite Quartzite Dolomite Chiorite schist Gneiss Marble Metamorphic rocks Abrasive Abrasive Abrasive Non- Non- Hard Less hard Friable abrasive abrasive Hard Soft Flint Siltstone Friable Limestone | Marl Chert Volcanic ash sandstones Mudstone | Mudstone Sedimentary _| Siliccous Calea Freestones | Shale quartzite limestones Chalk Greywacke Tuff Coal Quartz Gritstone Oolite Conglomerate _| Agglomerate Table 7, Hardness and abrasiveness of rack types. A2.3 Rock drillability Rock drillability is defined as the penetration rate of a drill bit into the rock. Itis a properly that cannot be ace ely defined by any single mechanical property of the rock (for example compressive or tensile strength). 1t is a fune tion of several rock properties such as mineral composition, texture, grain size, degree of weathering, etc. Thus several empirical methods have heen developed for predicting drilling performance in dil- ferent rocks. Typical indices for rock drillability include — Drilling Rate Index (DRI), — classification of rock types based on the drillability of Barre granite, — Moh’ test, = Protodyakonow classification A2.31 Drilling Rate Index (DRI) ‘The Drilling Rate Index is nota direct in- dication of drilling ratein the field, butitis arelative measure of the penetration rate. It may also be viewed as a parameter for the maximum resistance of the rock to drilling, The method was developed at the University of Trondheim (Norway), and has also been accepted for use as a standard test procedure at the Helsinki University of Technology (Finland). In both countriesagreat deal of data relating to practical tests and drilling rates has been collected and this indicates the DRI method is relatively reliable and accurate for predicting rock drilabitity. The DRE determined on the basis of two parameters: (1) friability value Sy, and (2) Sie~ wers J value. (SI value)‘The friability value Soy is measured in the brittleness test (figure 4), which is a measure of rock resistance to crushing due to repeated weight-drop impacts. ‘The aggregate volume of the rock sample tested corresponds to that of a 0.5 ky aggregate with a density of 2.65 tons/ min the fraction 11.2 16.0 mm. The friability value S,y equals the percentage of undersized material which passes through an 11.2 mm meshafter the agere~ gate test crushing in a mortar with 20 weight-drops. The mean value fora minimum of three to four parallel tests is chosenasthe Sy value ofthe rock sample. W= I4kg | 25em 20x R= Rock sample aggregate W = Weight (14 ke) Syy = Brittleness value after 20 impacts SI value is given by a miniature drill est on a precut rock sample (figure 5). measure of drillhole depth expressed in 1/10 mm after 200 revolutionsin the miniature drill test. The mucin value for 4 to 8 drill holesis chosen 0 16.0mm BW2mm SEE Figure 4, Brialeness test for measuring friability value Sy as the SJ value. The orientation of the precut rock surface to the foliation is essen tial for the measurement; when the Drill- ing Rate Index is calculated, drilling is usually performed parallel to the foliation to determine the SJ value.109 8S.mm G W = Weight (20 ke) 1D = Minature dill tipped with tungsten carbide Rock sample, precut i Figure 5. Miniature drill test for determining the SI value : ‘The Drilling Rate Index (DRI) can be ‘The Drilling Rate Index equals the Sy calculated by using figure 6. DRI can be value equalling 10; thisisacommon value understood as the brittleness valuc of the for granite. | rock sample corrected for its SJ value. ‘ 100, : 90 80, 7 i 60 i & i 3 : 9 a z 40 4 q | 3 30 ; 20 i 0 0 2 30 40 S060 «70 80 BRITTLENESS Sy Figure 6, Determination of Drilling Rate Index when friability value (Sy) and SJ value are known. egreti Table 8 presents the classification of A2.32 Indices for different Drilling Rate Index, rock types Besides the Drilling Rate Index (DRI) Drilling Rate Index DRI method, rock drillability is often deter- = ~~ mined by a classification based on the Extremely low 2 drillability of Barre granite. Vory low 34 _Diillability comparisons between dif- i 37 ferent rock types are presented in the fo edium 9 owing tables. Figure 7 presents the rela- High 65 tion between Drilling Rate Index (DRI) Very high 86 and some common rock types. These Extremel: values can be used for estimating the drilling capacities of surface crawler drills, as Table 8. Classification of Drilling Rate Index. is shown in section E. ANORTEOSTE | (GRANITE GNERS, I ANPHIBOLTE, om | | | MICA GNEDS r 1 (RTE STORED MARGE 1 i DIABASE—] (PAVE | 1 t T ceo SLATE, | (OREYUAURE i T i TACOMTE. GRANITE ee DRILLING RATE INDE} DRI Figure 7, The relation between Drilling Rate Index and different rock types.‘Table 9 presents thedrillabilityofvari- ‘The Following formula combines the ous rock types in relation to Barre Gra- rock drill penetration rate in Barre gra~ nite with rock drill (kinetic) output power and hole diameter. relative drill G drillability of designated 2 other rock types can be derived by mulli- N= 31 P/dl, plying the known rate of penetration in where N = net penetration in Barre Granite by the driltability factors Barre granite (m/min) given in the table. P= rock dill (kinetic) output power (kW) d= hole diameter (mm) Example ail Example Barre Granite 90 em/min Rock drill HL 538 Drillability factor for Kinetic output Tulsa Limestone 1.12 power 15.5 kW “Drilling Rate in Ge ae ee Tulsa Limestone 100 em/min Net penctration 0.87 m/min Rock type Location Drillability factor Andesite Messy Rock, Wash., USA 127 Banded Gneiss | Solna, Sweden 89 Barre Granite Barre, Vermont, USA 1.00 Basalt New York, USA 56 Calcite Hanover, Pa., USA 89 Chalcopyrite New Guinea 18 Diorite Oregon, USA 34 Dolomite Hanover, Pa, USA 170 Falsite Denyer, Colorado, USA 75 Granite Westchester, NI, USA 67 Granite Snettisham Dam, Alaska, USA 78 Granite Newark, NJ, USA 1.05 Granite California, USA 140 Granite Gne US ‘61 Granite Gneiss ‘89 Hematite (Red) 150 Limestone 78 Limestone ‘89 Limestone Buffalo, N-Y., USA ‘89 Limestone Bellefonte, Pa., USA 4 Limestone Tulsa, Ok., USA 119 Limestone Saratoga, NY., USA 1.22 Limestone Portsmouth, N.H., USA 77 Limestone Davenport, fowa, USA 179 A| 1 paggaoswiebioniie reese Rock type Location Drillability factor Magnesite Vienna, Austria Magnetite Kiruna, Sweden Magnetite Canada Magnetite Kiruna, Sweden Magnetite Kirkland Lake, Ontario, Canada Pepmatte Vanvouver, B.C, Canada Porphyry Denver, Colorado, USA Murdockville, Quebec, Canada Canada Ouartaite Minnesota, USA Quartzite Canada Quartzite New Zealand Rhyolite Kirkland Lake, Ontario, Canada Sandstone Michel,B.C., Canada Sandy Dolomite Shale Hanover, Pa., USA Miche. B.C. Canada Shale Scranton, Pa, USA Siderite Sufferen, NY. USA Siderite Sarajevo, Yugoslavia siderite Sarajevo, Yugoslavia Taconite and Lake, Ontario, Canada Table 9. Drillability factors of various types of rock. A2.33 Samples for drillability testing When collecting rock samples for drillability (esting, it is important to bear in mind that: — samples are adequately homogencous, — samples are as representative as possible of the rock mass. For theS,, brittleness test and SJ value test an adequate amount is about 5— kg, The mineral composition of the rock can be determined from a relatively small sample by preparing and analyzing a micro section. A2.4 Rock blastability Rock blastability is determined as the resistance of the rock to blasting, and it is mainly influenced by the state of the rock and ils stage sedimentation. In solid, hard rocks blastings can be sufficiently well controlled, whereas in part of the energy explosive is lost in the cracks and blastings are not always con tolled, Instructions forsuecessful drilling and blasting suggest that: — the strength of the explosive should be proportional to the resistance of the rock to the blasted, — burden should be directly related to the strength of the explosive, 26— it is more economical to use stan- dardized drilling and charging patterns, — excessive amounts of explosive should not be used (specific charging), on ac~ count of fragmentation, the handling of blasted rock, and throw, A2.41 Factors affecting rock blastability Properties of the separate rock types and structures composed of their bonding usually determine the rock characteris~ tics and rock blastability in situ. The properties of surface parts of the rock mass depend largely on the orientation of the rock and on the discontinuity planes developed by deformation and erosion. The following rock characteristics originate from processes dating from metamorphism and the genesis of the bedrock — rock type contacts, — faults, — jointing, — bedding planes and schistosity, — dip and strike of rock formation. ROCK TYPE CONTACTS Rock type contacts form discontinuity planes where contacts are either sharp or indistinct. When such planes are associ- ated with intrusive rocks, they are often gradual and cause no reduction in rock strength — the rock is practically. homogenous. Distinct contacts, however, may not be so stable and appear in con= nection with joint systems, Figure 8. Tectonic structures of bedrock 1) schistosity contact, 7} contact zone, 8} jointing, 9) fault, 10) fra 26 ) fold, 3) and 4) veins, 5) breccia, 6) sharp ture zone, 11) clay zone in rock, 12} overburden.FAULTS Faults are generally shear planes along which movement and mineralization takes place. Fault contacts consist of fine- grained material such as clay and mylo- nite; they are formed in the shearing process, These broken zones are familiar to drillers and blasters: fault fissures decrease drilling penetration rates by jamming the drill bit and rod; the drilling pattern has to be adapted to suit the rela~ tively poor blastability, and this type of rock can form an area prone to extensive overbreak when blasted BEDDING PLANES AND SCHISTOSITY Bedding planes and schistosity reduce rock strength properties both locally and. on a large scale. Bedding adds to the “breakability” of the rock. When such planes are close together, they are defi- nitely beneficial; when there are only a few or widely separated planes, boulde- ring will probably occur. When beddingis, dense, a light and slow explosive will usually suffice; when far apart, high velocity dense explosives are generally indi- cated When drilling perpendicular to any type of plane, penetration is somewhat faster duc to the lower probability of jamming. Furthermore, the holes are straighter as the planes do not influence the hole deviation. Decisions about technical matters such as drilling patterns, inclination of holes and firing systems, can be made on the basis of rock inclination. JOINTING Jointing is often close to the horizontal and has the same effect on drilling and blasting as bedding and schistosity. The most significant property of a joint in this context is its inability to transmit tensile stress; in other words, the tensile strength of ajoint can be considered as zero, or at least very slow in comparison with that of the solid rock. The joint wall therefore represents a surface from which stress waves are reflected and thus interrupted in their passage through the rock mass, Joint walls in open cuts usually affect burden and spacing, and increase cha ing at the column, A broken, joint-filled wall in the drill hole is unstable and may fall in before the hole is finished. In addition to this, a choked drillhole is extremely difficult to Joad even ifit can be emptied to some extent DIP AND STRIKE OF ROCK FORMATION Dip and strike both indicate whether or not holes will cut across the lay of the rock or traverse it. Both the dip and the strike indicate whether or not the rock will be massive or bedded and jointed, and whether or not better results will be obtained by changing the direction of the blasting faces. Here, too, if changes cannot be made, the selection of explosives must take these factors into consideration.strike | Figure 9. Dip ancl strike of a rack formation. Figure 10. Choice of drillhole direction in bedded and jointed rock mass. Patterns (b), (cj and (d) give more even distribution of rack fragmentation than patterns (a) and (¢). 28The following example shows how — ent hole sizes, which can then be con- figures 1 and 12 can be used fora quick verted to maximum yield (m3/drm) using estimation of maximum rock yield per figure 12. For conditions where the K/d metre for different hole diameters and ratio is not optimal tables LI — 34 of sec- rock conditions. Figure 11 gives the re- tion A3.8 should be used quired specific drilling in I/m? for differ- as HOLE DIAMETER LPS OS OS AT OF OP TT he a ara SPECIFIC DRILLING Figure I. Requived specific drilling (res per sotid mé of rock) as-a function of hole dliaaneter and rack blastabiliey, Berch height 12.0 Coecro W Ms 13 SPECIFIC DRILLING ot AS Os UT FAS 2 3 A S@TH ID Is 2025380 40 SOGDMEM YIELD OF ROCK Figure 12. Yield of rock (solid m') per drilled metre of hole asa function of hole diameter and required specific drilling (lim). Bench height 12m. 29Example Drillhole diameter Rock biastability Specific drilling (K = 12 m) Yield per drilled metre (K = 12m) A2.42 Stability of rock benches Blasting disturbs the balance of the bedrock and often results in jointing, rock falls and collapses in the faces (Ligure 13). The disturbance of the balance depends on Possible caving section Disp: | = U5 mm medium 0.85 I/m (figure 11) 12.5 m/drm (figure 12) — mechanical and structural properties of the rock mass, — dimensions of excavation (large scale), — surrounding state of rock stresses, — method of excavation. Primary direetion FR _Changed direction Figure 13, Principle of the effeets of excavated open space on horizontal stresses. Stability will not be achieved until significant strains have disappeared. A sophisticated way of keeping the remaining rock faces stable is to keep surround- oy Figure 14. Ey ing rock masses solid by the use of careful drilling and blasting; even if the surface is not very smooth, this method preserves the rock (figure 14), w fect of carefal drilling and blasting on stability of remaining rock faces; by (a) conventional drilling and blasting the depth of the fractured zone in the rock jace is greater than by (b) careful excavation.In order to achieve desired quality of the open cut surface, the use of correct drilling and blasting techniques is re~ quired — these include smooth blasting, pre-splitting or reduced charging in the holes. When preparing a drilling pattern, rock characteristics, especially structural factors, have to be carefully surveyed before the blasting method and geometry are chosen. ‘The surface of the face after blasting shows the stateof the rock. Ifthe rock is to be excavated economically, the face should remain stable and solid. Open pit contour benches often require stability — collapses on the upper benches would cause considerable interruption to the excavation of lower benches. It is thus accepted that the last cuts should be performed carefully using the methods men- tioned. A3. BASIS FOR BENCH DRILLING Drilling and blasting both represent methods of excavating and breaking rock in the required manner. Before drilling operations are started the placement of the holes should be evaluated carefully to obtain the utmost from the explosives selected. Further- more, to provide correct hole layouts for low cost breakage, the characteristics of the rock mass and drilling capabilities should beidentified. In terms of breakage into sizes that can readily be handled, the valuc of designinga layout specifically for the explosives and the breaking method selected cannot be over emphasized. Planning a drilling pattern calls for the halaneing of several parameters, such as drillhole diameter, bench height, type of burden and its relation to spacing. These factors finally define the distribution of the explosives and the degree of breakage. A3.1 Factors affecting bench drilling Besides rock properties, bench drilling is also influenced by the following factors: — hole diameter, — bench height — fragmentation, — bench stability requirements, — terrain conditions, — environmental restrictions. HOLE DIAMETER The choice of drillhole diameter depends largely on the desired production rate. ‘The bigger the hole diameter, the higher the production rates that are provided, when drilling with the same equipment. Factors, which may restrict the hole diameter, are: (1) a requirement for certain rock fragmentation size, (2) need for the charge per hole to be kept low because ofthe danger of ground vibrations and (3) 31need for selective rock excavation. Rock fragmentation size tends to increas when the hole length (H) to hole diameter (d) ratio decreases below H/d = 60. BENCH HEIGHT. Bench height is related to the other measurements. It may he determined in advanee and the other parameters then matched (o il, or it may he fixed after the consideration of other aspects. In quar ries and open pit mines efforts are made to fis the bench height in advance. Phe maximum bench height is to some extent determined by the drilling equipment and the bucket size of the loading equipment available. In the case of large diameter holes, bench height is often determined by the capacity ol single-pass drilling machines, the bench heights nor mally being around 10 to 15 metres. An- other aspect that determines bench height is safety, particularly concerning the prevention of rock slides from the face. Theuse of high versus lowbenchesis “ discussed later in this section, Bench height must be considered when fixing the typeof drilling equipment and the hole diameter. Generally speak- inglow benches call for small holes, while larger holes can be used in higher benches m os = 28 + + . Not regommended BENCH HEIGHT 25 38 SI 64 76 89 | Recommended + fh elle ned aa | [7 |_ Not recommended | | | 102 115 127 140 152 165 mm HOLE DIAMETER Figure 14, Determination of drilthole diameter for various bench heights. FRAGMENTATION Fragmentation is a general term which describes the size of individual blocks alter blasting, The required fragmentation depends on the use to which the broken rock isto be put and on the equipment which is to handle it, For some put- poses big boulders are preferable, but usually finer fragmentation is wanted. The upper limits of the boulder size are a normally set by the excavators or shovels that load the rock into dump trucks, and by the gap opening of the crusher. In general largerholesizes givecoarser fragmentation, although this can be reduced by heavier charging. of explosives. Greater specific charging can, however, result in greater rock throw. In well fractured softer rocks smaller hole sizes and smaller amounts of explosive combinedwith denser drilling usually result in finer fragmentation TERRAIN CONDITIONS Terrain conditions at the work site havea fundamental influence on the choice of equipment. In civil engineering work, where the terrain is generally irregular, surface crawler drills are required. Invery difficult terrain crawler drills are moved with the aid of winches, or hand-held drilling is used Crawlerdrillsalso represent the domi- nant method in quarries and open pit mines, but if the ground is well-levelled and thedrill rigs haveto move long distan- ces, rubber-tyred machines can be used. ENVIRONMENTAL RESTRICTIONS Environmental restrictions concern working in urban areas; buildings, structures. and sensitive equipment often necessitate the restriction of groundsvi- brations within specific limits. ft may be necessary to limit the charge per hole, which leads to the use of smaller hole diameters, The amount of drilling per cubic meter of rock (specific drilling) then increases, and high capacity equipment designed for small-hole drilling should be used. A3.2 Terminology used in drilling patterns ‘he most important terms used in bench drilling operations are illustrated by figure 15. These factors, as already explained, depend on cach other and on the type of rock to be blasted, the explosives used, rock fragmentation required and the overall result aimed for. ‘There are many theoretical formulae designed to calculate values for the various factors in bench drilling. A reliable way is nevertheless to rely on experience for establishing the drilling pattern data. / dd =hole diameter (mm) K enc height ‘ole inclination ubdrilling ole length V =burden | = spacing 1 = yield of rock (solid m*) per drilled metre of hole yield of rock (solid m) per holeA3.3 Drillhole diameter The drillhole diameter is mainly gov- erned by the properties of the strata being blasted, the degree of fragmentation required, the available loading and hauling equipment and crusher capacity, and the relative economics of the available types of drilling equipment Certain empirical rules have been given for guidance in hole size selection. Hole diameter is closely related to bench height (figure 14) and burden, and it should be between 0.5 to 1% of the height of the face: d 10K, where d = drillhole diameter (mm) K= bench height (m) or D=0.06...0.12 K, where D= drillhole diameter (in) K = bench height (It) ® 15 —— Har ———— Soft rack Hole diameters smaller than this and correspondingly smaller burdens give better fragmentation and less ground vibration, while allowing for lighter drilling equipment and smallerrounds. Theseare points to be noted, especially in difficult situations close to housing. On the other hand, if there are no local restrictions, the blaster will usually reduce the amount of drilling by using the largest hole diameter that the depth of the cut and the fragmentation required will permit. Ifthe depth of the cutis large enough to permitadrillhole ofany diameter and the distance to the nearest structure is far enough not to pose any problems, then the final determining factor for drillhole. diameter is the availability and practi- cality of drilling and loading equipment. ‘The hole diameter can be chosen to suit the loading equipment by using figure 16. 30 SHOVEL VOLUME 15 10 06 25 40 St 64 76 89 102 115 127 178 mm HOLE DIAMETER Figure 16, Shovel volume vs. drilthole diameter 7In rock strata which exhibit open, widely spaced discontinuities (where fewer larger diameter drillhotes intersect a smaller percentage of blocks), the surface of each joint causes reflection of the strain-wave generated by the explosion. This provides better fragmentation between the hole and the joints, but tends to produce boulders beyond the joint (figure 17). Therefore, blocks which do not have a hole within them tend to be poorly fragmented; this increases the cost secondary blasting, loading,and crushing, and crushing tends toexceed any sav- ings made by drilling larger diameter holes. However, when the hole diameter and drilling pattern are too small, extra drilling costs tend to outweigh any cost re- ductions achieved through better fragmentation. Therefore the optimum drilling and blasting method lies between these two extremes — drilling and blasting costsand fragmentation and gives the minimum total production costs Figure 17, The effect of joints on fragmentation wher using large diameter (a) and small diameter (b) holes, The shadowed area shows insufficient fragmentation. A3.4 Bench height and drillhole length Asillustrated in section A3.L, several fac- torsaffect thechoice of bench height. The optimum height in each case will be found by careful study ofthe effects of these factors. Bench height is, however, closely related to drilfhole diameter; a practical rule for the height of the face suggests that in percussion drilling it should be K=0.1...0.15 4, where K = bench height (m) d = drillhole diameter (mm) or K=8...12D, where K = bench height (ft) D=hole diameter (in) Nevertheless, because large hole diameters lead to low cost drilling in large-scale operations, and also facilitate the use of cheap and quick-to-load bulk 35,explosives, it may be economical to go as far as to point where bench height equals 1.5 times the burden orabout 60 times the hole diameter. {should be noted that reductionof the ratio K/d below the optimum tevel increases the possibility of throw, In such cases, the distance of throw may be de- creased by stemming of the upper part of the hole instead of loading close to the free surface. On the other hand, if the height of face is relatively great in relation to the hole diameter, the possibility of drillhole deviation will increase, unless tigid drill steels or tube rods are used. ‘The drillhoies are normally subdrilled alength of 0.3 to 0.4 times the burden past the intended bottom level to ensure that the blasting provides adequate [ragmen- tation to the desired grade (figure 18): U=03...04V where U= subdrilling (m or ft) V= burden (m or ft) Sometimes the bottom of the bench can be cutwith the aid of natural discontinuities of the rock and subdrilling is not required. However, subdrilling is usually necessary because of the nature of rock breakage: when the explosive is deto- nated the rock at the bottom of the drifl- hole is most difficult to break, since it is confined, Subdrilling is primarily a function of hole inclination and rock type. However, when the extent of subdrilling required is not clear, it is better to drill more than necessary rather than have a high bottom, which leads to the toe prob- Jem. Another way of providing proper cutting in the bottom parts of the bench, of course, is the use of horizontal drilling at the bottom of the bench (see section A38). 36 INCLINATION a gq 3 a 0.3 0.32 0.34 0.36 0.38 UV SUBDRILLING/BURDEN Figure 18. Subdritting asa function of hole inclination, ‘The critical point in all primary blasts isthe toe; failure to deal satisfactorily with this canbe disastrous for subsequent fragmentation and floor clearance, and in every likelihood will result in a rockpile which is not ideal, The formation of a toc can usually be ascribed to the following reasons: — excessive burden at the foot of the face, due to the burden being measured without reference to the foot of the bench (vertical holes), — excessive bench height and conse- quent lack of drilling precision, — insufficient subdrilling, — inadequate explosive/loading ratio in the toe are of the hole. Essentially, thisinvolvesincreasing the concentration of explosive energy at the bottom of the drillhole in order to get a good displacement from the bottom part of the face. With theincreasein hole length due to inclination and subdrilling of the drill hole, hole length is given as (igure 19 and table 10):H =K+U+H, where H = hole length (m or ft) K = bench height (m or ft) U =subdrilling (m or ft) increase in hole length due to inclination (m or ft); H;= 0 with vertical holes Angle from verti vertical TL Table 10. Drilthote tengih Quarry and pit operators often have very divergent views about bench height: while some favour high benches up to 30 metres, others feel very strongly that heights should be restricted to around 15 metres. Studies and experiments to inves« ligate the effects of changing from a 30 metre face to two 15 mette faces revealed the following points (with reference to the two lower faces): ADVANTAGES ~ greater drillhole accuracy, ~ maximized burdens and spacings, ~ greater penetration rates over the hole, ~ greater selectivity of rock excavation, DISADVANTAGES — more benches to construct and main- ain, ~ more drill downtime for shifting the machine ~ subdrilling doubled, H=1 Figure 19, Length ofa single drillhote. Hole length H H=101K+035V H=101K+ — more boulders: most big boulders seem to come from the top of the bench, hence two 15 metre faces will give more big boulders. As the average charge of explosives per (on is quite constant, being merely a function of the fragmentation desired, the volume of rock drilled per metreis almost the same irrespective of bench height The number of hours each drilling machine is called upon to work for a given level of production can therefore becom- puted, Experience has shown that from the point of view of machine cost per hour and degree of utilization, plus the cost of Spares and materials, the optimum face height seems to be 15 10 20 metres, with 25 metre faces still being economical (Annual production levels: 0.5 Mtons and 1 Mtons)A3.5 Burden and spacing Both drilled burden distance (V) and blasthole spacing (E) vary over a large range, depending on — drilthole diameter, = face height, — rock properties, — explosive properties, — fragmentation, muckpile looseness and displacement required. Where good fragmentation is required in ground which is either tough and massive, or blocky (figure 17), burden and spacingshould be small, On the other hand, when good breakage is less important or when highly fissured stratais being blasted (tends to exhibit structurally-controlled fragmentation), satisfactory results may be obtained by drilling larger diameter holes in correspondingly larger burdens. If the rock is massive or represents a steeply dipping, sedimentary formation, itis usually necessary for the blastto shear offthe rock at floor level without theaid of any natural discontinuities. In such rocks, thepatternisoften limited by the area that can be satisfactorily sheared rather than by overall fragmentation. A3.51 Burden For given drillhole diameter, rock type and blastability, there is an optimum burden (suitable fragmentation and toe conditions). The optimum burden is normally found to lie in the following range and depends in particular on the properties of the rock (figure 20). V=25...40d where V = burden (mm) d =drillhole diameter (mm) 2.5...3.5D burden (1) drillhole diameter (in) mm —t = J 3 |4 | vs : \ 7 Dis 165 32 Mdinereto best eine \ 3A Ey insiae 152 \ SNe ean bt or pe 127) HOLE DIAMETER YALAWVIG TION 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46V/d BURDEN/HOL = DIAMETER Figure 20, Maximuun burdenthole diameter ratio (Vid) for different hale diameters as a function of rock blastabiliy ‘holes decrease burden by 510 10%. 38 Hole inclination is 15 (0 20 degrees from vertical, for verticalBench Hole diameter mm height mm 45 [51 [64 [76 [89 [102 [115 |127 [152 4 0.92 | 0.85 |0.73 | 0.66 |— = ~ _ = 5 1.001097 [086 }0.77 |= |= = Je d= 6 0.97 | 1.00 }0.98 }089 for [asa |- [= |= 7 0.95 10.97 | 1.00 }098 }0.94 10.93 |= f= = 8 0.92 10.95 10.98 | 1.00 |0.97 |0.96 |0.93 [0.93 |0.93 9 = |0.93 }0.96-}0.98 }0.98 |0.99 0.96 }0.96 | 0.96 10 — [0.90 }0.94 }0.96 | 1.00 |0.99 [0.98 [0.98 |0.98 iF =. Joss [0.92 [0.93 |0.98 |1.00 [099 [0.99 | 0.99 12 ~ 0.85 | 0.90 |0.91 |0.97 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 13 = |= |o8s }089 }0.95.|0.99 0.99 | 1.00 | 1.00 14 et = 0.84 | 0.87 |0.94 |0.97 | 0.98 | 1.00 | 1.00 15 — |= 082 |086 }0.92 |0.97 [0.97 |0.99-|0.99 16 — |= |= ]084 |091 }0:96 [097 |098 |0.98 17 = |= |=. [082 |0.89 |094 }0.96 10.97 |0.98 18 - |= [= |=" Jos7 [094 [0.95 [0.96 [0.97 19 = |- j= |=. j086 |093 }094 |095 | 0.96 20 - |= |= |= Jos ]093 }094 [094 1095 21 - |= J- |= J= > j092 }093 [093 }o94 22 » _ — - = 0.90 | 0.91 | 0.93 | 0.93 23 = fe |- = |= jo89 |o9i |o92 24 - |= |-.|- [= [+ joss jo90 jo91 Table 11. Correction factors for burden vatues shown in figure 20 (sce the following example). Example The followingcasesillustrate theeffect of varying burden values: Hole diameter Bench height Hole inclination 89mm 16m 3:1 (18 degrees) Rock type limestone Rock blastability good to very good Optimal burden V = 36 d (figure 20) V=3.20m Correction factor (K=16 m) 1 (table 11) Burden (K=16 m) V=091x3.2m v 90m BURDEN VALUES BELOW OPTIMUM LEVEL When burden falls below the optimum level, while other parameters remain equal, strain wave fracturing occurs so rapidly in front of the blastholes that much of the heave energy is lost to the atmosphere in the form of noise and air blast, beforeitis able fully tocontribute to fragmentation (especially between drillholes). Rock throw and scattering cannot be completely controlled. 39.BURDEN VALUES ABOVE OPTIMUM LEVEL When burden increases beyond the optimum value, the inability of the strain- wave to fracture over the greater distance prevents efficient utilization of heave energy, Heave energy is also unable to pro- videadequate displacementand theasso- ciated breakage. When burden is too large, explosive gases are bottled up within the hole for a fonger period than the optimum, Through the reduction in displacement, ground vibrations increase, streaming gases extend both natural discontinuities and strain wave induced cracks around the blasthole. Where burden is much too large, the expansion gases behave as if they were working only on the horizontal free face; the shot becomes a crater blast. ‘The selected value for burden must minimize the failure effects and achieve, at lowest cost, the breakage, displacement and muckpile looseness required for an efficient digging operation. Drill- hole deviation, collaring and alignment erle deviation, collaring and alignment errors must also be considered in calcu- lating the values for burden. When the bench height is low (K «70 4), theburden can be calculated by figure 21 and the equation: ‘yn 7 0-1 = 0.03 K = maximum burden (m) collaring error (m) alignment error (m) ) where Vina, od m — LA BENCH HEIGHT 05 1 15 20 25 om BURDEN Figure 21. Maximum burden with bench heights K «70d as a fiction of ‘drillhole diameter; good blastability Ao ssa on panneemanate The theoretical determination of burden for bench heights greater than K > 70 dis based on hole diameter, charging density of the explosive, degree of pack- ing, rock type constant, inclination factor and the spacing-burden ratio, according ole diameter (mm) harging density (kg/dm4) weight strength of explosive; 4 f = inclination factor; vertical holes f= 1 inclination 3:1 f= 0.9 pacing-burden ratio rock constant (calculated from constant c) The rock constant ¢ is the minimum amount of explosive (kg) needed to.ex- tract one solid cubic metre of rock. With normal open cutting in hard rock (relatively easy to blast) c = 0.4 kg/ms; the value ofccan be obtained from test blast- as, but itisnotalways easy to determine. The value of ¢ decreases somewhat for softer rocks; section B8.7 describes the determination of this coefficient. WhenV21i4m, c=c+0.75 WhenV $1.4m, ¢=0.07/V+e A3.52 Spacing Spacing is calculated in relation to the burden length;in other words, itisnecess- ary to complete the burden calculation: before determining the spacing. Theore tical and practical evidence indicates that the optimum ratio between spacing and burden is of the order of 1.1 to 1.4, With normal rock excavation the hole represented by the formula: V= burden (mor ft) Using this burden-spacing ratio (E/ V), adequate blasting results can be obtained, particularly in massive, hard- breaking formations. Generally, burden-spacing ratios E/V > end to cause more twisting and tearing of the rock, less splitting along the line of the holes and less overbreak than when spacing is appreciably Jess than the burden, which tends to cause premature splitting between blastholes and early loosening of the stemming. Both of these effects encourage rapid release of gases to the atmosphere: overbreak is usually considerable. With constant specific drilling and specific charging, fragmentation will be somewhat improved when the values of E/Vareincreased to 4 and staggered pa revced etion AB, 7), However, if spacing is too large, the rock between and just in front of the holes in the back row may be poorly broken, These solid pinnacles or buttresses could cause rela- lively low digging efficiencies, especially ator near grade level. On the other hand, if spacing between the back rows is too small, the semicylindrical zones of crack- ing behind each hole overlap to a greater degree and form a wider continuous belt of disrupted rock. When larger hole diameters are used, the ratio E/V can beallowed to approach the value of 1. This is also the case with contour blasting, where the rock is not free to discharge. 41‘The selected spacing must be a com- promise: large enough to prevent cx- cessive overlap of overbreak zones behind adjacent holes, but justsmall enough togivea relatively even distribution of explosive energy in the rock to be broken and removed. A3.53 Drilling pattern efficiency Drilling pattern efficiency describes the amount of rock that can be blasted per drilled hole. It can be determined with the following drilling pattern parameters: — yield of rock per drilled metre of hole (solid m'/drm) — specific drilling (dem/solid m’) ‘These parameters are mainly dependent on hole diameter, rock blastability and bench height. The yield of rock per drifled metre of hole can be calculated using the following formula: KEV/Heosa: yield per drm (m'/drm) bench height (m) spacing (m) V =burden(m) hole length (m) a =hole inclination from vertical (degrees) ‘The reciprocal function of the yield per drilled metre — specific drilling — which is the ratio of drilled hole length to. drilled hole volume (drm/m}), is also used to measure the efficiency of the selected drilling pattern parameters. It de~ creases with the increase of hole diameter and rock blastability. 42 vy, specific drilling (drm/m*) yield per drm (m*/drm) ‘Theuscof these equationsis described in section A3.9. A3.6 Inclination of drill holes The use of inclined holes in bench blast- ingcameabout asanattemptto overcome the problems of back break, but it has been shown to have many advantages over the vertical hole: — reduced drilling and explosive cost due to increased burden, — improved muckpile shape and position, — stable bench edge, — less risk of back break and toe prob- Jems. Inclined drilling and blasting results in a more productive reflected shock wave in the critical toe portion of the hole, while the resistance is also reduced, as the. toe is less tight (figure 22). It has often been found possible to increase the burden on such holes thereby reducing both drilling and explosive costs per unit of rock burden (figure 23). As the throw of inclined hole blasting is directed more vertically, the shape and position of the muckpile is also improved for loading by front end loaders, because it is lower, wider and not so tightly packed.HM eset! BRB bad fragmentation TID wasted Figure 22. Benefits of inclined holes. Inclined drilling and blasting results in a more productive reflected shock wave in the critical toe portion of the hole. With vertical hole blasting, the upper parts of the bench are frequently badly disturbed, owing to back break. It is thus often dangerous and sometimes im- possible to placedrilling equipmentclose e. With inclined holes there is les: of back break at the topof the holes, but mostimportant, how ever, with a hole inclination of 3:1 (18°), Figure The yield per drilled metre with inclined holes is somewhat greater than with vertical holes. Provided that the angle of incline is not excessive, better rock production efficiencies should be achieved. The following are disadvantages of inclined holes: thebottom excavated can slope down ata gradient of 1:3 until it reaches the surface breakage originally intended, if this has not been reached with a previous row in the round. When blasting very large rounds — with inclined drill holes — the round will work itself down to the grade level whenever there happens to be a stump ora toe (figure 23). Liv 21. With inclined holes the round will work itself down to the grade level. — increased alignment errors, — closer supervision required. It is more difficult to achieve drilling accuracy with inclined holes, especially in extremely high benches. Setting up is simple with vertical holes, but errors increase somewhat with the amount of angle. Closer supervision is required to 43ensure accurate alignment of inclined holes. ‘The advantages of inclined holes oul weigh the disadvantages provided that closer supervision is exercised and holes are aligned properly. Values for actual hole length (H) resulting from difficult in- clinations are presented in table 10. Hole inclination a x vertical Hole diameter mm 89 89 Bench height m 12.0 12.0 Subdtrilling m 0.95 1.5 _Hole length m 13.60 13.15 Burden m 3.10 2.95 Spacing (E> m 3.85 3.70 Yield per drm m3/drm 11.10 9.96 Yield per hole mVhole 150.9 131.0 Relative yield So Hs 100, 289 mm Figure 24, Yield per drilled metre increases with hole inclination. A3.61 Drillhole straightness Four factors affect the straightness of drillholes in bench drilling: — structural properties of the rock, — stiffness and type of drill steels used, lating errors, ignment errors. Drillhole straightness is sometimes: significantly affected by structural rock properties such as schistosity planes, Joose open joints and fissures filled with ~ soft materials. In particular, they tend to 44 divert the hole from the intended direc~ tion when drilling is slightly oblique to these planes. When the chosen drill rod is not stiff enough or the bit diameter is too large compared to the rod diameter, the result is increased hole deviation. This is duc to the insufficient bending resistance of the rods. When choosing the rod diameter for a certain hole size, it must also be noted that the stiffer the rods —i.. the larger the diameter—the more efficient the flushing, of the hole will be, due to the increaseddiameter of the flushing hole in the rod and increased flushing air velocity between the rod and the hole wall. Collaring and alignment errors are the bench drilling, The coltaring error (faulty positioning of the hole on the drilling spot) is usually more than 5 cm and typi- cally about one hole diameter. Alignment errors usually result from inaccurate feed most common reasons for faulty holes in alignment. Dyill rod stiffness high normal Hole deviation em/m (%) 1=3 3-5 Aligning method indicator manual Aligning error cm/m (%) 05-1 1-4 Table 1. Hole straightness. Si ‘The following example illustrates how hole straightness affects drilling and blasting cost fora medium sized highway cutzasaving of 10 — 15% can beachieved by using hole aligning instruments and the stiffest possible drill rods. nificance of hole deviation 1. Worksite conditions highway cut oad to very good 12.0m 289 mm (3 1/2") 18 degrees (3:1) 24.80 USD/drm ‘Type of excavation Rock blastability Bench height Hole inclination Cost of drilling 2. Cost comparison Method of aligning z Manual | Angle indicator Drill rod diameter mm 45 51 Total hole deviation em/m(%) [4 Burden m 3.10 Spacing m 3.85 Subdrilling m 0.95 Hole length m 13.60 Yield per drm m¥dm — | 11.10 Yield per hole mYhole | 150.9 Drilling cost USD/m3 [0.432 Primer ke 4.0 Primer price USD/kg {3.10 Anfo charge ky 55.0 Anfo price USD/kg | 1.90 Total charge ke 59.0 Cap price USD/eap | 0.40 Specific charging kg/m! 0.39 Labour cost USD/m3 | 0.08 Blasting cost UsD/m [0.857 Total cost UsD/m? [1.289 Relative cost % 100 45A3.7 Drilling pattern geometry Commonly used drilling patterns are square and rectangular, largely because these are casy to mark out and drill. Asis becoming increasingly evident, however, staggered patterns are more effective. o © © 0 oO 6 °° he square pattern has equal burden and spacing. Holes in each row are aligned behind the holes in the front row. With the rectangular pattern (figure 25, the burden is less than the spacing. The holes in each row are again aligned directly behind the holes in the front row. 0 89 9 OF Vv Coc oo oc co v Figure 25. Rectangular drilling pattern. In the staggered pattern, the burden and spacing may be equal (figure 26), However, the burden is more often less than the spacing (figure 27). The holes in alternate rows are positioned in the middle of the front row spacings. The staggered pattern usually requires extra holes to achieve a uniform bank at each end of the blast. Ideally, holes should be drilled on equilateral triangular grids, since these provide the optimum lateral distribution of explosive energy in the Co oo Go oO rock mass (ligure 28), while allowing a high degree of flexibility in the initation sequence (and, hence, direction of firing), Equilateral triangular patterns give equal fragmentation at lower blasting costs. While this tends to be an over simplifica- tion of the optimum situation, the area of breakage around cach holein the pattern results in relatively small zones within which blast induced breakage fails to occur. Figure 26, 46 Staggered patiern with spacing at 1.25 x burden.dritthole area not effected by explosion = explosion effect boundaries Figure 28. Triangular pattem and disisribusion of explosive energy It must be borne in mind that only — larger volumes of unbroken rock, when holes are drilled in their design lo — an increased probability of cut-offs cations can the explosives give their opti-. and misfirescaused by inadequate dis- mum performance. Where drilling is not tances between the holes on different accurate, primary blasting cannotbe op- _ delays, timized and the costs of subsequent operations inevitably rise. For instance if positioning errors amount to 10% of the hole spacing, the result is: 47Poor fracturi Desi " ned hole position . Actual hole position duc to aligning error Figure 29, Effect of aligning errors in drilthole positioning. Tthas also been pointed out that most blasts are not fired in the same geometry as they are drilled; in other words, in the same blast, the drilling pattern may be dif= ferent from the blasting pattern. The re~ quired results can only be achieved when the drilling pattem is the same as the blasting pattern. A3.8 Horizontal holes in bench drilling In conventional bench drilling adequate cutting of the rock in the bottom parts of the bench is normally ensured by subdrilling and be a higher concentration of explosives in the bottom part of the hole, ‘This way, rock types thatare relatively homogenous can usually be excavated with good results. There are cases, however, where varying rock conditions restrict sufficient cutting of the rock in thebottom parts of the bench. If increasing the bot- iom charge height or specific drilling fail toimprove the results, another way ofcut- ting the rock properly in the bottom of the bench is the use of horizontal holes. Par- ticularly in central Europe, horizontal 48 holeshavebeen used successfully in limestone, sandstone and granite quarties The use of this technique has the following particular advantages in difficult rock conditions: — adequate and smooth rock cutting in the bottom parts of the bench, — lighter concentration of explosives at the bottom of the bench, — reduced bench top fracturing or disturbance in the lower levels. The following represent disadvantages of horizontal drilling: — increased amount of specificdrillingin the cuts, — special technical features required of the surface crawler drills used; the boom of the rig must be suitable for horizontal drillin — more moving of the drill between the two bench levels. There are two alternatives for using horizontal holes in bench drilling and blasting, Firstly, the same hole diameter can be employed in drilling the horizontal as well as the vertical (inclined) holesFigure 30. The use of horizomal holes ensures adequate and smooth cutting of rack Here a common method isto use the@ 3 method described earlier in this section. 1/2"-4 1/4" (89-110 mm) hole — Here the burden value (with patierns of diameter range. Secondly, smaller geometry E = 1.25 V) depends on hole diameter holes 1/2°~3"(38~76 mm) diameter (d), bench height (K), holeincli- can be employed in horizontal drilling. nation () and rock blastability. The success of horizontal drilling and blasting techniques depends very much on the correct firing sequence; this is discussed in more detail in section B, The following describes the design principles | of horizontal hole setting: ‘The burden (V) and spacing (E) of the vertical (or inclined) drilling pattern are designed according to the theory and 49I {// a, Figure 31. Principle of setting horizontal hotes in bench drilling. “The holes in the vertical pattern are usually drilled as deep as 0.5 to I V from the bottom level of the cut, in other words, the burden V, of the horizontal holesis as shown in figure 32. V, =05..1V where V; = burden of horizontal holes (m) V_ =burden of vertical holes (m) Here the distance from the bottom of the cut to the bottom of the vertical holes is taken as the burden for the horizontal holes. The spacing E, of the horizontal holes is similarly determined in relation to the spacing of the vertical pattern. It should be E,=- where E, = spacing of horizontal holes (m) E_ = spacing of vertical pattern (m) 50 “The length of the horizontal holes Hy depends on the depth of the cut. Com- mon practice is to drill the horizontal holes up to the back row of the vertical H, =nV, length of horizonal holes (m) n_=number of rows of vertical holes V, = burden of vertical holes on the surface (m) Due to the denser drilling in the bottom of the cut, the number of horizontal holes can be up to one third of the total drilled metreage per cut. The following example shows the typical use of horizontal holes in a quartz porphyry quarry (Belgium). The use of horizontal drilling has improved the quality of quarry floors and overall rock fragmentation, and the heavy concentration of explosives in the bottom parts of the bench is prevented, in order to keep the vibration levels acceptable in residential areas.= eee! Figure. A3.9 Drilling patterns for bench blasting Quarries and open pit mines generally use certain bench heights that are opti- mally designed for the particular operation, whereas in construction drilling bench height often changes along the terrain and the design of the excavation. In the latter case the blasting operator has to take the changes into account, often by preparing & separate pattern for cach bench height. ‘The following drilling patterns are designed to help any blaster to determine patterns for different conditions, as a function of rock blastability, hole diameter and bench height. These tables can be used as guidelines; it should be pointed out that, due to the great number of factors affecting a drilling and blasting operation, the patterns may have to be ad- justed according to trial blast results. ‘The following tables are based on the data given in Part A as well as on field results in different countries. The principle Jor using the table is described in the following. Vertical holes @ =105 mm K =18m a =18 pp Ho= 17m V =4m E =5m Horize = 32. Typical use of horizontal holes in a quartz porphyry quarry and a basalt quarry. ROCK BLASTABILITY ‘There are two tables for most holediame- ters; the first (rock blastability = good to very good) is designed to be used with rock formations that are fairly solid, hard, non-fractured and relatively easy to blast. ‘This group includes granites, limestones, dolomites and sandstones. The other table (rock blastability= medium) can be used with rock formations featuring tough minerals and rock types, jointing, non-homogenous rock masses, heavy bedding or schistosity. Here typical rock types are basalts, diorites, gabbros, taco- nites, gneiss and schists; structural properties of the rock type or its bonding reduce the stress wave power produced by the explosion BURDEN AND SPACING Except for the extreme values of K/d, the burdens and spacings in the tables’ are determined on the basis of figure 20 and table IL. With hole diameters less than 200 mm (7 7/8") pattern geometry is rectangular and E = 1.25 V. For larger hole sizes the pattern designs are square, or E. = V. Tables for larger hole diameters mainly show drilling methods in iron ore, copper ore, limestone and dolomite working. SISUBDRILLING The amount of drilling below the bench bottom level depends on the length of the burden and the hole inclination used, asis shown in figure 18. ‘The only exceptions are the patterns for@ 381 mm (15”) holes where shorter subdrilling is used. HOLE INCLINATION Drilling patterns are designed mainly for holes that are inclined 18 degrees or 3:L. Asis shown in section A3.6 this gives up to {0 per cent higher yield of rock per drilled metre because of the more efficient use of explosives, especially in the bottom parts of the bench. These patterns: can be converted to apply to vertical holes by reducing burden by 5 to 10 per cent (sce the following example). ‘The tables are designed with manual hole alignment in mind. Should an angle indicator be used, the values can be ad- justed accordingly. as shown in section A361 ple Hole diameter 89mm Rock blastability good to very good Bench height 12m Hole inclination 311 : Subdrilling U =03V 0.95 m Hole lengih H =1054K+U 13.60 m Burden Vv =35d 3.10 m Spacing E =125V 3.85 m Yield per drm Y, =KEW/HCos 110 m¥drm Yield per hole Y. =HY, 150.9 m3/drm Patterns for vertical holes Burden V = 0.95 x 310 m=2.95m Spacing E 25x 2.95 m=3,70m Subdrilling U 0.38. 2.95 m= LIS m Hole length 2m+L1Sm=13.15m Yield per dem Y, EV/Heosa, 2mx3.70 mx 2 5 m/13.15 mx cos 0" = 9.96 mi/drm Yield per hole Y, Y= 1 3.15 m x 9.96 m5/drm = 131.0 m/hole i :DRILLING PATTERNS FOR BENCH BLASTING @ 32mm (1 1/4") holes Bench |Sub- | Hole | Burden] Spacing | Specific Yield | Yield height | drilling | length drilling m m m m m dinvm} | o/drm_ | hole 025/065 [oso foe [5140 [oi9 fois 0.25. [0.90 |060 [0.75 /3163- 1032... |028 030° [1.15 [0.70 }090 2165 [046 [053 135 ]080 |1.00 | 1.601 }062 | 0.84 193 |095 |120 [1082 [092 | 1.80 245 | 1.10 |1.40-- 0.755 [132-9 °]3.25 3.00 J1LS ]145 |0683 | 1.46 = |439 350° |1.20. 1150 }0.615 163-1569 405 j115 J145 |0658 | 152 16.15 455 [110 {140- [0701 [143 [6.49 ability = good to very good. Table 12. Drilling paterns for® 32 mm holes. Hole inclination 3:1, E = 1.25 Vand rock blas- 238 mm (1 1/2") holes 4 Bench |Sub- | Hole | Burden [Spacing | Specific [Yield | Yield height | drilling | Iength : drilling m m m m m drm/m_|m/drm_| m’/hole 05 030 [oss Joos oso {3102 [032 027 10 035 -j140 }0.90. J115.. }1.284. 10.78 1.09 ts 4040 }200 10s 1130 0927 | 1.08 216 20 1040.42.45 1.20. |150. }0646°. 1.55 3.79 25 [040 1305 130 |165 {0540 [185 5.65 30 1045. 1360 |140.-11.75 [0465 2.15 115 35 [045 fais 1150 190 [0395 [253 | 1051 40 |0.50 |4.70 | 1.60 }2.00 0.348 }287 |13.49 45 70.50 |5.20 }155 |1.95 |0363 1276 | 14.33 50 045° 15.70 ]150 ]1.90 }0380- 1263 | 15.01 55 045 [6.25 |145 1180 Jos [242 1513 60 {045 16.75 |1.40 [1.75 {0436 [230 | 15.49 ability = good to very good. 13. Drilling patterns for® 38 mm holes. Hole inclination 3:1, E = 1.25 Vand rock blas- 53© 45 mm (1 3/4’) holes Bench ]Sub- [Hole |Burden| Spacing [Specific [Yield | Yield height | drilling | length drilling m m m m m drm/m*_|mi/drm_| m'/hole 2 035 [245 [120 [iso [osae [155 3.79 3 04 360 .]145 ]180 0436 |229 8.25 4 050/475 {170 4215 0308 4324 = 15.41 5 580. 1185 1230. }0259.. }387.}22.42 6 685} 180 |225 0267 |374 | 2561 7 7.90: 1.751220. [0278 - ]3.60 . |28.40 8 050 [895 |570 ]215 0.290 [344 [3082 etc Table 14, Drilling patterus for® 45 mun holes. Hole inclination 3:1, B= 1.25 Vand rock blastability = good to very good. © 45 mm (1 3/4’) holes Bench ]Sub- [Hole ]Burden| Spacing [Specific [Yield | Yield height drifting | length drilling m m m m m drm/m?_| m'/drm_| m'/hole 2 030 (240 [ios fi30 [0834 | 1.20 288 3 035. {350° ]125- J155 Jos7i 1.75 6.13 4 045 4.65 1.50 1.90 0.387 2.58 12.01 5 0.50 5.75 1.65 2.05 0.323 3.10 17.82 6 0.50 6.80 1.60 2.00 0.336 2.98 20.23 _ 0.50 6.80 1.60 2.00 0.336 2.98 20.23 7 045 (785 |155 1195 0352 |284 | 2230 8 045 (8.90 150 [1.90 [0370 }270 |24.03 rilling patterns for® 45 mm holes, Hole inclination 31, E ‘ability = mediuin to good. @51 mm (2°) holes 1.25 Vand rock blas- Bench ]Sub- [Hole | Burden] Spacing [Specific | Yield] Yield height drilling | length drilling m m m m m drm/m_| m'/drm_| m*/hole 050 [260 [130 |i60 [0593 [1.69 4.38 3: 0.55 3.70 1.55 1.95 0.387 2.58 9.56 4 0.55 4.75 1.75 2.20 0.293 3.42 16.23 © 0.60 5.85 2.00 2.50 0.222 450 26.35 6 0.65 6.95 2.05 2.55 0.210 4.76 33.05 a: 0.60 8.00 2.00 2.50 0.217 4.61 36.89 8 0.60, 9.05 1.95 2.40 0.229 4.36 39.46 9 0.60 10.05. |1.90 2.35 0.237 A235 10 0.55 1110 11.85 2.30 0.248 44.84 iL 0.55 12.15 1.80 2.25 0.259 46.95 12 0.55 13.45 | 1.75 2.20 0.270 48.69 Drilling patterns for 51 mm holes. Hole inclination 3:1, ‘ability = good 10 very good. 25 Vand rock blas- 54@51 mm (2’) holes Bench jSub- Hole ]Burden| Spacing | Specific | Yield | Yield height | drifting | length drilling m m m m m drm/m} | m/drm_ | m/hole 0.35 245 145 1.45 0.697 1.43 {357 040-1355 1.35 }1:70-~ Jo4so~-}2.04 7.26 045 |465 150 [190 jo3s7 |258 | 1201 0.50 15.75. ].1.95' 12.20 10283-4353 120.29 0.55 6.85 1.80 2.25 0.267 3.74 25.61 0.50 17.90 41.95 }220° }0278 - |360° -|2840 050 |895 | 175 1215 |o282 354 131.72 0.50 10.00 | 1.70 2.10 0.295 3.39 33.86 0.50 11.05 | 1.65 2.05 0.310 3.23 35.65 0.50 12.10} 1.60, 2.00 0.326 3.07 37.10 OAS 13.10 [1.55 195 0.343 2.92 38.22 Drilling paiterns for® 51 mm holes. Hole inclination 3:1, E = 1.25 V and rock blas- ‘ediuin (0 good. © 64 mm (2 1/2’) holes Bench |Sub- [Hole | Burden [Spacing | Specific [Yield | Yield height | drifting | length drilling m m m m m drm/m*_ | m'/drm_ | m*/hole 3 0.55 3.70 Ji60 *{195 0375 [2.67 9.86 4 0.60 480 ]180 [225 10.281 |3356°-|17.07 5 0.65 590 }210 }260 }0.205 488 | 28:77 6 0.75 705° |240 {300 [0.155 ]646°~ |45553 a 0.75 810 |245 |305 [0147 681 | 5513 8 0.15 9.15 }240° |3.00° 0.151 6.63 |60.70 9 0.70 110.20 |235 |295 [0155 645 165.75 10 0.70 11.25 | 2.30, 2.85 0.163 6.14 69.08 IL 0.70 12.25 | 2.25 2.80 0.168 5.96 73.03 12 0.65 13.30. | 2.20 | 275 0.174 5.75 76.51 13 0.65 1435 1 2.15 2.65 0.184 544 78.06 14 0.60 15.35. 12.05 2.60. 0.195 52 78.64 15 0.60 16.40 | 2.00 2.50 0.207 44.82 79.04 Table 18. Drilling patterns for® 64 mm holes. Hole inclination 3:1, E = 1.25 Vand rock blas- ‘ability = good 10 very good. 55© 64 mm (2 1/2’) holes Bench ]Sub- [Hole [Burden] Spacing | Specific ] Yield | Yield height | drilling | length drilling m m m m m dem/m3__| m'/drm_| m3/hole ; 3 355 ji4o [175 [o4ss [2.18 715 4 470 | 1.60 |200 |0.348 1287 443.49 5 5.80 | 190 [230 0.252 |397 | 23.03 6 7.00 }2.10. |260 |0.203. ]4.93. 134.53 7 8.00 }215 |270 }o187 4535 14282 8 910°|240 |2.60. [0.198 ]5.06 |46.03 9 10.10 |2.05 }255 0.204 [491 | 49.58 10 11.15 .]2.00 ]255.|0.207 }482 .|53.75 in 12.20 |200 |250 0210 $475 157.96 12 13.25 |195. |245 [0219 . [4.56 {60.42 13 1425 ]1.90 ]235 40.233 1429 | 6117 4 15:30 |185°-}230 |0244. J410. 62.78 15 16.35 | 180 [225 {0.255 13.92 | 64.02 Table 19, Drilling patterns for@ 64 nun holes, Hole inctination 3:1, ‘ability = medium to good. = 1.25 Vand rock blas- @ 76 mm (3°) holes Bench |Sub- [Hole | Burden] Spacing | Specific ] Yield | Yield height | drilling | length drilling m m m m m dim/m | m/drm_| m’/hole 4 0.55 475 185 [230 [0265 [3.78 17.94 5 0.65 5.90 [215 ]2.70 }0.193 45.18 30.59 6 0.75 705 |250 |315 {0.142 |7.06 49.80 7 0.85 820°|275..|345Jo117 [854 69.99 8 0.85 925 |280 [350 |0.112 |893 82.62 9 085 |1030 ]2.75. |345 |o1l4 18.74 89.99 10 080 |1135 }2.70 |340 0117 18.52 96.75 a 0.80 112.35 12.60 |3.25 /0.126. 17.93 97.96 12 0.75 11340 1255 1320 }0130 |7.70 103.20 13. 0.75. }14.45--}2.50 [3.15 10.134. 1747 $107.89 14 0.75 |1550 |245 |3.05 Joa | 7.11 110.25 15 0.75. |16.55°}240°|3.00- }0.145 | 6.88 $113.82 16 0.70 {17.55 |2.35 |295 {0.150 |666 — | 116.90 7 0.70. {1860 .}2.30.|285 |o158 [631 }11744 20, Drilling pauerns for® 76 mm holes, Hole inclination 3:1, E = 1.25 V and rock blas- ‘ood to very good. 56© 76 mm (3°) holes Bench |Sub- Hole | Burden] Spacing [Specific | Yield | Yield height | drilling | length drilling m m m m m drm/m* | m'/drm_| m3/hole 4 0.50 4.70 [1.65 |205 [0330 [303 | 1426 5 0.60 585°] 195 245° 0.232 |430 425.17 6 0.65 2.20 |2.75 10.182 {550 |38.26 7 0.70 240 13.00 }0.152. | 6.60. 15312 8 0.75 245 13.05 0.146 1685 | 63.00 9 0.70 240/300 |0.149-|6.70. 168.29 10 0.70 235 |2.95 ]0.154 |649 | 73.06 it 0.70 230° 1285 0.162" }6.18- | 75.99 12 0.70 225/280 |0.168 1597 | 79.67 13 0.65 2.20-.12.75 )0.173-|5.78 482.89 14 0.65 215 |2.70 0180 1556 |85.65 15, 0.65 210-1260} 0.191 86.31 16 0.60 4512.05 [255 | 0.198 88.15 17 0.60 |18.50|2.00}250 -|0207 89.58 Table 21, Drilling pauerns for® 76 mm holes. Hole inclination 3 5 Vand rock blas- ‘ability = medium to good. 2 89 mm (3 1/2’) holes Bench |Sub- |Hole | Burdep | Spacing [Specific [Yield | Yield height | drilling | length drilling m m1 m m m drm/m* | m3/drm_| m’/hole 6 0.85 715 [285 1355 [o.112 8.95 | 63.98 7 0.90 830° }3.00 3.75 |0.100 |10.00 | 8299 8 0.95 935 (310/385 |0.093 | 10.76 | 10062 9 095° /10.45.13.15..]3.95 }0.089.. 11.29 --} 118.02 10 0.95 |11.50 [320 |400 }o085 11.73 | 134.90 WW 0.95 112.55 3.15. ]3.95° -|0.087.}41.49.-| 144.24 12 0.95 1360 3.10 |385 {0.090 }1110 | 150.94 13 095 |14.60 |3.05}380 |0092 |i088 | 158.79 14 0.90 | 15.65 |3.00 |375 |0.094 | 10.61 | 165.99 15 0.90 }16.70 }295. 370. }0.097. |1033. [172/55 16 090 }1775 }290 }360 | 0.101 9.92 | 176.04 7 085 118.75 |285. 1355. 10.103 967 |181.26 18 085 |1980 }280 |3.50 {0.107 9.39 | 185.90 19 O85 /2085.}2.75. 1345 | 0.110 911 | 189.97 20 0.80 121.90 [2.70 [335 0.115 871 [190.65 Drilling patterns for@ 89 mm holes. Hole inclination 3:1, Table 22. .25 Vand rack blas- ability = good to very good, 57289 mm (3 1/2") holes Bench |Sub- [Hole | Burden {Spacing | Specific [Yield | Yield height | drilling | length drilling m m m m m drm/m_| mi/drm_| m*/hole 6 0.75 7.05 3.20 [0137 | 7.32 51.60 7 0.80 8.15 0.126 | 7:92 64.51 8 0.80 9.25 0.121 |8.24 76.26 9 085. |10.35 0115 |8.69 89.99 10 085 | 1140 0.110 19.06 | 103.28 ul 085 - [12.45 0113/8383} 109.99 12 080 | 13.45 0118 [850 1114.39 4 13 080 14.50 | 2.65 0121 |826 |419.81 | l4 0g0 | 15.55 |2.60 0.125 -|802 | 12467 15 0.15 | 16.55. | 2.55 0.128 |7.79 1128.99 16 0.75 17.60 | 2.50 3.15 0.133 754 132.79 17 0.75 18.65. }2.45, 3.05 0.139 718. 133.88 18 0.70 19.65 | 240 3.00 0.144 6.95 136.58 19 0.70 20.70) 2.35, 2.95, 0.149 6.71 138.81 20. 0.70 21.75 | 2.30 2.90 0.155 6.46 140.59 Table 23. Drilling patterns for@ 89 min holes, Hole inclination 3:1, E = 1.25 Vand rock blas- ‘ability = mediuin 10 good. © 102 mm (4) holes Bench |Sub- [Hole | Burden | Spacing | Specific [Yield | Yield height | drilling | length drilling m m m m m drm/m}_| m'/drm_| m/hole 6 0.95 7.30 [320 400 [0.090 | 11.09 | 80.94 7 1.00 840 |3.35 |4.20 [0081 | 12.36 | 103.80 8 1.05 945 |345 [430 |0076 1324 | 125.07 9 105. |1055.|355. ]445 |0.070 | 14.20 | 149.84 10 1.05 1160 [3.55 | 4.45 0.070 14.35 166.49. dds 1.10 12.65 |3.60° | 4.50 0.067 14.85 187.80. 12 1.10 13.75 |3.60 | 4.50 0.067 14.90 204.87 13 1.05 14.75. |3.55 | 4.45 0.068 14.67. | 216.43 14 1.05 15.80 |3.50 | 4.40 0.070 14.38 227.22 15 105 16.85. | 3.50. | 4.35 0.070 14.28 240.68 16 1.05 17.90 | 3.45 4.30 0.072 13.97 250.15 17 1.05 18.95 |340 | 425 0.073 13.66 258.89 18 1.05 20.00 | 3.40 4.20 0.074 13.54 270.89 19 1.00 21.05») 3.35 4.20 0,075. | 13.38 281.73 20 1.00 2210 | 3.35 4.15 0.075 13.26 293.03 21 1.00 23.40 | 3.30 14.15 0.076 13312: 303.09. 22 1.00 24.15 | 3.25 4.05 0.079 12.64 305.18 Table 24, Drilling patterns for® 102 mm holes. Hole inclination 3:1, E = 1.25 Vand rock blas- ‘ability = good to very good. 38© 102 mm (4’) holes Bench |Sub- [Hole Burden | Spacing | Specific | Yield] Yield height drilling | length drilling m m m m m drm/m} | mi/drm_ | m'/hole 6 0.85 715 [280 [350 [o1is | 867 | 61.97 7 0.90 825 |2.90° 1360 -}0.107 | 9.34 77102 8 0.90 935 )3.00 13.75 }0.099 Jiola | 9495 9 0.90 }10.40 13.05. /380 }0.095 }1057. | 109.93 10 0.90 11.45 | 3.05 3.80 0.094 10.67 122.14 I 0.95 3.10 3.85 0.091 11.02 138.36 12 0.95 3.10 0.090 11.10 150.94 13 0.90 14.60 | 3.05 0.092 10.88 © | 158.79 14 0.90 15.65 | 3.00 0.094 10.61 165.99 15 0,90 16.70 | 3.00 0.095 10.51 175.47, 16 0490, 17.75 |2.95 0.096 10.37 184.05 17 0.90 18.80 | 2.95 0,097 10.26 192.91 18 0,90 19.85 | 2.90 0.100 9.98 198.04 19 0,90 20,90 | 2.90 0.101 9.86 206.14 20 0.85 21.95 | 2.85 0.103 9.72 213.25 21 0.85 23.00 | 2.85 0.104 9.60 220.76 22 0.85 24.05 | 2.80 3.50 0.106 945 227,22 Table 25, Drilling paterns for@ 102m holes. Hole inclination 3:1, E = 1 lability = mediuin to good. @ 115 mm (4 1/2’) holes 5 Vand rock blas- * Bench |Sub- [Hole Burden Spacing | Specific ] Yield] Yield height [drilling | length drilling m m m m m drm/m_|m/drm_| m'/hole 1.10 925 3.65 455 0.066 15.14 140.02 1.15 11.70 |3.80° |4.75 0.062 16.26 190.23, 1.20 13.80 | 3.90 4.85 0.058 17.33 239.21 11S 15.90 | 3.80 14.75 0.060 16.75 266,32. 1.15 18.05 | 3.80 4.70 0.060 16.68 301.16 1.10 20.10 13.70 14:65 0.062 16.24 326.38 1.10 22.15 | 3.65 455 0.063 15.80 350.05 1.10 24.25. | 3.55 4.45 0.066 15.10 366.27 1.05 26.35 | 3.45 4.30 0.070 14.24 375.22 1.05 28.40 -|3.40° | 4.25 0.071 13.94 395.94 25 Vand rock blas- Drilling patterns for® 15 mm holes, Hole inclination 3:1, g00d 10 very good, 59@ 115 mm (4 1/2") holes Bench [Sub- |Hole [Burden] Spacing [Specific [Yield | Yield height | dritfing | length drilling m m m m m drm/m}_|m'/drm_| m¥/hole 8 0.95 4.00 [0.087 {1148 | 107.92 10 1.00 4.15 |0.080 . |12.55}144.33 12 Los 425 (0075/1334 | 182.74 14 1.00 420 |0.076.. |1318. |207.59 16 100 330 [415 ]0077 |1294 | 230.93 18 1.00 5 [4.05 0.080 | 1252} 249.69 20 0.95 0 }4.00 0.082 12.24 | 269.79 20 0.95 3.10°}385 [0.087 . | 1146. -]276.72 24 0.90 3.00 5 0.092 |10.86 | 284.55 26 0.90 2.90 65 {0.098 | 10.25 | 290.04 Table 27, Drilling patterns for® 15 mm holes. Hole inclination 3:1, E = 1.25 V and rock blas- ‘ability = medium to goad. @ 127 mm (5’) holes Bench ]Sub- Hole | Burden [Spacing | Specific [Yield | Yield height | drilling | length drilling m m m m m drm/m' | m'/drm_| m‘/hole 8 1.20 9.60 ]390 ]490 0.060 | 16.78 | 161.12 10 125° ]11.75 J410 |5.15 |0.053 18.94. [222.53 12 125 |13.90 |420 1525 0.050 |20.06 {278.86 14 125 |16.00 ]420 |5.25 [0.049 |20.33 | 325.33 lo 125 |48.10 [4.10 |5.15 ]0.051 19.67 | 356.04 18 120 |20.20 |4.05- 5.05 |0.052. | 19.21. | 387.98 20 120 © |2225 |3.95 [495 |0.054 1852 412.12 22 1.20 ]2435 13.90 }4.90. |0.055 | 18.20 | 443.07 24 LIS 26.45 |380 [4.75 [0058 17.26 | 456.54 26 110 [2850 |3.70 [465 [0.060 [16.54] 471.43 Table 28. Drilling patterns for@ 127 mm holes. Hole inclination 3:1, & = 1.25 Vand rock blastability = good to very good. 60@ 127 mm (5’) holes Bench jSub- [Hole [Burden [Spacing [Specific ] Yield | Yield height | drilling | fength drilling m mn m m m drm/m3 | m°/drm_| m3/hole 8 1.05 950 | 3. 0.078 12.82 121.83 10 1.05 3: 0.070 14.35, 166.49 12 1.10 i 0.065 15.27 210.03 14 1.10 a, 0.065 15.46 245.03 16 1.05 3. 0.067 14.88 266.38 18 1.05 0.068. 14.61 | 292.14 20 105 0071 14.12 |312.69 2 1.05 0.072} 13.82 | 335.03 24 1.00 0.076 13.17 346.39 26 0.95 0081 }1237--} 350.73 Table 29. Drilling patterns for® 127 mun holes, Hole ineliuation 3:1, E = 1.25 Vand rock blas- ability = medium 10 good. 152mm (6")holes Bench jSub- ]Hole [Burden [Spacing | Specific] Yield Yield height | drilling | length drilling m m m m m drm/m? | m3/dem_ | m*/hole 8 130 9.75 [435 0.049 [20.50 | 199.88 12 140 [14.05 4.70 0.040. |24.75.. | 347.72 16 1.40 18.25 14.60 0.041 24.44 446.00. 20 135° |2245 |445 0.043" }23.19° 1520.56 24 130 [26.60 {430 0046 [2187 [581.87 Table 30. Drilling pauerns for® 152mm holes, Hole inclination 3:1, E = 1.25 Vand rock blax ‘ability = good to very good. @ 152 mm (6") holes Bench /Sub- [Hole | Burden | Spacing | Specific | Yield | Yield height | drilling | length drilling m m m m m dem/m*_| m3/drm_| m’/hole 8 115 960 390 [485 [0.060 [1661 [159.47 12 125. 11390 ]420 |5.25 | 0.050. }20.06 -}278.86 16 125° /1810 7410 |515 |o051 |19.67 |35604 20 120 |2230 |400 |5.00 [0.053 |18.90 4215s 24 415 [2645 [385 [aso }o0s7 [1767 | 467.42 Table 31, Drilling patterns for® 152 mm holes. Hole inclination 3:1 ability = medium to good. E = 1.25 Vand rock blas- 61200 mm (7 7/8") holes Bench ]Sub- [Hole | Burden] Spacing [Specific [Yield | Yield height drilling | length drilling m m m m m drm/m3 | m3/drm_| m3/hole 8 1.50 9.95 15.00 6.25 26.48 263.47 12 160. }1425. |530 6.60 31.04 | 442.38 16 1.60 18.45 | 5.30. 6.60 31.97 $89.83 20 155. |2265.|520. |650 31.45 }712.42 24 155 [2685 [5.10 [640 30.75 _ {825.57 ‘Table 32, Dritling patterns for@ 200 num holes in copper and iron ore mining. Hole inclination Band = 1.25 V @ 251 mm (9 7/8") holes Bench | Sub- Hole | Burden | Spacing | Specific | Yield Yield height {drilling} length drilling m m m m m dirm/m$ | m3/drm_| m3/hole 8 245 10.45 | 6.70 6.70 0.029 34.37 359.12. 12 2.60 14.60 | 7.00 | 7.00 0.025 40.27 588.00 16 2.65 18.65 | 7.15 71S 0.023 43.86 817.96 20 10) 22.60 | 7.00 7.00 0.023 43.36 980.00 24 0 [26.50 ]680 46.80 [0.024 [41.88 | 1109.76 ‘able 38 Drilling paiterns for® 251 mm holes in copper ane iron ore mining. Vertical holes O3il mom (12 1/4’) holes + Bench |Sub- ]Hole [Burden Spacing | Specific | Yield — | Yield height drilling | tength drilling m m m m m drm/m3 | m/drm_ | m3/hole 8 290 {1090 7.80 |780 [0022 44.65 | 486.72 12 305 |15.05 ]820 ]820 }0.019 |5361 | 806.88 16 310 [1910 [840 }840 0.017 [59.11 [1128.96 20 340 |23.10 |840 |840 fo016 [61.09 | 1411.20 24 3.05 |27.05 }820 |820 [0017 [5966 [1613.76 Table 34. Drilling patterns for® 311 mm holes in copper and iron ore mining, Vertical holes an “ @ 381 mm (15") holes Bench | Sub- Hole | Burden | Spacing | Specific | Yield Yield height | drilling | length drilling m m m m__|m drm/m*_|m/drm_| m/hole 145 945 [920 | 920 [0014 [7165 | 67712 155 13.55. | 9.70 | 9.70 | 0.012 83.33 1129.08. 1.60 17.60 |10.05 110.05 | 0.011 91.82 1616.04 1.60 21.60 | 10.05 | 10.05 | 0.011 93.52 2020.05 1.55 25.55 9.70 9.70 {0.011 88.38 2258.16 Drilling patterns for 381 mun holes in copper ancl iron ore mining. Vertical holes

A Essential of Surface Drilling

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