3D Seismic Interpretation

Contents
Page

1. Introduction 2
2. Resolution 3
3. Examples of 3-D Data Improvement 5
4. Survey Design 7
5. Volume Concept 10
6. Slicing the Data Volume 11
7. Direct contouring and the Importance of the Strike Perspective 13
8. Fault Recognition and Mapping 15
9. Stratigraphic Interpretation 18

References 21
Exercises

3D Seismic Interpretation

By : Sigit Sukmono
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1. Introduction
It was Walton (1972) who popularized the concept of three
dimensional seismic surveys. In 1975, first 3-D technical
surveys were performed (Bone et al, 1976).
The essence of the 3-D method is aerial data collection
followed by the processing and interpretation of a closely-
spaced data volume. Because a more detailed
understanding of the subsurface emerges, 3-D surveys
have been able to contribute significantly to the problems
of field appraisal, development and production as well as
to exploration.
Since late 1980s, the use of 3-D seismic surveys for
exploration increased significantly. Martins et al (1995)
working in the Campos Basin offshore Brazil, analyzed the
relationship between the amount of 3-D survey coverage,
number of wells drilled and the oil reserves booked such as
shown in Figure 1.

3-D seismic is an extremely powerful delineation tool, and

spectacularly cost-effective, particularly when well costs
are high. The success is directly attributable to the better Figure 1. Area covered by 3-D surveys, exploratory wells
structural interpretation made possible by the 3-D survey. drilled and volume of oil in place for the period 1976 to
1994 in the Campos Basin offshore Brazil (from Martins
The greatest impact of 3-D surveys has been the ability to et al, 1995)
match platform size, number of well slots, and production
facilities to the more accurately determined field reserved.

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2. Resolution

The fundamental objective of the 3-D

seismic method is increased resolution.
Resolution has both vertical and horizontal
aspects. The resolving power of seismic
data always measured in terms of the
seismic wavelength, which is given by the
quotient of velocity and frequency Table 1
illustrates five geologic situations of
different rock ages, target depths and
signal-to-noise ratios.

Migration is the principal technique for

improving horizontal resolution, and in
doing so performs three distinct functions.
The migration process (1) repositions
reflections out-of-place because of dip, (2)
focuses energy spread over a Fresnel zone,
and (3) collapses diffraction patterns from
points and edges.

Table 1. Typical limits of visibility and separability for a range of geologic

situations (Brown, 2001).

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Figure 2 shows the focusing effect of migration in two and

three dimensions. The Fresnel zone will be reduced to an
ellipse perpendicular to the line for 2-D migration (Lindsey,
1989) and to a small circle by 3-D migration. The diameter
of one-quarter of a wavelength indicated in Figure 2 is for
perfect migration. In practice, the residual Fresnel zone may
be about twice this size.
The accuracy of 3-D migration depends on the velocity field,
signal-to-noise ratio, migration aperture and the approach
used. Assuming the errors resulting from these factors are
small, the data will be much more interpretable both
structurally and stratigraphically.
Intersecting events will be separated, the confusion of
diffraction patterns will be gone, and dipping events will be
moved to their correct subsurface positions. The collapsing
of energy from diffractions and the focusing of energy spread
over Fresnel zones will make amplitudes more accurate and
more directly interpretable in terms of reservoir properties.
The determination of true velocity for accurate migration and
depth conversion is a significant issue. It is desirable to
collect data with a reasonable distribution of offset and
azimuths, so that the three-dimensional dip effects in the
velocity field can be removed properly
Figure 2. Effect on Fresnel zone size and shape of 2-D and 3-D migration

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3. Examples of 3-D Data Improvement
Figure 3 demonstrates the advantage of using 3D
migration to reduce the out of plane sideswipe effect
which is common in 2D survey in the complex structural
area.

Figure 4 shows improved continuity of an unconformity

reflection. The 2-D migration has collapsed most of the
diffraction patterns but some confusion remains. The
crossline component of the 3-D migration removes
energy not in the plane of this section and clarifies the
shape of the unconformity surface in significant detail.

Figure 5 shows the effect of 3-D migration in enhancing

the visibility of a fluid contact reflection by removing
energy not belonging in the plane of this section.

Figure 3. Model of two anticlines and one fault with seismic data
along Line 6 showing comparative effects of 2-D and 3-D
migration (from French, 1974).
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Figure 4. Improved structural continuity of an Figure 5. Improved visibility of a flat spot reflection after
unconformity reflection resulting from 2-D and 3-D removal of interfering events by 3-D migration
migration.

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4. Survey Design
A waveform must be sampled such that there are at least two
samples per cycle for the highest frequency. For example, 4 ms
sampling is theoretically adequate for frequencies up to 125 Hz. In
practice we normally require at least three samples per cycle for
the highest frequency. With this safety margin, 4 ms sampling is
adequate for frequencies up to 83 Hz. In space, the sampling
theorem translates to the requirement of at least two, and
preferably three, samples per shortest wavelength in every
direction. In a normal 2-D survey layout this will be satisfied by
the depth point spacing along lines but not by the spacing between
lines. Hence the restriction that widely-spaced 2-D lines can be
processed individually on a 2-D basis but not together as a 3-D
volume.
If the sampling theorem is not satisfied the data are aliased. In the
case of a dipping event, the spatial sampling of that event must be
such that its principal alignment is obvious; if not, aliases occur
and spurious dips result after multi-channel processing.

Table 2 shows the frequencies at which this aliasing occurs for

various dips and subsurface spacing. Clearly, a 3-D survey must
be designed such that aliasing during processing does not occur.
Tables like the one presented can be used to establish the Table 2. Alias frequency (inherzt) as a function of
necessary spacing considering the dips and velocities present. In subsurface spacing (in meter) and dip (in degress)
order to impose the safety margin of three samples, rather than for an RMS velocity of 2500 m/s
two, per shortest wavelength, the frequency limit is normally
considered to be around two-thirds of each number tabulated.

3D Seismic Interpretation

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The formulas in Table 3 provide a general method of establishing the spacings required. The first formula, based on two
samples per shortest wavelength, gives the maximum spacing that can be used to image the structure. Given our ignorance of
the subsurface structure at the time the 3-D survey is being designed, we should allow a significant safety margin by collecting
at least three samples per shortest spatial wavelength.

Table 3 also shows the two formulas needed to calculate the width of the extra strip around the periphery of the prospect over
which data must be collected in order to ensure proper imaging in the area of interest. The calculation of migration distance,
the extra fringe width needed for structure, should use the local value of dip measured perpendicular to the prospect boundary.
The Fresnel zone radius, the extra fringe width needed for stratigraphy, needs to be considered for the proper focusing of
amplitudes. The two strip, or fringe, widths thus calculated should be added together in defining the total survey area.

Table 3. Basic formulas for the design of a 3-D survey.

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A typical 3-D seismic interpreter does not get involved in
designing surveys but nevertheless needs to appreciate these
issues. Figure 6 demonstrates that, of the data volume under
interpretation, only the central portion is fully migrated and
therefore fully reliable. The fringe between the inner and outer
volumes is the migration distance and the Fresnel zone radius.
If the interpreter is working in this fringe zone he needs to
realize that the data are unreliable and the results are subject to
greater risk.
Proper design of a 3-D survey is critical to its success, and
sufficiently close spacing is vital. The formulas of Table 3 are
addressing structural design issues. In areas of shallow dip
where the survey objectives are stratigraphic, the selected
spacing must be such that there are at least two samples within
the lateral extent of any expected stratigraphic feature of
interest, for example the width of a channel. Figure 7
demonstrates a typical comparison between the subsurface
sampling of a 2-D and 3-D survey. The bold dots indicate the
2-D survey depth points which satisfy the sampling theorem
along each line. The 3-D survey requires a similarly close
spacing in both directions over the whole area. In addition to
the opportunity for three-dimensional processing which the
areal coverage provides, note the sampling and thus potential Figure 6. Data Around the edge of a 3-D survey are
definition of a meandering stream channel. Sampling for incompletely migrated because of migration
stratigraphic features like this channel requires at least two but distance and Fresnel zone radius. Interpreters should
preferably three samples within the channel width. In practice, be extra cautious when working in this region
3-D depth point spacing ranges between 6 and 50 m. (Brown, 2001).

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5. Volume Concept
Collection of closely-spaced seismic data over an area
permits three-dimensional processing of the data as a
volume. With 3-D data, the interpreter is working
directly with a volume rather than interpolating a
volumetric interpretation from a widely-spaced grid of
observations. Because the sampling requirements for
interpretation are the same as for processing, all the
processed data points contain unique information and
thus should be used in the interpretation. Thus, the
interpreter of a 3-D volume should not decimate the data
available to him but, given that he has time constraints
imposed on him, he should use innovative approaches
with horizontal sections, specially selected slices, and
automatic spatial tracking, in order to comprehend all
the information in the data. In this way the 3-D seismic
interpreter will generate a more accurate and detailed
map or other product than his 2-D predecessor in the
same area.

Figure 7. Areal coverage of a 3-D survey compared to the

coverage of a grid of live 2-D lines, and the ability of each
to delineate a meandering channel (Brown, 2001).

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6. Slicing the Data Volume

The vast majority of 3-D interpretation is performed on

slices through the data volume. The 3-D volume
contains a regularly-spaced orthogonal array of data
points defined by the acquisition geometry and maybe
adjusted during processing. The three principal
directions of the array define three sets of orthogonal
slices or sections through the data, as shown in Figure 8.

Figure 9 shows a view of a 3-D data volume through a

salt dome. It demonstrates the volume concept well and
the interpreter can use a display of this kind to help in
appreciation of subsurface three-dimensionality. Figure
10 shows another cube, in this case generated
interactively, which helps in the three-dimensional
appreciation of a much more detailed subsurface
objective. Neither of these displays, however, permits
the interpreter to look into the volume of data.

Figure 8. Recognized and approved terms for display products

from 3-D seismic data. All display seismic amplitud unless
specified otherwise. Use of all other terms should be
discouraged (Brown, 2001).

3D Seismic Interpretation

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Figure 9. 3-D data volume showing a Gulf of Figure 10. Chair display made of two vertical sections
Mexico salt dome and associated rim syncline. and one horizontal section. Compare this with Figure
(Brown, 2001) 3.27 and note that here all the three sections are
undistorted. (Brown, 2001)

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7. Direct contouring and the Importance of the Strike
Perspective

Figure 11 demonstrates the conceptual relationship

between a volume of subsurface rock and a volume of
seismic data. The attitude of a reflection on a horizontal
section indicates directly the strike of the reflecting
surface.

Contours follow strike and indicate a particular level in

time or depth. When an interpreter picks a reflection on a
horizontal section, it is directly a contour on some
horizon at the time (or depth) at which the horizontal
section was sliced through the data volume.
Figure 12 demonstrates a simple exercise in direct
contouring from a suite of horizontal sections. The red
event (trough) expanding in size from left to right has
been progressively circumscribed in the lower part of the
figure.

Figure 11. Relation between dip and strike of a seismic

reflector within a data volume (Brown, 2001).

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Figure 12. Horizontal sections, 4 ms apart, from Peru (courtesy Occidental Exploration and Production Company) and raw
interpreted contour map made be successively circumscribing the red event on each section (Brown, 2001).

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8. Fault Recognition and Mapping

When an interpreter works with 3-D data after having previously mapped from 2-D data over the same prospect, the most striking
difference between maps is commonly the increased fault detail in the 3-D map. Figures 13 and 14 provide a typical comparison and also
demonstrate increased detail in the shape of the structural contours.

Figure 13. Structural contour map derived from 2-D (left) and 3-D data (right) from the Gulf of Thailand for the same
horizon (Courtesy Texas Pacific Oil Company Inc.) (Brown, 2001).

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We expect to detect faults from alignments of event

terminations. Figure 14 shows a vertical and horizontal
section from the 3-D data which provided the map of Figure
13. The event terminations clearly show several faults. If
there is a significant angle between structural strike and
fault strike, the events will terminate. If structural strike and
fault strike are parallel, or almost so, the events will not
terminate but will parallel the faults.

Because an alignment of event terminations on a horizontal

section indicates the strike of a fault, the picking of a fault
on a horizontal section provides a contour on the fault
plane. Thus picking a fault on a succession of suitably
spaced horizontal sections constitutes an easy approach to
fault plane mapping. It is very important that horizontal
sections play their proper role in fault interpretation. In the
early stages of struc-tural interpretation of a prospect, the
major faults will be identified on some widely-spaced
vertical sections.

The way in which these faults join up into a fault

framework should then be established from horizontal
sections. Lineations of event terminations will normally link
the faults already recognized vertically. Figures 15 and 16
show clearly visible faulting that evidently could be used in
this way.

Figure 14. Vertical and horizontal section at 1388 ms

from Gulf of Thailand (Courtesy Texas Pacific Oil
Company) (Brown, 2001).
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 Figure 16. Horizontal section at 1500 ms from Gulf of
Figure 15. horizontal section from onshore Mexico showing many clearly visible faults. At least 10
Europe. Event terminations indicate faulting are identifiable. (Courtesy Conoco Inc. and Texaco
(Brown, 2001). U.S.A. Inc.). (Brown, 2001).

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9. Stratigraphic Interpretation

Where a vertical seismic section intersects a stratigraphic feature the interpreter can normally find a small amplitude or
character anomaly. A shape or pattern which is unrelated to structure may prove to be interpretable as a depositional,
erosional, lithologic or other feature of significance. Klein (1985) and Broussard (1975), among others, have provided
depositional models on which the interpreter can base his recognition of depositional features. The study of horizontal
sections and horizon slices can provide a bird's-eye view of ancient stratigraphy, analogous to the view of modem stratigraphy
obtained out of an airplane window.

Figures 17 is a horizontal sections from a 3-D survey recorded in the Gippsland basin offshore southeastern Australia
(Sanders and Steel, 1982). It is the characteristic circular shape when viewed horizontally that attracts the interpreter's eye.
The circular features measure 200 to 500 m in diameter and are interpreted as sinkholes in a Miocene karst topography.

Figure 18. shows a horizontal section at 196 ms from Gulf of Thailand showing meandering stream channel. Figure 18 shows
part of the Mahakam delta in Indonesia. At this time (about 18,000 years ago) deposition was clearly occurring in this part of
the delta. Patterns are very similar to those visible in the present Mahakam delta (Figure 19).

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Figure 17. Horizontal sections at 868 ms from 3-D
survey over Mackerel field in offshore Gippsland
basin, southeastern Australia. Cirlcular objects are
interpreted as sinkhole in karst topography.
(Courtesy Esso Australia Ltd.). (Brown, 2001).
Figure 18. Horizontal section at 196 ms from Gulf of Thailand
showing meandering stream channel. (Courtesy Texas Pacific
Oil Company Inc.). (Brown, 2001).

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Figure 19. Horizon section at 100 ms from

Figure 20. Satellite photograph of part of present
Peciko 3-D survey recorded in the Mahakam
Mahakam delta from comparison with Figure
delta offshore Kalimantan Indonesia. The
4.17.(Courtesy Total Indonesie.)
deltaic features seen here are about 18.000
years old. (Courtesy Total Indonesie.)

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Bibliography

1. Bone, M. R., B. F. Giles, and E. R. Tegland, 1976, 3-D high resolution data collection, processing and display: Houston, Texas,
presented at 46th Annual SEG Meeting.
2. Broussard, M. L., ed., 1975, Deltas: Houston Geological Society, 555 p.
3. French, W. S., 1974, Two-dimensional and three-dimensional migration of model-experiment reflection profiles: Geophysics, v. 39,
p. 265-277.
4. Klein, G. deV., 1985, Sandstone depositional models for exploration for fossil fuels third edition: Boston, Massachusetts,
International Human Resources Development Corporation, 209 p.
5. Lindsey, J. P., 1989, The Fresnel zone and its interpretive significance: The Leading Edge, v. 8, no. 10, p. 33-39.
6. Martins, C. c., and C. A. da Costa, C. E Theodoro, L. R. Guardado, and V. F. Andrade, 1995, 3-D Seismic: A successful strategy in
the Campos Basin: The Leading Edge, v.14, p. 701-704.
7. Sanders, J. 1., and G. Steel, 1982, Improved structural resolution from 3D surveys in Australia: Australian Petroleum Exploration
Association (APEA) Journal, v. 22, F 17-41.
8. Walton, G. G., 1972, Three-dimensional seismic method: Geophysics, v. 37, p. 417-430.

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Exercise

1. Identify the location of Well-16 on vertical sections. Using seismogram synthetic in Well-16, pick J- Unconformity, top Brent
and Bottom Brent on Line 60 E dan 90 N
2. On the transparancy sheet copy the basemap and mark the 9 wells locations. Check that Line 60E intersects with Line 90N at
Well-16
3. Tie Line 60 E with horizontal section of time 1100 ms and pick J-Unconformity on that horizontal section.
4. Using all available horizontal sections, construct the J-Unconformity time structure map starting from 1050 ms to 1300 ms with
contour interval of 20 ms. Add 10 ms to your contour map for datum correction
5. Using the same techniques you can also construct the Top and Bottom Brent time map.
6. Using J-Unconformity, Top Brent and Base Brent maps delineate the oil area. Well-16 data indicates that the OWC in Brent is at
1140ms. Interpolate the OWC to intersect the Base Brent, Top Brent and J-Unconformity.
7. Construct cross sections passing thru wells 11-18-25, 11-17-23 and 10-16. In the cross-sections show the position of Top Brent,
Base Brent and OWC.
8. Based on the oil area map and cross-sections above make well ranking.

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 SALNOR
Top Brent
(ms)

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120N
Base Brent
90N
ms
60N

60N 90N 120N

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