Load Flow Concept

Load Flow Objectives

Determine Steady State Operating Conditions
Size Equipments
Verify operation conditions based on limits
Validation of data in steady state condition

2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL

 Load Flow Concept
Determine Steady State Operating Conditions
Voltage Profile
Power Flows
Current Flows
Power Factors
Voltage Drops
Generators Mvar Demand (Qmax & Qmin)
Generators MW Demand
Total Generation & Demand
MW & Mvar Losses

2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL

 Load Flow Concept
Size Equipments & Determine Parameters
Cable
Capacitor
Transformer MVA Capacity
Transformer Tap Setting
Current Limiting Reactor Ratings
MCC & Switchgear Current Ratings
Generator Operating Mode (Isochronous / Droop)
Generators Mvar Demand
Transmission, Distribution & Utilization kV

2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL

 Load Flow Concept
Verify operation conditions within limits
Bus Voltages are Within Acceptable Limits
Voltages are Within Rated Insulation Limits of Equipment
Power & Current Flows Do Not Exceed the Maximum Ratings
Acceptable System MW & Mvar Losses
Circulating Mvar Flows are Eliminated
Steady State Stability Limits

2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL

 Load Flow Concept
Validation of data in steady state condition
Comparison of real time metered data with load flow results

2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL

 Load Flow Concept
Load Flow Problem
Given:
Power consumption at all buses
Branch impedances in the network
Network Topology (Configuration)
Power production for each generator

Output:
Voltage magnitude and angle at all buses
Power flows on all the branches including power factors
Losses on all branches

2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL

 Load Flow Concept
Non-Linear System
Calculation Process
Iterative Calculation
Assume Load Voltage VR
(Initial Conditions)
Assume VR
Calculate the Current I
Calc: I = Sload / VR
Based on Current
Calc: Vd = I * Z
Calculate Voltage Drop Vd
Re-Calc VR = Vs - Vd
Re-Calculate Load Voltage VR
Re-use VR until results are within the specified precision

2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL

 Load Flow Concept
Load Flow Calculation Methods
Newton-Raphson
Fast in speed, but high requirement on initial values
First order derivative is used to speed up calculation

2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL

 Load Flow Concept
Load Flow Calculation Methods
Adaptive Newton-Raphson
Fast in speed, but high requirement on initial values
First order derivative is used to speed up calculation

2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL

 Load Flow Concept
Load Flow Calculation Methods
Accelerated Gauss-Seidel Method
Low Requirements on initial values
Slow in speed

2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL

 Load Flow Concept
Load Flow Calculation Methods
Fast-Decoupled Method
Two sets of iteration equations: real power voltage angle,
reactive power voltage magnitude in speed, but high
requirement on initial values
Fast in speed, but low in solution precision
Better for radial systems and systems with long lines

2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL

 Load Flow Concept
Power in Balanced 3-Phase Systems
*
S 1 V LN I
S 3 3 S 1
3 V LL I *
P jQ

Inductive loads have lagging Power Factors.

Capacitive loads have leading Power Factors.
Lagging Power Factor Leading Power Factor Current and Voltage

2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL

 Load Flow Concept
Leading & Lagging Power Factors
ETAP displays power factor in %
Leading power factor as negative
Lagging power factor as positive

Leading Lagging
Power Power
Factor Factor
P - jQ P + jQ

2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL

 Load Flow Concept
3-Phase Per Unit System
Three phase power equation

S 3VI


V 3 ZI

Base calculations
kVA B
IB
3kVB
(kVB ) 2
ZB
M VAB

Per unit calculations

I actual Vactual
I pu Vpu 2
IB VB V o
S Bn
Z n
pu Z
o
pu
B
n
o
Z pu
Zactual
Spu
Sactual V B SB
ZB SB
2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL
 Load Flow Concept

In ETAP:
The base rating is SB = 100 MVA

Base voltage at any point of the system is determined in respect

to the turn ratios of transformers

To determine base voltage:

kVB1
N1
kVB1 kVB2
N2
kVB2
Impedance of transformer in per unit:
X
Z pu x pu
X pu R R pu
X
2
X
1 R
R
2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL
 Load Flow Concept
Example:
Base voltage calculation across a transformer in ETAP:

Branch impedances in LF report are in percentage

Turn ratio: N1/N2 = 3.31

X/R = 12.14

2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL

 Load Flow Concept
Example (contd):
0.065(12.14) 0.06478
X pu 0.06478 R pu 0.005336
1 (12.14) 2 12.14

Impedance conversion to 11 MVA base

n stands for new & O stands for old values

2
o VB S Bn
2
13.8 100
o
Z n
pu Z pu n o (5.33 10 3 j 0.06478) (0.1115 j1.3538)
VB B
S 13.5 5
%Z 100 Zpu 11.15 j135.38

The base voltage of the branch impedance (Z1) determined by

transformer turn ratio
kVutility 13.5 VB2 (4.0695) 2
VB 4.0695 ZB 0.165608
3.31
N 1 MVA 100
N 2

2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL

 Load Flow Concept
Example (contd) :
Zactual (0.1 j1)
Zpu (0.6038 j6.0382)
ZB 0.1656
%Z 100 Zpu 60.38 j603.8

Load flow report generated by ETAP for branches:

2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL

 Load Flow Concept
Exercise-A1

2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL

 Load Flow Requirements
Load Flow Overview
Load Flow Requirements
Load Types in Power System
Load Modeling in ETAP
Generator Operation Modes
Generation Modes in ETAP
Load Flow Toolbar
Load Flow Study Case
Load Flow Analyzer
Reports
Wizards
Panel System
2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL
 Load Flow Requirements
ETAP load flow required data
General Equipment Data
Element ID
Nominal / Rated kV

Bus:
%V and Angle
Load Diversity Factor

Branch:
Branch Z, R, X, or X/R values and units, tolerance, and
temperature, if applicable
Cable and transmission line, length, and unit
Transformer rated kV and kVA/MVA, tap, and LTC settings
Impedance base kV and base kVA/MVA

2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL

 Load Flow Requirements
ETAP load flow required data
General Equipment Data
Element ID
Nominal / Rated kV

Bus:
%V and Angle
Load Diversity Factor

Branch:
Branch Z, R, X, or X/R values and units, tolerance, and
temperature, if applicable
Cable and transmission line, length, and unit
Transformer rated kV and kVA/MVA, tap, and LTC settings
Impedance base kV and base kVA/MVA

2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL

 Load Types in Power System
Load Flow Overview
Load Flow Requirements
Load Types in Power System
Load Modeling in ETAP
Generator Operation Modes
Generation Modes in ETAP
Load Flow Toolbar
Load Flow Study Case
Load Flow Analyzer
Reports
Wizards
Panel System
2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL
Load Types in Power System

2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL

Load Types in Power System

2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL

 Load Modeling in ETAP
Load Flow Overview
Load Flow Requirements
Load Types in Power System
Load Modeling in ETAP
Generator Operation Modes
Generation Modes in ETAP
Load Flow Toolbar
Load Flow Study Case
Load Flow Analyzer
Reports
Wizards
Panel System
2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL
 Load Modeling in ETAP
Constant Power (kVA) Loads
Induction Motor
Synchronous Motors
Lumped Load

Power output remains constant regardless of

voltage variations
Lumped loads are combination of constant
power & constant impedance loads

2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL

 Load Modeling in ETAP
Constant Impedance Loads
Static Load
Motor Operated Valve
Lumped Load
Capacitor
Harmonic Filter
Power & Voltage relation:P V 2
In Load Flow Harmonic Filters may be used as capacitive
loads for Power Factor Correction.
MOVs are modeled as constant impedance loads because
of their operating characteristics.

1996-2008 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 31
2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL
 Load Modeling in ETAP
Example:
Motor Nameplate Calculation
kWRated HP 0.7457
kVARated
PF Eff PF Eff
kVARated
FLA3
3 kV
kVARated
FLA1
kV

Mtr 2 : PF 90%, EFF 85%

200 0.7457
kVARated 194.95
0.9 0.85
194.95
FLA3 234.48
3 0.48
194.95
FLA1 406.14
0.48

2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL

 Load Modeling in ETAP
Example (Contd):
Load Calculation
kVA ( kW ) 2 ( kVar ) 2
kW
PF
kVA
kVA
I 3
( 3 kV )
kVA
I1
kV
Load1 : PF 90%, kVA 59.6
kW 59.6 0.9 53.64
kVar (59.6) 2 (53.64) 2 25.97
59.6
I 3 71.69
3 0.48
59.6
I1 124.16
0.48
2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL
 Load Modeling in ETAP
Constant Current Loads
Current remains constant regardless of
voltage variations
DC Constant current loads are used to test
Battery discharge capacity
AC constant current loads may be used to
test UPS systems performance
DC Constant Current Loads may be
specified in ETAP by defining Load Duty
Cycles

2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL

 Load Modeling in ETAP
Constant Current Loads (Contd):

2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL