EMt Ak Q li

ISSN 1018-5593

Commission of the European Communities

technical coal research

METHODS OF IMPROVING COAL DISCHARGE

FROM HOPPERS AND BUNKERS
BY MECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL MEANS

Report
EUR 14618 EN

Blow-up from microfiche original

 ISSN 1018-5593

Commission of the European Communities

technical coal research

METHODS OF IMPROVING COAL DISCHARGE

FROM HOPPERS AND BUNKERS
BY MECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL MEANS

Coal Research Establishment

British Coal Corporation
Stoke Orchard
Cheltenham, Glos. GL52 4RZ
United Kingdom

PARL EL ROP. Bible h.

N.C.
CI.
Contract No 7220-ED/811

FINAL REPORT

Di rectorate-General
Energy

1993 EUR 14618 EN

 Published by the
COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES
Directorate-General XIII
Information Technologies and Industries, and Telecommunications
L-2920 LUXEMBOURG

LEGAL NOTICE
Neither the Commission of the European Communities nor any person acting on behalf
of the Commission is responsible for the use which might be made of the following
information

Catalogue number: CD-NA-14618-EN-C

ECSC EEC EAEC, Brussels - Luxembourg, 1993

 III

Contents

SUMMARY V

1 INTRODUCTION ~ 1

1.1 Background 1
1.2 Presentation and Bibliography 2
2 THEORETICAL AND LABORATORY STUDIES 2

2.1 Bulk-Material Recovery from Store 2

2.1.1 Discharge devices 2
2.1.2 Bin-activators and mass-Mux 3
2.1.3 Silo operation and hopper functions 3
2.1.4 Efflux and inserts : 4
2.1.5 Bulk-Material fluid states and activator design principales 5
2.2 Measurement of Vibration in Bulk-Materials 5
2.2.1 Vibrating table rig 5
2.2.2 Laboratory investigations 6
2.3 Vibration Induced Fluidisation 7
2.3.1 The internal kinetic energy of particulates 7
2.3.2 Definitions 7
2.3.3 Model of particles vibrated in a stack 8
2.3.4 Newton's rule and brittle collisions 8
2.3.5 System and particle survival 10
2.4 Unification of the Fluid and Agglomerate Views of Bulk Matter using Contact
Mechanics Interaction Laws 11
3 PLANT AND ENGINEERING DEVELOPMENT: PART 2 11

3.1 Coal-Silo Operation 11

3.1.1 Rat-holing in silo designed to give mass-flow 11
3.1.2 Causes of rat-holing 12
3.2 Sarath Bin-Activator 13
3.2.1 Description 13
3.2.2 Design and mathematical model 13
3.2.3 Ancillary equipment 13
3.2.4 Commissioning and operation 14
3.2.5 Silo-discharge performance 14
4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS 15

5 RECOMMENDATIONS 16
 IV

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES 16

TABLE 19
FIGURES 21
APPENDIX A1 55
APPENDIX A2 63
APPENDIX B 71
 SUMMARY

A further understanding of the principles underlying bin-activator operation has been developed.
Concepts of incipient flow and vibration induced fluidisation have been introduced. A means of
producing a permanently localised state of fluidisation in the boundary between incipient flow and
outlet free surface has been suggested and a patent applied for.

A laboratory has been furnished to study vibration induced fluidisation and flow. A vibration table
test rig was designed, manufactured and installed, together with accelerometer and data processing
equipment, to measure the transmission and attenuation of vibrations through bulk materials. Tests
on coal showed that much of the internal energy induced by vibration is dissipated in surface
degradation and particle comminution.

The single-phase fluidisation caused by vibration of bulk particles has been mathematically modelled
as a one dimensional stack. The model estimates the degree of fluidisation by calculating the
internal energy induced into the stack by vibration, and hence the vibration required to achieve bulk
flow. Particle elasticity was shown to have relatively little effect on the efficiency of fluidisation
when compared to vibrational amplitude.

The principle of using narrow vibrating table feeders to induce a slow continuous discharge out of
a large silo opening was used to design a prototype bin activator. This device, together with a
prototype rodgate valve and lean phase pneumatic conveyor were fabricated and fitted under a
mass-flow silo. The bin activator produced converging disperse flow which was compatible with
the high flux velocities of line conveyors. It enabled mass flow to be achieved within a 160 tonne
capacity silo during continuous trickle discharge.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Coal charged into silos, bunkers, or hoppers, has to be retrieved. The charging rates may be
discontinuous, imprecise, and advantageously high. Retrieval rates on the other hand are often
required to be continuous, precise, and relatively small: eg one tonne per hour as opposed to tens
of tonnes per hour, and such low flowrates can be difficult to achieve, particularly with more
cohesive solids.
In terms of the promotion and control of coal flow inside bunkers, the technology of valley
angles, wall linings, hip stresses and material characterisation has been widely studied.
The promotion and control of coal flow inside pneumatic or mechanical line conveyors has
also been extensively studied.
In theoretical terms the difference between the above two technologies: dealing with flow
in store and flow in a transport line, is a difference in the mass flux velocity. This parameter,
which has the units of kg/h per sq m, is three orders of magnitude higher in the latter case. The
difference is so great that the two technologies can and do disregard each other even though they
are adjacent at the bunker outlet. It is at this point that vibratory discharge systems are used to
interface the different flow regimes and it is the poor performance of such systems that this two
year programme of work has sought to address. The specified aims of the project were as
follows:-
To investigate the limitations of existing hopper and silo vibratory discharge aids.
To investigate the transmission of vibrations through bulk coal.
To design and develop, if possible, a low cost vibratory system suitable for all coals.
Previous ECSC project studies'1' have investigated coal storage and extraction from silos,
coal degradation and breakage. Coal handleability, as measured by the outflow from a vibrated
static hopper and gravity discharge through apertures of about 0.3m diameter, have also been
studied. Comprehensive reference to established bunker flow theory was given in all of the
studies. However, the overall relationship between of coal flow and coal quality has remained
unclear, and industry had to be guided by the following generalisations:
Mechanically discharged coal from storage silos becomes degraded.
Coal discharged under gravity is liable to segregate and bridge.
Coal coated with wet fines adheres to surfaces, blocking equipment.
Dry, dusty coal gives combustion and emission problems.
In 1987, in a collaborative venture with a bulk-handling equipment manufacturer British
Coal built and tested a 1.8 m diameter dish-and-cone bin activator, lined with stainless steel to
prevent adhesion. The objective of this exercise was to attempt to establish specific dimensions
and vibrational techniques for coals which were known to cause blockages at hopper and silo
outlets. The project was aborted when it became apparent that brute force and size could not
guarantee coal discharge, and that a better understanding of the vibration of bulk materials was
required. The vibrated (static) hopper handleability test referred to above, produced coal flow
unrelated to theory and coal could blind even powerful discharge aids with large openings.
1.2 Presentation and Bibliography
Chronologically most of the work has been detailed in the four six-monthly Progress Reports. In
this Final Report, the presentation divides the work into two parts describing the ideas uncovered
and the designs engineered.
The search for a scientific basis for the work has produced a large bibliography which is
duly referenced. It is too large to be sensibly acknowledged in the present text, however, the titles
listed provide an indication of the complexity of bulk solids flow and of vibrational energy2
transmission between particles.

2. THEORETICAL AND LABORATORY STUDIES

2.1 Bulk-Material Recovery from Store
2.1.1 Discharoa devices
Industrial coal is stored and recovered in many different ways. The geometry of store
structure will effect both in-store bulk flow and the quality of the stored coal. Industrial
architects are fully aware of 'hip-stress' and 'first in/last out' operation. However the
distinction between continuous and batch process operation is not generally appreciated,
and material recovery system installations of the bin activator type are normally sized to
match store capacity rather than process demand.
The literature survey of commercially available bin discharge systems and outlet
fittings suggested the classification based on outlet flow control mechanisms shown in
Figure 1a and 1b.
Of the six systems identified, few were able to extract coal at the low flow rates
required for industrial coal-firing, and at the same time sustain continuous mass-flow in the
store or silo. It was concluded that this was the reason why industrial coal handing is
usually a batch-process, even though this tends to lead to degradation, segregation,
blockages and spillage. These disadvantages arise because apparently no alternative
system is available.
Ploughs and augers appear to give a continuous discharge, but they cause
degradation, and if they are small enough to give a suitable extraction rate, then because
of their relatively small inlets, they are unable to maintain mass-flow in the silo.
Trade literature has claimed that bin activators are exempt from the above stricture,
and that they can control outflow and maintain continuous mass-flow in properly designed
silos. Although this may apply to some bulk materials, in general and particularly with
activators fitted under coal silos and hoppers, their operation is not continuous but
intermittent. This is because they are unable to modulate outflow to match boiler demand,
and in any case the minium reliable continuous flowrates obtainable from such devices are
far in excess of that required for industrial boilerplant.
This project offered the opportunity to develop an understanding of the mechanism
whereby activators could be operated continuously to give a trickle discharge of less than
two tonne/hour: the maximum continuous coal firing rate for the majority of industrial
applications.
2.1.2 Bin-activators and mass-flux
Bin activators aim to render the bulk coal extruding or flushing out of a mass-flow storage
bin into a free flowing material amenable to fine control. In this case the free flowing
material would be any particulate solid whose bulk deforms readily under a gravitational
pressure gradient.
In principle, the activator suspended beneath the store outlet on anti-vibration
mountings operates by transmitting vibrational energy into the coal to induce mass-flow,
using the agitation of shaped inserts inside the activator to provide the desired outflow.
In practice, time-out controls are necessary, and if not set up correctly, the activator floods
with coal and instead of rendering the coal mobile, causes it to consolidate.
This consolidation was perceived to be due to lack of mass-flux control. Mass flux
velocity is the mass flow per unit cross sectional area (kg/h/m2), and is the theoretical
measure of flow: volume and/or mass flow, are practical definitions in which medium
(volume or mass) continuity is presumed. Attention focused on the operation of CRE's
mass flow silo (Figure 2) in order to illustrate the problem.
In the body of the silo, a flux of say 50 kg/h/m3 is almost imperceptible, but with
nevertheless a fully developed hydraulic pressure field gradient. The hopper converges flow
towards the outlet, accelerating the mass-flux velocity by a factor of 200. The bin
activator is then given the task of increasing the flux velocity 15 fold, and the dense-phase
transfer conveyor then pulses it up to an average flux velocity 4 times higher still.
Sandwiched between the flux constraints of the hopper outlet and the transfer conveyor,
the activator is reduced to act as an on-off valve, and may cause compaction if flood filled.
Because washed singles ( + 15 mm/-25 mm) graded coal, tends not to consolidate,
the on-off operation of the activator causes it to degrade. However, discharging washed
singles coal is not generally regarded as a problem. It is the deterioration of this top quality
graded fuel which creates subsequent combustion difficulties, and this is not usually
attributed to storage but to handling in general.
2.1.3 Silo operation and hopper functions
Mass-flow bunker design theory based on shear-cell data does not take account of the on-
off operation described above. When flow in a silo barrel is arrested, there is a change over
between two possible states of the hydraulic pressure field, from radial to axial. When flow
is restored, the reverse change (ie axial to radial) can be dramatic. The transition to
incipient flow in the barrel has to pass through a transient state called Jenike's switch. A
conical region of re-orientating pressure gradients (flow precursors) rises up the hopper to
establish a flow stream extending from the top of the stored material down to the off-take.
Below the switch, material is flowing, possibly fast enough to produce cavitation. Above
the switch, the material is stationary. Within the switch, where material may or may not
be flowing, the axial pressure field is being distorted, possibly degrading coal.
However, if a bin activator shuts off flow before it becomes established, Jenike's
switch may become set within the bulk mass. If the material is at all cohesive, then the
repeated on-off action of the activator will produce regions of consolidated material which
are possibly prejudicial to mass flow, and likely to promote segregation and tortuous rat-
holing instead.
The mass-flow bunker design theory pre-supposes that in the first instance the
conveying hopper will control the rise and divergence of Jenike's switch. This allows mass
flow to become established without excessive transient hip pressures. Only thereafter does
the function of the hopper aim to converge flow and control consolidation to prevent
bridging. On-off activator operation is liable to prevent the hopper from controlling
consolidation in this way.
2.1.4 Efflux, and inserts
Bulk handling theory has traditionally regarded particulate material as a continuum with
fluid-like properties. For a given fluid, the container discharge rate or efflux is determined
by gravity, hydrostatic head and outlet size. Unless these can be varied, the efflux will
remain constant, and where this is greater than required will lead to batch-process
operation.
The only other factor that can alter efflux is a change of fluid properties, eg density
or cohesiveness. This is therefore the change that bin-activators have to achieve in a bulk
material whose particulate nature is defined by the interaction of particle and aperture
diameters. In addition, activators have to control any such change in properties.
In a hopper, the minimum discharge aperture is defined by the span of the arches
or bridges that the material can support. Arch formation is described by bunker design
theory with many factors involved. In principle however, if the converging flow is designed
not to consolidate, and the material is non-cohesive, arch formation cannot be sustained.
In this case, the critical span and minimum discharge aperture can be very small: in theory
as small as a single particle.
Graded washed singles coal resists consolidation and individual particles are too
large for surface moisture to render it cohesive. Hence it can flow through openings whose
hydraulic diameter (ratio of area to perimeter multiplied by four) is only 200 mm: say 8
particle diameters. Therefore no bin activator should be needed. However, the presence
of a relatively small quantity of debris fines, especially if wet could arrest flow. It is the
interstitial fines which make bulk coal cohesive and responsive to consolidating stress.
Bunker design theory and shear-cell measurements of coal powder strength give the worst
possible case estimates of collapsible bridge spans, and hence maximum aperture
diameters. That is because granularity is not considered: a bunker designed to handle coal
powder should be able to handle coarser grades.
Shear-cell data for some coals suggests that hopper outlet diameters up to 1.5 m
are required, but in practice for most industrial coals 1 m diameter outlets ensure outflow.
Proprietary activators fitted under coal hoppers attempt to control outflow by further
reducing the outlet diameter, maintaining flow by the application of vibration. The use of
 a vibrating cone can provide converging flow, but this is achieved through consolidation
which can cause degradation.

2.1.5 Bulk material fluid states and activator desion principles

The bulk states of stored or flowing material were considered as the following:
a) The incipient state, in which bulk coal flow is constrained in a duct by friction and
gravity.
b) The consolidating state, induced by flow convergence and/or vibration leading to
rapid flow cessation.
c) The dilating state, induced by flow divergence constrained by friction and gravity.
d) The single-phase fluidisation state induced by the vertical vibration of a bed of coal.
e) Free-fall and/or disperse phase, in which flow is accelerated by gravity.
The consideration of bulk coal as a fluid suggests that the flow from a 1 m diameter hoper
outlet should not be converged any further without first changing the fluid properties of the
coal. Furthermore, if the mass flux at the outlet is kept constant, no further control of the
outflow can be exercised. Thus the steps in the design of a coal bin-activator were
considered to be as follows:
The first .step was to transform coal from the incipient state (a) in the silo to the
dilating state (c) at the inlet to the activator, by-passing the consolidated state (b). (Hopper
convergence of flow had to be stopped at the 1 m diameter cross section, and the duct
then slightly opened-up to produce dilation).
The second step was to divert the expanding flow horizontally onto vibrating plates
and 'fluidise' the coal.
The fluidised coal could then be spilled into a chute and its flow rapidly converged
whilst the coal was in the disperse phase (e).
Control of continuous trickle discharge was to be obtained by controlling
'fluidisation':

A conceptual diagram of a prototype bin-activator based on the above reasoning

is shown in Figure 3.
It was by no means clear that 'single phase fluidisation' was possible to achieve.
Current Vibrated Fluidised Bed technology (literature survey) is uncertain whether vibration
alone could induce fluidisation. However, laboratory tests on a vibrating table had
suggested that thin beds of vibrated aggregate could be fluidised.
2.2 Measurement of Vibration in Bulk-materials
2.2.1 Vibrating table ria
The vibrating table rig is shown in Figures 4 and 5. The detailed engineering,
instrumentation, accelerometry, data logging and signal processing are described in
Progress Report No 2.
The bibliography revealed that earlier investigations, in which containers of bulk
material were vibrated, appeared to compact rather than to fluidise the material. The
vibrating table rig however, was designed to vibrate the contents directly, by placing them
on the table inside a free standing compaction tube.
The initial objective of the programme was to measure transmission velocities and
the attenuation of applied vibrations through beds of coal varying in depth and quality. It
was also intended to investigate the effect of vibrations on discharge through an aperture
in the centre of the table, and the passage of Jenike's switch through the material.
The experimental investigation of vibrations transmitted through bulk coal was
unable to produce concrete results.
At + 1G (acceleration > gravity) the vibrating table could quite clearly 'fluidise' the
bed resting on it, or at the other extreme, treat the bed as if it were a single bouncing
'particle'. A bed of coal could be substantially altered during the course of even a brief test
be degradation and segregation.
2.2.2 Laboratory investigations
As designed, the seal between the table and compaction tube was made of a rubber ring.
This was not effective however, becoming distorted and allowing fine coal dust to pour
through onto the floor. A labyrinth seal, as shown in Figure 6 was devised. This acted as
a non-return valve, pumping air into the compaction tube, lifting coal dust off the bed and
ejecting it into the room. Thereafter tests were carried out using aggregate. The
compaction tube was sealed with a perspex lid, vented past a micromanometer and through
a rotameter, to monitor this 'fluidisation air'

The possibility of using a vibrating plate as an air pump and an air distributor at the
same time suggested applications in the field of aero-vibrofluidised bed dryer technology.
A patent in respect of a self venting air distributor, Figure 7, was submitted but not
pursued.
Figure 6 shows the disposition of accelerometers and a 50 mm aperture wire
support mesh, suspended from anchor wires but otherwise free to 'float' in the bed. A tri-
axial accelerometer with one vertical and one horizontal sensor connected to the data-
logger was attached to the centre of the mesh. A dummy particle suspended in the bed
consisted of three micro-accelerometers glued together with epoxy resin to give a very light
tri-axial unit.
Figure 8 shows the degradation of a 65 kg bed of aggregate following 15 minutes
of test work. Examination of the bottom layer showed evidence of degradation and
segregation with fines accumulating in the centre of the table. Figures 9a and 9b show the
acceleration measured inside the bed. The accelerometry signals were reconstituted from
digitalised data: the signal cropping shows that the scaling factors used were suspect and
is the reason why no magnitudes are given. At 'low' frequency the sinusoidal table
movement (CH1) was interrupted by the 'bounce' of the whole bed, and the spikes
registered by the dummy particle (CH2-4) reflect this bouncing. The investigation was not
underrated, but without being able to quantify the data and carry out frequency analysis
 due to data cropping, the experimental work had to be shelved. However, the theoretical
work to describe vibration induced fluidisation by mathematical modelling was continued
alongside the commitments to plant engineering development which were by then
formulated.
2.3 Vibration Induced Fluidisation
2.3.1 The internal kinetic enerov of particulates
Bulk-materials are neither fluid nor solid systems, but for convenience, they are often
regarded as such.
The classic model of a fluid with an infinite number of interacting particles in the
system is the kinetic (gas) theory and from it can be derived model systems3 of liquid and
solid. However, such models2 cannot be derived for bulk-materials because there is no
explicit energy partitioning principle (Maxwell's Law) which can be applied to a large but
finite number of particles. Therefore each particle interaction, or force within the system
has to be individually determined. This requires very large computer power, and is being
carried out elsewhere4 and although well advanced, the model does not in principle describe
fluidisation.
2.3.2 Definitions
Usino the kinetic theory of matter to describe bulk-materials
According to the kinetic theory of matter, a consignment of bulk material whose particles
are constrained not to move with respect to their common centre of mass is considered to
be in a 'solid state' and its internal energy is zero. It can be moved but not deformed, ie
cannot be made to flow, without some particle degradation taking place.
In order to allow the consignment of material to flow, the constraining forces,
primarily container wall pressure and gravity, are applied and relaxed to bring about flow.
Within flowing bulk material, particles move with respect to the centre of mass and the
system acquires and dissipates internal energy. This is liable to cause degradation. Usually
at the same time, the centre of mass itself also moves, thereby acquiring system energy.
In the incipient flow state the internal and the system energies of the bulk material are both
very small, although their ratio is finite.
In idealised, instantaneously initiated free-fall, the bulk material system energy will
increase due to gravity but unless the mass flux is converging or diverging the internal
energy is zero, and falling bulk-material is not necessarily exhibiting fluid flow.
To induce, increase, and then maintain the internal energy of a bulk material, work
has to be done on the system at a rate faster than the internal energy is dissipated. The
material then will have fluid-like properties and is said to be fluidised. As the applied power
is external to the system, it has to be expended, at least in part, in changing the system
energy. If the ratio of internal energy to total applied energy is appreciable and constant,
then the bulk material is in a 'fluidised state' and the greater the ratio, the more efficiently
fluidised is the material ie the degree of fluidisation cannot exceed 100%. The above
definition suggests that a sinuousoidally vibrating table cannot produce 100% fluidisation,
because some of the applied energy has to be dissipated in throwing the bed up and down.
Conceivably, a 'chaotically' vibrating table could keep the system energy low and so give
a high degree of fluidisation.
2.3.3 Model of particles vibrated in a stack
The idealised system considered is a stack of (N) randomly sized particles of mass (M) in
which the point of contact line constrains them to move in a vertical column without slip
or rotation. The stack of particles is 'mounted' on a vibrating table, and under the
influence of acceleration greater than IG, the stack may subdivide into smaller stacks, thus
inducing fluidisation into the system.
In the model the sinusoidally vibrating table is treated as a very massive particle.
The model looks at the position and velocity of the particles at a time (T) and calculates
their position a time dT later. Then the model looks at each particle in turn, assesses
whether it will collide with the particle below or whether it will remain in free-fall, and
recalculates the new particle positions and velocities. The model then calculates and plots
the instantaneous position and velocity of the stack centre of mass (Xo), the system energy
(SE), the internal energy (IE), the potential energy (Ep). The total energy (Et) - SE + IE
-i- Ep. Also estimated are the time averages of these parameters over the 'test run' period
(To). Whilst the test-run periods may appear short, eg one second, the real time
computation of the model in many instances took over one hour.
By way of example, two test-run plots given by the model are shown in Figures 10a
and 10b. The displays show the energy characteristics plotted during the last 470
milliseconds of the run, and show the particle start and end positions. The ordinate scales
are directly related to 'mm' in the case of the table and centre of mass positions, and to
'mW.s' in the case of energy states.
Table 1 shows the stack fluidisation and degree of fluidisation to be independent
of, but varying with:-
- N, the number of particles in the stack (denoting bed depth),
- e, the particle elasticity or coefficient of restitution,
-A, the vibrating table amplitude
-G, the vibrating table maximum acceleration (power).
The more powerful the table, and the greater its amplitude, the greater is the
fluidisation induced, but it does depend on the number of particles in the stack. As N is
increased, the efficiency of fluidisation is reduced and there may be little benefit in making
G and A large if N is large.
The model also suggests that the degree of fluidisation depends very much on
particle size distribution. In the limit, if the particles are all of equal mass, then the model
stack will not fluidise. This conclusion is a necessary consequence of using a one
dimensional model.
2.3.4 Newton's rule and brittle collisions
The limitations of the model is that it is one-dimensional, and therefore does not
consider angular motion or oblique impacts involving friction and adhesion. It also does not
consider particle shape. However, within these limitations the stack is able to model the
energy partitioning describing fluidisation. Further work was undertaken to derive sub-
models of compaction and comminution. With brittle materials such as coal, it is these
mechanisms which are largely responsible for the dissipation of energy on collision, and not
the 'elastic compaction' and restitution relied on in the fluidisation model.
Elastic binary-collision theory avoids the need to model the physics of a collision (eg
Hertz's model) by relying on Newton's Law of conservation of momentum, and on
Newton's Rule. Historically, Newton's Rule has been interpreted by Poisson's Hypothesis
of a mechanistic model in which the constant was shown to be the restitution coefficient
(e), defined as the ratio of impulsive pressures:
(Pressure during restitution)/(Pressure during elastic compaction) = e
Elastic binary collusion theory is a special case of the general proposition that in a
collision the ratio of internal energies after and before the collision are constant and equal
toe 2 .
The interpretation of the constant (e2) is not a simple material property, but has to
depend on collision kinetics and the physical attribution of inertia or mass.
To describe brittle collision, below and in Appendix A2, two hypothesis are
introduced, namely:
Dust produced during an inelastic compaction of particle surfaces has no inertia
recognisable within the system.
If particles split they do so are right angles to the approach velocity so that the
system velocity component in that direction does not change.
A search of the Royal Institute's database of papers published during the last 20
years revealed 17 publications which considered kinetic energy and the coefficient of
restitution: there were none dealing additionally with 'brittle' collisions, (see Bibliography).
To re-formulate the algorithm of a particle stack, the development of two sub-
models, one of 'surface compaction' and the other of 'comminution' was pursued. These
models consider the kinetic energy changes which occur when particles of a brittle material
collide. Their mathematical derivation and arguments are presented in Appendix A2.
The first model postulates that isothermal, friable-surface compaction is largely
responsible for the loss of internal kinetic energy. The fraction of energy so lost is
represented by a constant named coefficient of surface attrition. The model is summarised
by a formula relating:
the coefficient of surface attrition 'a'
the apparent coefficient of restitution 'q'
the coefficient of elastic restitution 'e'
The relationship, a mathematical law, is:
q2 -e 2 (1-a 2 )...(1)
If no energy is lost in compaction and attrition, (a = 0) then the apparent
 10

coefficient of restitution is that given by Poisson's Hypothesis.

The second model postulates a lateral splitting of particles in which the system
velocity does not change. It is suggested that in isothermal comminution the energy
dissipated is largely the system kinetic energy and the fraction lost is simply a function of
system mass 'M' and comminuted particle mass 'm'. Namely:
Fraction lost (C) - (M-m)/M (2)
In the case of two-particle systems, the concepts of 'C' and lateral splitting
appeared unnecessary. However, they are needed to argue the case that in a collision the
strength of a particle is represented by a material property constant (Y), which can be
related to particle mass 'm', and particle deceleration 'f'. The condition for determining
whether or not a particle splits laterally was derived as:
Y < m"3, f (3)
The above brittle collision models are not only required to describe a vibrated
particle-stack, but can also be used to demonstrate a practical understanding of particle
survival.
2.3.5 System and particle survival
The significance of equations (1), (2) and (3), describing coal particle survival in practical
systems is treated in reverse order.
Equation (3) shows that if particles do not vary much in size, their survival depends
on their deceleration. If, for example, particle strength is described by an independent
statistical distribution, then survival of a 27g coal particle as opposed to an 8 g particle (in
the range of graded singles coal) is only favoured by a factor of 3:2. However, halving the
deceleration on impact doubles the chances of survival. Moreover deceleration is reduced
by surface attrition and so particles with more friable surfaces may relatively be the most
difficult to split.
In a brittle collision the deceleration of similarly sized particles is the same, and if
one particle shatters then the other involved in the collision is also likely to do so.
This may explain why closely graded singles coal particles falling onto each other
in deep silos can comminute into smalls more rapidly than might be expected.
Equation (2) and the lateral comminution model state that:-
Survival depends on System Energy and not only on the Internal Energy. If the
fraction of particles lost (C) is constant in time, then the system mass (of whole
particles) reduces logarithmically.
The larger the system mass relative to comminuted mass, the larger and more
stable is the value of C.
The brittle collision model responsible for equation (1) does not presume particle
comminution, but it does indicate how much collision energy may be dissipated in order to
prevent particles from breaking.
Coal has a Young's Modulus of 5.10'/ N/m2 and comparison with steel (2.10"
N/m2), and 10* N/m2 for rubber, suggests that a .high coefficient of restitution is to be
 11

expected: it will lie between 0.95 for steel, and 0.7 for rubber.
If it is assumed that with hard but brittle coal particles, the elastic coefficient of
restitution is high, say e 0.9, whilst the observed, apparent coefficient of restitution (q)
is only 0.3, then equation (1) suggests that the coefficient of surface attrition (a) is 0.8.
The proportion of the internal kinetic energy of coal particles (a2) is 64%, which is
dissipated in producing compaction and dust. Typical coal dust of 100 micron particle
diameter has a large surface area, say 10 m2/g, which is probably directly related to the
work-done producing it.
2.4 Unification of the Fluid and Aoolomerate Views of Bulk Matter usino Contact
Mechanics Interaction Laws
This project has strived to understand how 'solid' bulk-material may be rendered 'fluid' in
order to allow continuous trickle discharge of coal-silos. An alternative view of bulk-
materials is that of an agglomerate. Until recently this was considered too complicated to
be unified with the kinetic theory of matter because it requires the algorithm of particle
interactions in a system to model (all) the dynamic forces involved in collision(s), and not
merely apply an energy partitioning hypothesis.
Previous work by others has described 'Contact Mechanics Interaction Laws' with
which an algorithm could be constructed to define 'agglomerates' and describe their
behaviour. In principle, this algorithm can model dilation and fluidisation, as well as the
partitioning of internal and system energies. The 'incipient flow state' defined above
(2.3.2) is a 'dilating agglomerate' and if such deformation and convergence can be
organised at the individual particle level, then a continuous trickle discharge out of a 1 m
diameter coal silo outlet may be effected without fluidisation. However, this work was not
recognised at the time that the practical design of the prototype bin activator described
below was initiated. The design was instead based on the kinetic theory previously
discussed.
3. PLANT AND ENGINEERING DEVELOPMENT: PART 2
3.1 Coal-Silo Operation
3.1.1 Rat-holing in silo designed to give mass-flow
The test boiler house facility at CRE is served by a concrete stave flat bottom silo, and a
160 tonne capacity steel cone bottom silo which is shown in Figure 11.
Early experience of operating the 160 tonne steel silo showed that as installed with
a commercially supplied vibrating outlet cone, the system could not handle smalls grade
coals: even washed singles coal could block at the 200mm outlet of the cone. In order to
improve flow, a small inverted cone insert (chinaman's hat) was fitted inside the vibrating
cone and this ensured that the silo operated reliably on singles: handling of smalls was
assigned to the concrete stave silo fitted with a planetary screw discharger.
In order to quantify the blockage propensity of the steel silo, about 100 tonnes of
washed smalls coal was loaded into it and left to consolidate for several months. Contrary
to expectation, the coal discharged without difficulty, although by then it had become quite
 12

dry.
A further 40 tonnes of untreated smalls coal, normally destined for a power station,
was then loaded into the silo. This coal contained about 17% ash, some of which was
present in the form of adventitious shale, as well as 25% of -1mm fines and 7% of free
moisture (13% total). The coal did not appear intractable: it had been used in previous
studies and found 'difficult' but in theory could be handled in the mass-flow silo.
Thereafter about 7 tonnes was transferred without problem from the silo to the
boiler test house, and burned on a chain grate stoker firing a 5 MW boiler. A further 8
tonnes was then withdrawn into a lorry, again without any difficulty.
The 6 m diameter silo, whose cone is much taller than the barrel (Figure 2)
incorporates an inspection platform and door 1 m above the hip (10 m above ground).
Viewed from this doorway the coal in the silo was piled high against one wall but was
relatively shallow above the outlet. When called for by outlet conveyor, the coal slipped
down the wall to gently pile up above the outlet. The uneven level of coal in the silo was
attributed to the pneumatic fill pipe. The apparently good flow characteristics of the coal
were attributed to a lack of consolidation, and to increase this, more coal was ordered.
The silo was charged with a further 50 tonnes of the power station smalls. After
taking out less than 10 tonnes the outflow of coal from the silo stopped. Inspection
revealed the rat-hole shown in Figure 12a. After flow was restarted (using air lances), the
rat-hole opened up into a 'funnel', only to collapse into another rathole as shown in Figure
12b. Eventually (Figure 12c onwards) funnel flow was dominated by the rat-hole(s) which
had to be continuously re-activated with air-lances.
3.1.2 Causes of rat-holino
Silos, depending on design, operate in one of two regimes:
mass flow, which organises storage to be 'first-in, first-out'
funnel flow, which gives 'last-in, first-out' storage
The steel silo itself was designed to ensure mass flow; the cone walls are inclined
at 70% from the horizontal and are fully lined with low-friction ultra high molecular weight
polyethylene, and the cone opening is 1 m diameter. The proprietary vibrating discharge
cone is lined with Polyurethane. The Jenike flow-factor of the power station coal was, at
4.5, relatively low compared with a value of 8.0 for the industrial washed singles coal, and
the silo itself probably would not have produced funnel-flow. However, because of
consolidation caused by the vibration of the discharge cone, the silo outlet blinded with
coal, effectively reducing its diameter to a value which eventually was less than that of the
discharge cone outlet. An alternative explanation is that excess moisture drained to the
bottom of the silo cone and water-logged the coal into an annular-ring bridge formation.
(A sample of coal taken from the side of the activator during one of the rat-hole re-
activation exercises contained 15% moisture: 2% above average).
To complete the investigation, the dense phase conveyor vessel was removed,
Figure 13d,the discharge cone lowered to the ground, and loose coal swept out. The
 13

photograph, Figure 13b suggests that the first explanation offered was the most likely.
Figure 13c shows the conical insert.
3.2 Sarath Bin-Activator
3.2.1 Description
The prototype bin-activator (SARATH) is shown in Figures 14a, b, c. The engineering
design is shown in Figures 15a.
The SARATH consists of two ladder like frames fitted to slide freely inside a fixed
supporting frame, sandwiched between two diverging chutes. The head of the support
frame carries two cross-beams tied to one or the other of the ladder frames. A third cross-
beam carries two out-of-balance motors which are synchronised to give linear vibration in
the plane of the frames. Springs are fitted between the cross-beams, and onto the ladder
frame stringers at the other end, to cushion and transmit vibrations between the three
oscillating masses. Narrow overlapping trays are alternately attached to the rungs on each
ladder. These trays are sufficiently close together to prevent coal outflow from the chute.
When vibrated, the trays act as vibrating table feeders, dropping coal into the back end box
or chute. The bulk of the coal is insulated from the vibrations, and adhesion of coal
impacting on metal surfaces is prevented by lining them with ultra high molecular weight
polyethylene. Motor speeds can be adjusted and are controlled by a proprietary frequency
inverter.
3.2.2 Pesian and mathematical model
The decision to use two separate vibrating frames driven by a common mass was an
attempt to avoid sinusoidal vibrations. The motion was complex, and to decide on the
weights, spring stiffness, and motor sizing, a mathematical model of the SARATH was
written. The computer programme is given in Appendix B.
Reduced to mathematical fundamentals, the SARATH may be compared to the
schematic and differential equations given in Figure 16a. The computer programme itself
makes provision for friction or damping elements to be included.
The model was run to calculate the spring stiffness required to balance the
oscillating masses. It was hoped to define the region in which the frames would vibrate
out of phase, with about equal amplitude, and be responsive to changes in the driving
frequency of the motors. Figure 16b shows how changing the driving frequency from 12
to 15 Hz affects the displacement/time characteristics of the frames for a given
configuration of the springs and masses.
3.2.3 Ancillary equipment
Aside of the SARATH, two other original designs were devised:
A Wide Aperture Rod Gate Valve
A Gravity Assisted Pick-Up Screw Lean-Phase Conveyor
The designs are given in Figures 15b and 15c.
A patent application in respect of the valve was submitted but not pursued on
commercial grounds. The novel feature of the design are the finned rods which are thin
 14

and rigid, and allow total isolation. The box construction of the rod guides forms a round-
to-square dilating aperture transition piece, which is very short.
The gravity assisted pick-up design had been used successfully before in connection
with coal reception system developments, but not with an elevated screw. The original
feature of the design is that it reduces the pressure loss associated with entraining coal into
the conveying airstream. The lean phase conveyor itself was assembled from Ultra High
Molecular Weight Polyethylene and short Polyurethane bends and couplings. Lean phase
conveyors are normally constructed using steel pipe and long radius bends, and are not
recommended for use with ungraded coal.
3.2.4 Commissionino and operation
Delays in manufacture reduced development to a single commissioning trial with 80 tonnes
of washed singles coal.
Throughout the trial difficulty was experienced in controlling vibration. The design
required the 4-pole motors and frequency inverter to vibrate the frames in the range 10 to
24 Hz, and this vibrational frequency was to be displayed on the panel, together with the
motor current. Superficially, the expected frequencies were measured, although they
appeared inadequate, and overloading the motors produced unwanted resonances.
Following the trial, it was found that the panel display was inappropriate to 4-pole motors,
and therefore the measured frequencies were inaccurate. The electric motors could be
rotated in the range 8.8 Hz at 0.7 A to 11.7 Hz at 2.2 A. Overloading the motors to 4.6
A caused the meter to register 38 Hz, whereas the actual speed (measured using a
tachometer) was only 12 Hz. Also the ability of the controller to maintain synchronisation
was not as good as was hoped, and the set motor speeds could vary by up to 4%.
Significant sideways shaking of the frames was attributed to this variation.
Control of the activator was carried out normally. In order to increase the outflow
the frequency was increased. If the frequency was increased too much, then significant
lateral vibrations were set up, and the coal would then cascade through the outlet faster
than the 2 tonnes/h rating of the outlet conveyor.
The requirement to use frequencies higher than 12 Hz was necessary because the
rake of the vibrating tables was set too high at 2 from the horizontal. This angle had
initially been selected in order to prevent the singles grade coal from flushing through.
Unfortunately the 80 tonne consignment of singles coal was badly degraded, with more
than 30% of coal broken to < 6.7 mm. The coal therefore behaved more like smalls, for
which a negative rake would be required.
The target rate of 2 tonnes/h for continuous discharge could not be maintained
because of the lack of vibrator control. The silo was emptied at an average rate of about
1 tonne/h, and although this was not continuous, it did produce mass-flow in the silo.
3.2.5 Silo-discharoe performance

The discharged coal was very broken and dusty. This was initially attributed to the coal
having been dropped into an empty silo. When after removing about 5 tonnes the coal
 15

quality did not improve it was thought that the vibrating frames may have been causing
damage. In order to investigate this possibility, the back end chute was removed, and the
coal was observed passing onto the frames. This coal was also very badly broken,
confirming that the frames were not causing any significant degradation. The exercise was
repeated after more than half the coal had been withdrawn. The size analysis of a sample
taken before the coal passed onto the frames is given in Figure 17.
The contents of the silo were inspected and photographed from above (Figures 18a to d).
The segregated fines seen in the centre again confirm that the coal was badly
broken before it reached the silo. The discharge of the first 45 tonnes took place relatively
continuously and flow in the silo appeared as a normal 'stream-line' flow between non-
wetting walls. The centre region moved about 50% faster than the perimeter. The
'streamlines' were vertical and dominated by gravity, so that no convergence was observed
until they contacted the silo cone wall. The second fastest moving region was the
perimeter, the slowest was an annular ring which is just discernible in Figure 18c. This
flow pattern was confirmed by the use of paper markers which can be seen in Figure 18d.
The trial demonstrated that the principle behind the prototype was correct. Slow
divergence of mass flux from the silo discharge outlet constriction could produce a slow
sustainable mass-flow in the silo, which was undisturbed by downstream activity.
4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
1. The view that the established concept of powder strength can adequately describe the
behaviour of bulk solids in store and in handling equipment has been explored. It was
found to be unsatisfactory when considering the consolidation of a cohesive material such
as coal flowing out of a silo at rates less than those dictated by gravity and silo outlet
diameter.
2. The concept of single phase fluidisation has been introduced to complement that of powder
strength. Five different fluid states of bulk material were considered pertinent to the design
of discharge equipment. These were: incipient, converging or consolidating, dilating,
fluidised, and disperse phase or free-fall. Current bunker design theory takes only the first
two into account and is the reason for intermittent operation of most coal silos.
3. A computer model of single phase fluidisation has been devised by representing bulk
material as a one-dimensional stack of elastic particles supported on a vibrating table. The
model estimates the degree of fluidisation by calculating the internal energy induced into,
and dissipated within a stack. Thus it is possible to relate fluidisation to the vibration of
the table (G-force and frequency) and the stack dimensions (number of particles, their mass
and position within the stack). Although coal is less elastic than say rubber, and is
consequently more difficult to fluidise, the efficiency of fluidisation, (dependant on the
number of particles in the stack and table amplitude) is not markedly different.
4. A vibrating table rig was built. Tests on coal and aggregate showed that much of the
internal energy induced by vibration is dissipated in surface degradation and particle
comminution rather than elastic collision. A physical model to describe these phenomena
 16

within th theoretical framework of elastic collisions and Newton's Rule was put forward.
The brittle collision model relates the internal energy dissipated in elastic restitution and
that dissipated in breakage. The model demonstrates that coal (which has a modulus of
elasticity greater than that of rubber) is difficult to fluidise. Estimates suggest that of the
internal energy dissipated in collisions, over 60% is attributable to degradation as opposed
to restitution.
5. The 160 tonne capacity steel silo of mass-flow design could not be made to operate
continuously when using a proprietary vibrating discharge cone.
6. A bin activator called the SARATH has been designed and patented to exploit the use of
fluidisation to give converging disperse flow which is compatible with the high flux
velocities of line conveyors. A single trial of the SARATH prototype demonstrated that it
could give a continuous trickle discharge from the 1 m diameter opening of a mass-flow silo,
although further development of the engineering design and the frequency-inverter control
system are necessary to bring the unit up to commercial engineering standards.
5. RECOMMENDATIONS
1. The SARATH bin-activator should be developed into a commercial unit. Such a system
would allow continuous silo operation and could confer on coal the advantages of
continuous process operation enjoyed by oil.
2. The theoretical work of describing the single-phase fluidisation of bulk solids and of brittle
particle collisions should be pursued further to converge on the agglomerate model of
matter. Such work may be expected to produce sufficient understanding of particle
movement in the outlet region to enable coal silos to be designed with smaller openings and
less steep cones.

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES

1. ECSC-CRE Reports Nos 802, 804, 813, 816 and 822

'Improvements to Coal Transport Methods and Associated Site Reception', ECSC Project
No 7220-ED/802, Final Report (May 1987).

'A Measure of Coal Handleability Applicable to Industrial Equipment', ECSC Project No

7220-ED/804 Final Report. (June 1987).

'Coal Breakage Characteristics in Various Forms of Comminution Equipment', ECSC Project

No 7220-EA/813 Final Report (1989).

'Coal Degradation in Mechanical Handling, Transfer and Conveying Equipment for Industrial
Plant', ECSC Project No 7220-EA/816 Final Report (1989).

'An Investigation into Outstanding Problems Concerning Coal Storage In and Extraction
from Silos, Including those of Gas Accumulation and Spontaneous Ignition', ECSC Project
No 7220-EA/822. Final Report (December 1989).

2. Erdesh, K, and Mujumdar, Arun S, 'Bibliography of Literature on Fundamentals and

Application of Vibration in Particle Processing', Drying Technology, Vol 5 (1987), 311-
332.
3. Ding, J, and Gidaspow, D, 'A Bubbling Fluidisation Model using Kinetic Theory of Granular
 17

Row', AlChE Jor, Vol 36 No 4 (April 1990).

4. Thornton, C, 'Application of Discrete Element Methods (DEM) to process engineering

problems', 1st US Conference on DEM, Golden, Colorado (September 1989).

5. Jenike, A W & Johanson, R J, Bin Loads, Journal of the Structural Division - Proceedings
of the American Society of Civil Engineers, April 1968.

6. Johanson, J R, The Placement of Inserts to Correct Flow in Bins, Powder Technology 1

(1967/68).

7. BHRA, Proceedings of Pneumotransport 3, 1976.

8. Bates, L, Entrainment Patterns of Screw Hopper Dischargers, Bulk, July/August 1975.

9. Gutman, R G, Vibrated Beds of Powders Parti : A Theoretical Model for the Vibrated Bed,
Trans Instn Chem Engrs, Vol 54, 1976.

10. AEG-Telefunken, Basic Principles of Vibratory Conveying Technology, Applied Vibrations

Limited, Tamworth, England.

11. Gupta, R and Mujumdar, A S, Aerodynamics of a Vibrated Fluid Bed, The Canadian Journal
of Chemical Engineering, Vol 58, June 1980.

12. Walsh, E K, The Behaviour of One-Dimensional Acceleration Waves in an Inhomogeneous

Granular Solid, Int J Eng Sci, Vol 16, 1978.

13. Scarlett, B & Eastham, L E, Stresses in Granular Material due to Applied Vibrations, I Chem
E, Symposium Series No 29, 1968.

14. Suzuki, A, Takahashi, H & Tanaka T, Behaviour of a Particle Bed in the Field of Vibration
II. Flow of Particles through Slits in the Bottom of a Vibrating Vessel, Powder Technology,
2(1968/69).

15. Suzuki, A & Tanaka, T, Behaviour of a Particle Bed in the Field of Vibration IV. Flow of
cohesive solids from Vibrating Hopper, Powder Technology, 6 (1972).

16. Gray, W A & Rhodes G T, Energy Transfer during Vibratory Compaction of Powders,
Powder Technology, 6 (1972).

17. Roberts, A W , The Effects of Vibration on the Strength and Flow Properties of Bulk Solids
in Storage Bin Operation, Proc of the Intern Con on the Design of Silos for Strength and
Flow, Univ of Lancaster, September 1980.

18. Matchet, A J, Taylor P D & Peace J, Adhesion in Materials Handling Equipment,

Department of Chemical Engineering, Teeside Polytechnic.

19. Savage, S B, 'Streaming Motions in a Bed of Vibrational Fluidised Dry Granular Material',
J Fluid Mech, 194, 457 (1988).

20. Ryzkhov, A F and Baskakov, A P, 'Derivation of Equation of Motion of Bulk Material in

Vibrated Equipment' (in Russian), Inzh Fiz Zhurn No 1 v 27 (1974) pp 15-22.

21. Tservonenko, A G and Borokhovits, D E, 'Experimental Studies on the Dynamics of Bulk on

a Vibrated Plane' (in Russian) Mashinovendeniye No 4 (1978) pp 23-29.

22. Erdesh, K and Bartha, F 'Experimental Studies on Thermal Treatment of Milled Products in
Aero-Fluidised Bed Dryer with Draft Tube', Powder Handling and Processing Vol 2 No 1
(March 1990).
 18

23. Wes, G W J, Stemerding, S and Zuilichem, D J, 'Control of Flow of Cohesive Powders by

Means of Simultaneous Aeration and Vibration, Powder Technology, 61 (1990) 39-49.

24. Erdesh, K, and Mujumdar, A S , Numerical Investigation of a Phenomenological Model for

Vibrated Fluidised Beds', Drying Technology, 7(3), 487-502 (1989).

25. Reed, J, 'Energy Losses due to Elastic Wave Propagation During an Elastic Impact', J Phys
D: Appi Phys 18(1985) 2329-2337.

26. Stronge, W J, 'Friction in Collisions: Resolution of a Paradox', J Appi Phys Vol 69 No 2

(Jan 1991).

27. Derjaguin, B V; Muller, V M; Toporov, Yu P, 'Effect of Contact Deformations on the

Adhesion of Particles', J of Colloid and Intrface Science, Vol 53 No 2 (November 1975).

28. Johnson, K L; Kendal, K; Roberts, A D, 'Surface Energy and the contact of Elastic Solids',
Proc R Soc London A324, 301-313 (1971).

29. Brach, R M, 'Friction, Restitution and Energy Loss in Planar Collisions;, Trans ASME, J of
App Mech Vol 51/167 (March 1984).

30. Pouyet, J; Lataillade, J L, 'Dynamic Investigation of Hard Viscoelastic Materials by Ball

Bouncing Experiments', J Material Science Vol 10, No 12 2112-2116 (1975).

31. Reisner, W and v Eisenhart Rothe, M, 'Bins and Bunkers for Handling Bulk Materials', Trans
Tech Publications, Cleveland, Ohio 44116, USA, 1972 Edition.

32. Kunzig, G, 'Gas-Solid Transport', McGraw-Hill, Inc 1981.

33. Bruel and Kjaer Handbook, 'Measuring Vibration', Bruel and Kjaer, Naerum, Denmark.

34. Ramirez, R W, 'The FFT Fundamentals and Concepts', Prentice-Hall, Inc Englewood Cliffs,
N J 07632.

35. 'The DADiSP Worksheet Signal Analysis Software', DSP Development Corporation, (UK-
ADEPT Scientific Micro Systems Ltd.

36. Thompson, J M T 'Nonlinear Dynamics and Chaos', John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

37. Pain, H J, 'The Physics of Vibrations and Waves', 3rd Ed, John Wiley & Son Ltd,
Chichester.

38. Ramsey, A S , 'Dynamics' 2nd Ed (1954), Cambridge University Press.

39. Roberts, J K; Miller, A R, 'Heat and Thermodynamics', Blackie & Son Limited, London.

40. Institute for Powder Technology Anstalt, 'Device for Discharging Powdery or Granular
Material', Patent Spec 1 539 923, The Patent Office London (Feb 1979).

41. Lourdaux, J H, 'Apparatus for Shutting-Off and for Metered Discharge of all kinds of Non-
Liquid Materials from Silos and the Like', European Patent Application 0 014015, (Jan
1980).
 19

TABLE I.

IHTEJUML ElERGy faM.s K D CALCULATE ISIHS 'KEHSTttX' HMEL

C e x p r e s s e d as a p e r c e n t a g e of t o t a l k i n e t i c e n e r g y 3
E = R e s t i t u t i o n . N=Ho.of p a r t i c l e s , A = T a b l e a m p l i t u d e irmi
GrTable A c c e l e r a t i o n , D t = C l . n s > , To=Test D u r a t i o n C8.94s)

Sri. 5 G=2.7

E N A=l A=3 . A=4 A=l A=2 A=3

15 25 32 36 152

8.7 C281 (313 C391 [421 [461 [41]

11 18 13 29 27 68 97

[293 [233 [28] [321 [353 [243

11

0.4 [133 C83 [73 [313 [293 [383

11 17

r??i sizi. .22. 12ZL "51 12211

 21

QUADRANT ROTARY ROD GATE

al YALVES

'n i l i i tun I

STRAIGHT DIRECTED SWINGING

bl SPOUTS AND CHUTES

^ZTU
* J,0 PPr

BELT SCREWPAN

) APRONS

fr * P/W UHLOADERS AND DISCHARGERS CLASSIFICATION

 22

SAXALUND'PUSH FRAME ROTATING AUGER OPEN SCREW

flPlQUQHSANPAUQERS

Rtvolving/
' a r t t brisker

evolving
c;nt

AIR BLASTER ARCH BREAKER

BRIDGE BREAKERS

CONE WITH INSERT -HOGAN" VARIABLE SLOTS DISH WITH CONE

fi AC TIVATORS

USLML BIN UNLOADERS AND DISCHARGERS CLASSIFICATION

 23

160 TONNE MASS-FLOW C OAL SILO

6m OIAMETER
FLUX VELOCITY - 53Kg/hm

1m DIAMETER
FLUX VELOCITY - 1Q10Kg/hm'
ANTI-VIBRATION
MOUNTINGS
r
ROO VALVE

SHUT-OFF VALVE
W VIBRATING CONE
ACTIVATOR WITH
CONICAL INSERT

0.25m DIAMETER
80Kg CAPACITY FLUX VELOCITY - 30560Kg/hm
BATCH HOPPER
INTERMITTENT
OPERATION
15.ON-15s.OFF
0.125m OIAMETER ,
. LINE CONVEYOR
FLUX VELOCITY - 122240Kg/hm*

USL2. HASS FLUX IN CRE'S MASS-FLOU COAL SILO SYSTEM

OPERATED AT A DISCHARGE RATE OF 1.5 TONNE/HR
 24

SILO HOPPER

INCIPIENT STATE
-CONVERGENCE DESIGNED
TO AVOID CONSOLIDATION-

HIDE APERTURE
ROD-GATE VALVE
o G o o a & o o i>o

DIVERGING HALLS CHUTE

VIBRATION INDUCED
FLUIDISATION

VIBRATING FRANE(S)

OUT-OF-BALANCE MOTOR(S)

CONTROLLED COAL OUTFLOH

CONVERGED TO SUIT
LINE CONVEYOR

FIO 3 FLOH REGIMES DESCRIBING THE DESIGN OF

THE -SARATH BIN-ACTIVATOR PROTOTYPE
 25

e
COMPACTION yute.
)Ef>rH OF O*M *b\

RUbtE*.ft*cSEAL

VlATiHG TABte
(30mm H.$.?LM)

AtfTWS<A70*J COM.
MOUHTIHG SPRING-
( X |f7< Kg/mm)

THl CUT OF
BALANCE VIBRATION M S E ?LAT

VA' ANW/BfATON HOUHTs

HlTH LVU<r SCKZN&

USLA 0.5 HETRE DIAMETER VIBRATING TABLE

 to
Ol

FIG 5 VIBRATING TABLE-RIG LABORATORY (s-2.2.1)

 27

A CH 7 , 8
TO ROTAMETER & PERSPEX LID
MICROMANOMETER

-AGGREGATE BED

ACCELEROMETER ON GRILL
CH 3,6 ANCHOR WIRES

V
ACCELEROMETER SUSPENDED ON WIRE
CH 2 , 3 , 4
RIVET

FLEXIBLE
SKIRT
50mm
UHMWP

PLUG
BRACKET

J
30mm
VIBRATING
COMPACTION
TUBE

i TABLE

ACCELEROMETER
C.L CH.1

FIG 6 DIAGRAM OF LABYRINTH SEAL AND ACCELEROMETER POSITIONS <s-2,2,2

 28

AlR vibratine plata AIR

(a) Slack labirinto seal (b) Vented lablrlnth seal

(c) Fidatine plats non-retum valvs (d) Bal) and caae non-return valve

FIG..1 Pump mechanism of the Self Venting Air Distributor (SVAD) plate

Reactor vessel tia 11 >VAD Plate Unbalanced llotor

(or E/M drive;

flQ 7 SELF-VENTINQ AIR DISTRIBUTOR SUPPORT-PLATE FOR

CONTROLLINO FLUIDISATIOH INDEPENDENTLY OF AERATION (s-2.2.2)
 29

a
if

5 *

I
i
il
11

:
i
i

/o tO'O

SILVE SCREEN SIZES ( mm )

Ifi-a DEGRADATION AND SEBRAGETIQN OF BRAVFi pfp

T
SUBJECTED TO VIBRATIONS " "'" (s-2.2.2)
 30

OTT CH.1 DUMMY PARTICLE lil CH.2

DUMMY PARTICLE (2) CH.3 &UHHV PARTICLE (3) CH.4

,JL_UJLJ
|Kvp-|

UIRE MESH PLATE CH.5

PERSPEX LID"

( X axis=tine; 8.543 to 9-938 seconds axis : acceleration; units unspecified

FIG 9a ACCELEROMETRY CHARACTERISTICS SHOHING THE FORCES

INDUCED IH A GRAVEL BED BY LOH FREQUEHCY VIBRAT10HS (s-2.2.2)
 31

TABLE OU DUMMV PARTICLE(l) CH.2

y^j^L^^

DUMMV PARTICLE(2 CH.3 DUMMV PARTICLEG) CH.4

**^W^)rntA4vA^-#AJL^

IRE MESH PLATE CH.5 HIRE MESH PLATE CH.6

PERSPEX LID CH.7 MICROMANOMETER CH.8

1

u II U
fl

U u
( X axis = tine; 9.543 to 9.938 seconds V axis = acceleration units unspecified )

U2-2L ACCELEROHETRY CHARACTERISTICS SHOHING THE FORCES

INDUCED IH A GRAVEL BED BY HIGH FREQUENCY VIBRATIONS (s-2.2..
 32

EFFICIEHCV=39 X
Er0.7 F=7 Ar8 Mx6=1.5 Ds=0 Dt=0.Ofll
Tt=0.93 C=10S3 fiy.Inte=25 ftv. Syse=39

Z
C E= Apparent restitution coefficient
F= Table frequency (Hz) A= Table amplitude (mm)
91 Ds (mm) and Dt(sec)= step increments
91 C=No. of collisions registered in time Tt (sec)
C
tl
e
Ui

v
A
> < I
. A V I

:_iE. \r

52
j

!
122 \

9.

V70 /

->^

r^-i-^*
START END
table and
s tack-
posit ion s

LHS stack shows particle masses in grams

RHS stack shows particles rising(*)r falling(/)f colliding(*)

flQ t<?9 SINGLE-PHASE FLU1DISAT10N MODEL PLOTS OF THE INTERNAL f IF)

AMD SYSTEM (SE) ENEMIES INDUCED IN A SIX PARTICLE STACK
(s-2.3.3)
 33

EFFICIEHCY=29 Y.
. E=8.4 F=9.2 A=8 MxG=2.7 Ds=8 Dt=8.881
Tt=8.93 =26?8 Au.Int=l7 Au. Syse=41

= Apparent restitution coefficient

3 F- Table frequency (Hz) A= Table amplitude (am)
C
Ds(mm) and Dt(sec)= step increments
M C=No. of collisions registered in time Tt (sec)

START END
table and
stack
pos i t ions

LHS stack shows particle masses in grams

RHS stack shows particles risingC), falling(/)f colliding(*)

FIG 10b
mmwMmwwmiJsin rc HMWWWM" (s-2.3.3)
 34

Dense Phase Conveyor Fill-Line

1S-LL CRE'S MASS-FLOH SILO, ACCESS PLATFDRH AT HIP LEVEL I <c-

 35

^njm "MOP*.

FIG 12a FUNNEL-FLOH IN MASS-FLOU SILO (s-3.1.1)

 36

wrnrn mmmmmmsmmmmmmmmF-

FIG 12b FUNNEL-FLOH COLLAPSING TO FORH A RATHOLE

 37

**X-X~ ,.$fc ,<

Jg 12C RATHOLE DOMINATED DISCHARGE

 38

FIG 13a VIBRATING CONE BIN-ACTIVATOR DETACHED FROM SILO OUTLl

 39

G 3b VIBRATING CONE BIN-ACTIVATOR 'BLINDED' BY IMPACTED COAL

 40

FIG 13c BIN-ACTIVATOR CHINAMAN'S HAT INSERT

 41

Reduntant flange on s i l o ,
(used as tesporary hanger
for Sod Gate Valve)

Sod Gate Valve Flang

and Rod Insert Guide

FI
G *** SARATH BIN-ACTIVATOR FREE STANDING BENEATH SILO
 42

BACK ED BOY PNJ.ET. -RACK TO SHOW Si

AND BOTTOM VIBRATING TABLES

FI
*4* SMATH AND UP CONVFYQR I NT ERF AC. T Ufi
 43

?**&&)
*?$*iSi tH$

L'i Js- 'i.

< * "

-v , .A.-" . - : - *^ ~^ -Jr v V > .

>- - "f '" i;
'v VaV.
Lbl ORIGINAL AND REPLACEMENT nRSTffflfi

Lui TOP BEAM ERAnTnpE

FIO 14 MOUNTING OF OUT OF BALANCE MOTORS

 44

(Unbalanced flotees;
(CentrifugaI t-s-c.
(Sprln ) , S (c. 25.0C0 M)
(stiffness o f 4
(o. see N/.)
(50 na anel Iren fram)
(shaded sides attach to WBS)
(nanbers of oate-valve )

(3 m thick steel sheet I re)

(ay require braolne with)
(29 m anel Iron hoop ? )

\~mtutuiiimmii^iiiiuimiiilmmiim

Plan

2.9

(50 m angl Iron frane) '

(Vibrating frates bl
(aotlvator,
(fits In between) -

(Iapee11 en )
(plat* )

(-IGem) variable)
(pitch and tapered)
' (screw) (slack and Mltnout platea)
. .."-"""''"T * "backend box side
UidTgd V\w of Fi
i*"
*' : . ' . f ' '

i e i l a ren) - : ^ 8
; p,t>
_ (Pipa aountlng bracket)
/
Side View
Utigralft YHH of Botta
BX FLOU DlrTER C HUTE MO BACK OC BOK Plat - shan In the- -
led (angled) posi t i a
coal chute side

E18-13JL DESIGN OF SARATH VIBRATING FRAMES (s-3.2.1)

 45

"TESI
I I " * ' lumr
~7
>Q O O 0.O.0 0 : Q O O O O I

Side View Pin Insert and \ ( t t l

P,ate)
(36mm t holes ) /
(36d
(on 45mm oItch) (102*51 mi RSC)
( S M dotall)
(100*108 nn HRBS of 6.3mm wall thickness)

(Removable plank Insert to stop air Ingress)

(56ntii anale Iron corner bracket)

{Centre support bridge see detal I)

(Frame tack welded to plate Inboard)

(continuous wild outboard)

(Removable block Inserts to stop air Ingress)

(50*108 m HRBS of 5mm wall thickness)

(holes In ln-board side only)
Underside View

22 PIN ROO GATE VALVE

(70mra*10rai thick HS plat

^ f * ^ p w w w f w n ^ f j f ^ w t f i ^w***^
(Notches need not be)
Isolating Rod for Isolating cohesive materials V (circular and no deeper
(than a third of rod )
(diameter )

. . - . - - - - - - . - - - . - - - - - f
- - - r - - - r . - - - i - - . a - M

Finned Rod for Isolating fine materials

Side View of Centre Bridge

Novel features are:-

1. Use of Hot Rolled Box Section beams to form :-
accurate
relatively frfctlonless
air Ingress free
rod guide and support members.
2. Centre bridge support enabl Ing Isolatlon of large
say, 2m diameter appertures.
3. Circular outlet plate with square frame underside
construction. Besides conferlng strength and rigidit<
the design al lows for rods to be loaded gradual ly
with Increasing span.
4. Use of flmed rods which following Insertion may be
tuned to provide leak proof floor. Advantageous
design for use with cohesive materials which nay
. . 4'h.Ume. ha/igejqtq free .flow Ing .er v

LA5&. DESIGN OF HIDE AP ERTURE ROD GATE VALVE (s-3.2.3)

 Itttir J TVlSw'
"riTJUr-"--
i

Zl

TLRN u.g
*- I 7RC1TLC

FIQ J?C PCSJSW OF L/P CONVEYOR GRAVITY ASSISTED PICK-UP SCREU

 47

CR ,uO

M1 l o M4 - O s c i l l a t i n g Masses (Kg)
SI to Sb - Spring S t i f f n e s s (N/m)
X, Y, Z - Displacement of Ml ,M2,M3, respeci velg

Equations of Motion a r e : -
M1.X" = -X.CS1+S3+S4) + V .S1 + Z.S3 + MH.Ru.w.sin(ut)
M2 V " = X SI - V (S1+S2+S5) + Z S2
M3.Z" = X.S3 + V .S2 - Z.(S2+S3+S6)
For s o l u t i o n see l i s t i n g of UBSFRRME inRppendix

FIG 169 MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF SARATHM FRAMES (s-3.2.2)

 48

4= 60
1= 130
1= 480000
2= 100"
2= 160000
3= 100
3= 240000 /
s
4= 240000
5= 160000
6= 160000
z= 15

YZ- \

4= 60
1= 130
1= 480000
2= 100
2= 160000
3= 100 X \
3= 240000
4= 240000
5= 16QQQQ
6= 16QQQ0
:z= 14 It

/
/ ^ ^=x x
-v-

zz\ -i,

FIQ Ut> AMPLITUDE AND PHASE CHARACTERISTICS OF FRAMES

 49

99 9
O 2 99 e
O 5
I >

O
r
o E 30
_i ?
* -6 36.79
40
o> o
91 .2 50
S s
o aa . 60

(0 c J
o E 70
a ac
S
0> o:
80
_i 5
L
0 a s

Si'

CI
J"
o

1.0 10.0

S I E V E SC REEN S I Z E S (mm)

FIG 17 DEGRADATION OF 'SINGLES' TEST COAL IN SILO

 50

FIG g INITIAL CHARGE OF COAL VIEUED FROM ACCESS PLATFORM

 51

ISL ISL TOP OF CHARGE SHOUING CENTRE TIP UNDISTURBED BY DISCHARGE

 52

Fl 18 TOP OF CHARGE SHOUIHG CENTRE TIP DRAUH IN BY FLOU

TO LEAVE A 'HIGH' RIDGE NEAR THE HOPPER RIM
 53

F
k.
"K
"s

F16 8d END OF DISCHARGE

 55

APPENDIX Al

GFA Basic Computer Programme STACK811.BAS

Thi p r o g r a m calculates the internal and system kinetic energies of a ID stack of elastic particles

supported on a vibrating table and gives the dynamic display suggested by Figure 10 in the report.

The p r o g r a m is written for an ATARI ST computer. Each step in the p r o g r a m is fully annotated and

hopefully its logic can be followed by a lay person.

The following symbols are peculiar to 6FA Basic. The symbol ( ) leans 'Execute the procedure ' and

each procedure ends with the command, 'Return'. The Programme itself is on the LHS of the page separated froe

the annotation by the symbol (!). The symbol (') at the beginning of a line prevents that line froe being

executed. Its usefulness is that lines can be left out of the prograeee, or exchanged for active ones to Modify

the configuration.

On being coeeanded to 'Run' the prograeee introduces itself and explains the three House controls.

Instructed to 'Continue' the prograeee enters the first of nine procedures:-

'Data'

This procedure, sets the eodel parameters to the values shown. These can be 're-programmed' directly, or by

removing the (!) precceding the 'Input' command the programme will ask for new values.

'Setup'

This procedure dieensions the size of the 'one dieensional' arrays used in the calculation. The current size is

20 that being the largest number of particles the prograeee expects to handle.

'Sizes'

This procedure if included, will set up in a file called ' i l ' a new stack of 20 randoely sized particles

every tiee the prograeee is 'Run'. Otherwise the prograeee uses the stack stored in the f i l e .

N.B. The particle size 'generated' is the diaeeter froe which the particle ease is calculated. This was

done to give a 'realistic' display and to introduce brittle collisions (see A2). Mathematically, because the

stack is ID and deals only with elastic particles, it is siepler to calculate the kinetic energies using

Maxwell i an point-easses.
 56

'Stack1

This procedur* dram the static stack display on screen.

'Hotionbyt'

This procedure calculates the position and velocity of particles using the procedures given belo. It also draws

the dynaiic particle display on screen before incrementing time by 'Dt' until such tiie as the test duration To

is reached. Then the procedure exits to give the, End of Run Status Print-out.

N.B. the value of Dt=10 as pre-set in 'Data' is large and the dynaeics of the display is quickly drawn.

However, the result will not be 'stable' unless Dt is re-set <1.

'Collision'

This procedure calculates the separation velocities of particles identified by 'Hotionbyt' as having collided,

and keeps a tally of the nuiber of collisions registered.

'Energy'

This procedure calculates: the Internal, the Systei, and the Total, kinetic energies at time T, also their

average in tiee values.

'Enplot'

This procedure plots on the screen, scrolling as needed, the variation in time of the stack's:- internal energy

(Ki), systei energy (Ks), centre of tass (Xg), and table position (X0).

'House'

This procedure specifies the louse key controls. The LHS key, M o u s e k = 1 stops the calculations and allows the

programmeto escape back into the prograuing iode by the use of the coiiand 'Esc'. The RHS key, Housek=2

'flags down' on the screen a numerical status report on the stack. Both keys together, Housek*3 interrupts the

programme to change the particles foriing the stack.

pn.t
 57

PROGRAMME L I S T I N G
D e f t e x t 1 , 0 , 0 , 16
Text 10,50,"This is the programme STACK811.BAS "
Text 10,90,"Preferably use 'Text 8', and limit choice of A&F to 0<5"
Print ""
Print " Mousek(l;2;3)<=>Escape to STACK811; Print status; Change size'
Stop
Data Specifies physical data on stack
Setup ! Defines variables and dimensions arrays
' Sizes Suppressed: needed initially to form File #1
Staok Structures static display of stack
Motionbyt Updates STACK811 by Dt to give dynamic display and energy plots
END-0F-RUN STATUS PRINT OUT
Efte=(Inte/(Inte+Syse))
Print At(25, 1) ; "Tbl. Tms=" ;Fix(F*Tt> ; " EFFICIENCY=";Fix( 100*EfteH-0. 5) ; ' "%";"
n/C(1)=";Fix(Tote/100000*Dt/Tt/C(1));'"mW"
>

P r i n t A t ( 2 5 , 3 ) ; " N = " ; N ; " S f = " ; F i x ( S f ) ; " E = " ; E ; " F = " ; F ; " A=";A;" Mx=";Fix(A*W*W/
8 D / 1 0 ; " Ds=";Ds;" Dt=";Dt
P r i n t A t ( 2 5 , 4 ) ; " T t = " ; F i x ( T t * 1 0 0 0 ) / 1 0 0 0 ; " C=";C;" Av.Inte=";Fix(Itate/100000*Dt/
t ) ; " Av. S y s e = " ; F i x ( S y s e / 1 0 0 0 0 0 * D t / T t ) ; " A v . P o t e = " ; F i x ( P o t e / 1 0 0 0 Q 0 * D t / T t )
Print At(30,6);"(I) M(I) X(I) V(I) C(I)"
For 1=1 To N
Print At(30, 6+1);Using "#i* #* Mtt",I,Fix(M(I)+0.5),Fix(X(I)
0.5),Fix(V(I)+0.5),C(I)
Next I
Stop
Hardcopy Gives printer output of screen
End

' ********************************************************

Procedure Data ! SETS PHYSICAL VARIABLES (INPUT) DATA

A=8 Input "Amplitude of table (mm)";A
F=9.2 Input "Table frequency(Hz)";F
N=6 Input "No. of particles N=<20";N
D=24 Input "Mean particle diameter (mm)";D
Mind=6 Input "Minimum particle diameter (mm)";Mind
Rho=1400 Input "Particle density (kg/cu.m)";Rho
E=0.7 Input "Coefficient of restitution"; E
S=0 Input "Initial particle separation (mm)";S
Ds=0 Input "Particle penetration defining collision (mu)";Ds
Dt=10 Input "Differential time increment (>0.5 milli-sec)";pt
To=0.47*2 Input "Duration (sec = '94pts for SCR outpt' * no.* Dt)";To
Rhor-Rho/1000000 !g/cubic mm
Ds=Ds/1000 mm
Dt=Dt/1000 sec
G=-9810 Accelertion due to gravity (mm/sec"^)
 58

Pi=3.1416 Circle mensuration ratio

W=2*Pi*F Angular velocity vibrating the table
' MxG=1.5 when (A, F): (8,7) (3,11.3)(l,19.5) reminder of maximum
' MxG=2.7 when (A.F): (8,9.2)u (3,15 )u (1,26) table acceleration
Return ! * * + * * * *****- D A T A - * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
Procedure Setup DIMENSIONS ARRAYS & INITIAL VALUES
Dim D(21) Particle diameters array, includes table & freeboard
D(N+l)=1.0E-06 Freeboard dimensioned as a point particle.
D(0) = 1.0E-06 Table surface treated as a point particle
Dim X(Nil) Particle positions array, includes table & freeboard
X(0)=A P.E.--0 Reference position is table at top of stroke
Dim Dsb(N) Array of 'minimum' distances separating centres
Xt=380 Offset: G/li (table) is off-set to screen zero
Xo=0 C.G. of initial stack is calculated 'Stack'
Dim Ms(N) Particle masses array
Dim M(N+1) Colliding masses array,includes table and freeboard
M(0)=10000000000 Mass of table assumed huge
M=0 Mass of stack initialed zero
Dim V(N+1) Particle velocities array includes table & freeboard
Dim Apv(N) Approach velocities array
Dim C(N) No. of collisions/particle array
C=:0 Sets collision counter 'C' to sero
' Ct-0 Sets total no. of collisions register to zero
Dim Apt(N) Sets approach time between particles
T=-Dt Sets initial table velocity in 'Motion' to zero
Tt=0 Sets Test Duration register at zero
Sf=10*E*E Scaling factor contrived to range 'Enplot'
>
Potevo Time average Potential Energy of stack (mW.s)
Syse=0 Time average System Energy of stack
lnte=0 Time average Internal Energy of stack
Tote=0 Total Energy of stack system
Efte=0 Time average Internal : Total Kinetic Energy Ratio
Return ! ** * * * * * * * * * - S E T U P -
Procedure ! DRAWS STATIC DISPLAY
Cls Ensures screen is clear
Open "I",#1,"Diametrs.Dat" Accesses file generated by 'Sizes'
For T-l To N
Input ttl,D(I) Roads in diameters of File lil
' D(I)-24 Alternative fixed diameter array
Ms(I)-Pi*D(ir3*Rho/6 Particle mass (g)
M=M+Ms(I) Mass of particle stack (g)
M(I)=Ms(I> Initial values of collision masses
X(I)=X(I-l)+(D(I-l)+D(I))/2+S Initial position of particles
Dsb(I)-X(I)-X(I-l)-S Initial separation, Dsb=min ceilings
Xo=Xo+X(I)*Ms(I) Moment of initial centre of gravity
Apv(I)=V(I)-V(I-l) Calculates initial approach velocities

Circle 2.Xt-X(I),D(T)/2 ////Draws display using off-set & reflection

Deftext 1,0,0,6
Text 15.Xt-X(I),Str$(Fix(X(I)+0.5)) ////Prints in original positions
Next I
 59

Xo-Xo/M Initial C G .
Draw 5, XL X() To 45, Xt X(U) !//// Xt~X(0)--A T-P/2W, is below G/L
Pcircle 5,Xt,A WZ// Table-End diameter references
Draw 145,Xt+A+2 To 620,XL i A4 2 ////Coordinate Axis Ox
Draw 570,200 To 635,200 /// Int. En. Zero Level RHS label
Draw 570,350 To 635,350 !/// Syst. En. Zero level RHS label
Draw 150,10 To 150,Xt+2+A ////Ordinate Axis Oy
Deftext 1,0,900,6
Text 120,Xt." --> Height(mm) > Energy (mW.s) ooo" ! Oy
Deftext 1,0,0,6
Text 75,Xt+18," 0 Time (ms) >470" ! Ox
Text 125,200,"_IE_" Labels I/E Zero level
Text 125,350,"_SE_" Labels S/E Zero level
Text 125,Xt-Xo,"_Xo_" Labels initial C G .
Text 125,Xt,"_Xt_" Labels G/L or table 'at rest' position
Circle 100,Xt,A //// Draws Table-Ends reference
Circle 50,Xt,A !//// of vibrating table display
Close 1
t

Return ! * * * * * * * * * * - S T A C K * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *

Procedure Motionbyt ! DYNAMIC MODEL & STACK DISPLAY

>
While T<To Defines Test Duration
////////////// UPDATE //////////////
T=T+Dt
X(0)-A*Cos(W*T) !***Updates position of table
V(0)=-A*W*Sin(W*T) ***IJpdates velocity of table
>
For 1 -1 To N
X(I) -X(l)+V(I)*Dt !***Updates position of particles
Next T
/////////// CLEARS OLD DISPLAY //////
Xp=-A /// Resets position of 'wiper'
While Xp<-X(NHD(N)/2. 1 /// Wiper activated to leave 'trace'
Color 0 /// Wiper
Draw 55,Xt-Xp To 95,Xt-Xp /// Obliterates old disply
Xp=Xp41 /// Wiper extinguished
Wend ///
Color 1 ////////////////////////////////////

CHECKS FOR STATUS *,&. > OF I w.r.t. 1-1

For 1=1 To N CALCULATES NEW VELOCITIES AND ADJUSTS X(I)
If X(I)<=X(I-l)+Dsb(I>
If X(I)<X(I-l)+Dsb(I)-Ds Particle I is in COLLISION
Text 65,Xt-X(I)," *" Display "**
' Stop
('( )~-C( I ) + ] Counts Nu of cc-llisions experienced by each particle
C--C+1 Counts Total No. of collisions in stack
X(l)=X(I-l)+Dsb(I) !***Resets X(I) to value on contact
 60

Gosub Collision !***Resets V(I)/V(I-1) to post-collision value

Else ! Particle is in CONTACT with one below

Text 75,Xt-X(I), "<V ! Display &
' Stop
V(I)=V(I-1) ! *** and acquires same velocity
y

End i f
>
Else Particle I is in FREE-FALL
If V(I)<0 Then
Text 70,Xt-X(I), " !" Display falling particle i
Else
Text 70,Xt-X(I), Display rising particle ~
End i f
' Stop
X( l)--X(I)+G*Dl*Dt/2 ! *** Pos i Lion adjusted for effect of gravity
V(I)=V(I)+G*Dt !*** Velocity increase due to gravity
>
End i f
//////// DRAWS NEW DISPLAY /////
/////
Draw 50,Xt-X(0) To 100,Xt-X(0) !//// Draws table position
Circle 75,Xt-X(I),D(I)/2 !//// Draws particle position
/////
////////////////////////////////
If Mousek=l
Gosub Mouse Establishes Mouse Controls
End i f

If Mousek=2
' Stop If active gives man. operation.
Gosub Mouse
End i f
Next I
Gosub Energy Establishes and plots En's
Wend
Return ! * * * * * * - M O T I O N B Y T - * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
Procedure Collision ! CALCULATES VELOCITIES USING NEWTON'S RULE & C/M LAW
Mrl=M(I-l)/(M(I-l)+M(T)) Impacting masses ratio = 1 if M(0)>>M(I)
Mr2=M(1)/(M(I-1)+M(I)) Complementary ratio = 0 if M(0) used
V(l)r-Mrl*V(I-l)+Mr2*V(I)+E*Mrl*(V(I-l)-V(I)) Velocity V(I)
V(I-l)=Mrl*V(I-l)+Mr2*V(I)-E*Mr2*(V(l-l)-V(I)) Velocity V(I-l)
Return ** * * * * * * * * COLI, 1 S I O N

Procedure Energy ! CALCULATES STACK ENERGY STATUS IN INTERVAL Dt

>
Xg=0 ! Stack centre of gravity
Vg=0 Velocity of stack centre of mass
 61

Kt=0 !KE of particles w.r.t. G/l at time T=0

Ki=0 Internal KE of stack
Ks=0 Systern KE of stack
Pote=A*M*G PE of particles w.r.t G/L
>
For 1=] To N
Xg-Xg+X(I)*M(I)/M C.G. - M is calculated Stack
Vg=Vg+M(I)*V(I)/M Velocity of C.G.
Ks^M*Vg*Vg/2 Kinetic energy of stack
Kt=Kt t-M( I ) *V( I ) *V( I ) /2 Total KE of particles
Ki=Kt-Ks ! Internal energy of stack
Eff=Ki/Kt Efficiency of vibrating table
Next I

Pe=( -Xg + Xo)*M*G Change in stack P.E.- Xo is cale Stank

N.B. Units a r e ( g , m m , s ) ; i.e K is ( e r g / 1 0 ) ; i.e. K / K T 5 is mW. s

Gosub Enplot
GROSS ENERGIES ACCUMULATED IN TIME Tt
Syse=Syse+Ks System Energy of stack
Into-Into-tKi ! Internal Energy of stack
Pote=Pote+Pe Potential Energy of stack
Tote-Pote+Syse+Inte Energy gained by stack thro' motion and position

Return ! * * * * * * * * * * - E N E R G Y to Motionbyt - * * * * * * *

Procedure Enplot ! PLOTS ENERGY STATES vs NO. O F IMPACTS

0x=15(HT*1000 Off sets O x zero

>
If Tt->To And 0x=>610
Tt=Tt+T
T=Tt
Gnsub Motionbyt Returns 'Motionbyt' t o end display
End i f

If Ox>620 Condition to scroll plot

Tt=Tt-(T //////////////////////////////////
T=0 ////
Yw=151 ////
While Yw<621 //// CLEARS PLOT REGION
Color 0 ////
Draw Y w , 0 To Yw.Xt+A+1 ////
Yw--Yw + 1 ////
///////////////////////////////////

Print C;'Fix(Tt*1000+0.5) Notes end of display values

End i f
> ///////// PLOTS TRACES /////////////
Circle Ox,200-Ki/(100000*Sf),1 !/// Internal K.E. in mW.s
Circle Ox,350-Ks/(100000*Sf),2 !/// System K.E. in mW.s
Pcircle Ox.Xt-X(O),1 !/// Table position (mm units)
Draw Ox, Xt-Xo- ( Xg-Xo ) /( 1 )-A/4 ) !/// Motion of stack C.G.in mm/A
/////////////////////////////////////

Return ! * * * * * * * * * - E N P L O T - * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
 62

Procedure Mouse ! MOUSE-CONTROLS

If Mousek=lHalts Run to change KENSTACK, and prints out

positons and velocities of top five particles
Print "I'm Here at No. "; I ;'"with top two X and V as shown"
Print "X(I) = ";'Fix(X(N)+0.5)''';'Fix(X(N-l)+0. 5)
Print "V(I) = ";'Fix(V(N)+0.5)"'; 'Fix( V(N-l)+0. 5)
Stop
End i f

If Mousek=2 Interrupts Run display to show energy states

Print At(25,l);"N=";N;" M=";Fix(M);" E=";E;" F=";F;" A=";A;" MaxG =";Fix<
W*W/981)/10;" S=";S;" Ds=";Ds;" Dt-";Dt
Print At(2b,2);"T=";Fix(T*1000)/1000;" C=";C;" Inte=" ;Fix( Inte/( 100000*(
t+T)));" Syse=";Fix(Syse/(100000*(Tt+T)));" Tote=";Fix(Tote/(100000*(Tt+T)))
Print At(25,3);"I'm Here at No.";I;'"with top two X and V as shown"
Print At(25,4);"X(I) = ";'Fix(X(N)+0.5)'";'Fix(X(N-l)+0.5)
Print At(25,5);"V(I) = ";'Fix(V(N)+0.5)'";'Fix(V(N-l)+0.5)
Print "'
End i f
>

If Mousek~-3 Halts Run to change Sizes

Print ""
Print "N.B. to 'Cont' will irrevocably change file diameters in iti"
Stop
Sizes Reforms new stack
End i f
y

Return ! * * * * * * * * * - M O U S E to control within Motion - * * *

>
Procedure Sizes J GENERATES A 20 PARTICLE STACK IN FILE #1

Open "0",*1."Diametrs.Dat"
For 1=1 To 20
Z=Sqr(-2*Log(Rnd))*Sin(2*Pi*Rnd) G enerates 'normal' distribution of
D(I)=D+((D-Mind)/3)*Z particle diameters (mm) in File 1
Write *1,D(I)
Next I
Close 1
Stack
>
Return ! * * * * * * * - - for S I Z E S to form new Stack in Motion - * * *
 63

APPENDIX A2

M I T T L E COLLISIONS

(Derivation of equations 1-3 given in section 2.3.4 of the report)

' J f i l t l t Particles

Thi suggestion put loreward is that 'Brittle Collisions' are described in the first instance by surface

structure and compaction, therafter by elastic detonation and restitution, and lastly by particle strength and

comminution. Text-book physics describes restitution using Poisson's Hypothesis to prove Newton's Rule. The

treatment belo views Newton' Rule not as an experimental law but as an energy partitioning principle descibing

the transfer of kinetic energy in mechanisms of particle compaction and coni nut i on, and not just restitution

alone.

Real particles as opposed to H a m l li an point-nasses, have a body and a surface: they also have a shape but

here this will be idealised to be 'on average' a sphere. The body of a brittle material particle, like that of

its elastic counterpart is regarded to be isotropic throughout and not weakened by Griffith cracks. The

perceived difference between elastic and brittle particles is in the behaviour of the surface. Whereas elastic

surfaces will recover or plastically deform: brittle surfaces will remain intact or fray.

2. Compaction

A brittle particle surface is imagined to be mazed by fractures, or porous like coke, or covered in fine

dust and mud adhearing to the particle. That is, the structural behaviour and not the form of the friable

surface is considered important. The surface has depth. The supporting substrata though elastic when protected

by compacted material, on exposure regenerates the surface. The internal energy of colliding particles is spent

in destroying the surface by compaction, and forming a similar surface in the substrata below. The consequence

of such a collision is not a rise in the particle body temperature, but flying dust. The hypothesis is put

forward that such surface dust has no recognisable inertia within the colliding particle system.

The treatment introduced next, aims to account for the large energy losses of brittle particle collisions

not involving comminution. The validity of Poisson's Hypothesis is assumed and then by working backwards to

prove Newton's Rule, an expression for the energy Sa lost in 'shaking' dust of a surface during compaction, is
 64

derived.

3
' Derivation of the Equation, q2= e2U^2)_ in t h e Report._

The classic vie of the coefficient of restitution e is that of a physical property related to the elastic

hysteresis and plastic deformation produced in a collision.

Using established notation, the C onservation of Moientui Law and Newton's Rule describe a two particll

collision as follows,

. u I ' . u ' i . v . (1)

s
v - v' -e.(u-u') (2)

where the linus sign defines change from approach to separation

Solved simultaneously tl) and (2) give expressions for v and v'.

v = R.u + R'.u' - R'e.(u-u') (3)

v' R.u R'.u' R.e.(u-u') (4)

where, R = /<+') and R' = i7<i+i')

The Hoientui Law derives froi the principle of Energy C onservation and the principle of C onservation of

Hass, wherefore Newton's Rule is a special (binary) case of the general statement that the ratio,

Internal Energy after collision e* a constant.

Internal Energy before collision

Alternatively, but quite independently, restitution is described by the lechanistic iodei known as

Poisson's Hypothesis to be,

e Iipulsive pressure during restitution
Impulsive pressure during compaction

The Internal Energy of particles is by definition the kinetic energy of their motion relative to the coiiDn

centre of tass (C.6) loving at a velocity Ug . If there is no such relative lotion as for example when a stack

of particles released together is in free-fall, then the Internal Energy is zero. For a systei of two particles

{,'} loving in relation to an external observer with velocities (u,u'} along the line of centres (N.B.particle

systei has no internal angular loientui) arithmetic and definitions give the following:-

Ug = (i.u i'.u'/d+i') ,...(5)

 65

The Internal Energy, Ei * (l/2Ui.i7(m+m')).(u-u')2 ()

The Systei Energy, Es = (1/2).(+").Ug2 (7)

The Total (kinetic) Energy Et = Es + Ei (8)

If a System is isolated with no external forces acting upon it then Es=0 and Et=Ei. If energy is

being forced into the System at the saie rate that it is being dissipated then Et is constant and the Syste is

said to be in a steady state if Es=0, or oscillating between different levels of Ei (kinetic) and Es (kinetic +

potential) if the system can store energy in a potential or latent fori hilst external and internal forces

interact. Thus hen dealing with vibrating stacks, or bouncing particles, this interaction of forces and its

tiie constant becoie all important as demonstrated later in (6).

N.B. Et=0 states Es=0=Ei i.e. the observer defining zero energy level, iDves with the Systei and perceives

no lovement inside it. It does not mean Es = -Ei, If mass r e being annihilated within a systei then Es would

not be a constant defined by the observer, and relativistic considerations Mould have to apply. Because surface

dust has been assumed to have no inertia the Conservation of Mass is not being challenged here. In the case of

comminution a different hypothesis has to be put forward. Let the kinetic energy balance before collision

be given by (9), and that after the collision by,

Qt = Qs + Qi (9)

Then since mass is conserved, Qs = Es (10)

and from Newton's (general) Rule Di = q2.Ei (11)

where q is a constant of proportionality.

Before the particles are brought to a relative halt travelling at the system velocity Ug, the kinetic

energy,

Qa = a2.Ei , (12)

is dissipated in surface attrition and compaction producing dust whilst velocities are reduced to say,

coalescence velocities w and w',

The constant of proportionality a' is named the Coeficient of Surface Attrition. Only when the contact

between the particles is sufficiently intimate is it possible for the Compressive Impulse,

IC= i(w-Ug) (13)

 66

acting on e', to stress that partide and store in it elastic strain energy SA. Vice-versa energy SA' it itored

id it by the Impulse,

I C '('-ligi (14)

and the renaming internal kinetic energy Ei-Qa is reduced to zero. The latent (elastici energy of the svstsa it

S = % t SA'

There is no energy loss. Hence, S : Ei.ll-i2 (15)

If S is sufficiently large and cannot be 'transititted' out of the System impulse pressures build up and the

internal Impulses,

IR = m(llg-v) (16)

IR' = '(Ug-v') (17)

e*pi ode the coalesced particle bringing about restitution. Energy is lost in 'ringing' due to shock waves, and

heat due to rupture of cohesive bonds fomed in coalescence.

By Newton's Action-Reaction Law. IC= -IC' and IR= -IR' (discussed further at 4.3)

Eliminating Ug fron (13) and (14) IC: m'.(w-w')/(+ir)

SI mil a n : y using (16) and (17) Ift- B'.(v'-v)/(a+a')

Ely Poisson's Hypothesis IR/IO e

So that v-v' = -e(w-w') proving Newton's Rule.

Hence using Newton's (general) Rule to describe the energy transfer,

Qi/S = e2

Therefore fro (15) Qi/Ei= e2.!l-a2>

That is the constant g in (11) is identified by,

q2= e2.(l-a2) (IB) (N.B. dq/da < 0}

4. Conninution: Lateral Splitting

In the case of coitpartiDn and coalescence the isolated particle Syste emerges unchanged fro the

collision event: the syste massN=m+it', and the velocity Ug are the sane, and all energy dissipated in

coalescence or restitution is accounted for.

This is not so if particle is split by the Compressive Impulse, IC inducing latterai strain exceeding
 67

sone c r i t i c a l value, or stress in excess of the Material s yeald point, Yp (N/m2).

Since the loss of particle Bass c<tnnot be conceived without chalenging the notion of system kinetic energy,

the usual view of an isolated system being defined by i t s mass li and velocity Ug has to be odi f i ed.

Ntwtpt's h r s t Uw ot r'nuun requires thnt the system velocity Ug is preserved, and not neccessanly as the

Law of C onservation of Mowent is often interpreted, the system's ass or sementila. Hence in isolated lyft**

an i listiti* tro aid' fn 'hpM' .y hedona *'.<% -.itnentiiiti equally in positive and negative directions

orthognnai to llg and the origin twhere the outside ohwvmr i f t i t t d i , in othst wards tfie aiitge &EBNr

t.jt'BB '!= flstivB vipwpninl tn n< Inrip ntj'iiUr nhntt, >n<i postulates that fusminuted partici re ont

subject to i n e r t i a ! forces w.thm the syst. That liknat f l o w e r , hal t bl eavird 6/ h i W ( | y feaiaftf na ?

kinetic energy partitioning principle: a Newton'? Rule partitioning system kinetic energy. In the case of a

particle stack system which e a s t in the one vertical dimension only, the 'balance' and the 'principle' are

simple: almost t r i v i a l in the case of the two particle system, discussed below. Treating comminution in a

manner analogous to restitution suggests the following ratio for specifying an energy partitioning principle.

System Energy of new system (Es') _ C

System Energy of old system (Es)

Suppose that in the collision one of the particles, say m, splits changing the system from a binary to a

single particle one.

Then since Newton's First Law requires v' = Dg

C s <",-)/H 119)

The system energy (l-C)Es dissipated in particle splitting is thus only a function of the relative mass

eliminated from the system

In addition, the particle must have been stressed to split, and so an amount of strain (latent) energy, SB

which otherwise would be recovered as internal energv, is also eliminated from the system.

The energy SB' stored by the compressive impulse IC in m' is dissipated within the system as heat or in

'ringing'. Hence in a two particle collision in which one of the particles splits, all of the internal energy

:s 'converted out of the system'. The construction of this simple energy balance is argued in detail, for when
 68

it is used in an algorythm of stack collisions it ceases to be obvious.

The particle is brought to rest (relatively to Ug! hilst the opposing particle ' 'drives through' at

zero relative velocity Ug, to laterally split . This has to be so otherwise the assumption that the momentum

nt the comminuted debris i n thedirection of Ug is zero, wculd be invalidated.

hen n breaks-up the Compressive Impulse IC = m(w-Ug)= -'('-Ug)

= mm',(w-w')/<a+m')

The energy stored in (all lost on splitting) SB = IC.<n-Ug)/2

= (l/2).m(w-Ug)2

The energy stored in ' (ali dissipated in its elastic recovery) SB' = IC.(-**'*-Ug)/2

= (l/2).'<>'-Ug)2

All strain energy lost (here all o that stored) SL = SB+ SB'

= 11/21-IC-CM-H")

= Ei

Hence if there are only two particles the total energy lost in splitting i s , (Et-Et')= Et-C Es . But, in

general with stacks where SL is a function of in-stack coalescence . or restitution,

(Et-Et')s (1-OEs+SL (20)

5. Particle Strength

Whether a particle, actually shatters and splits is determined by its Material strength, Yp, and the

Compressive Impulse, IC' applied to m by m', or the reactive Impulse IC straining m to store latent energy, S

in m. As presented earlier these impulses are equal and opposite. This is shown by the following argument which

introduces the notion of a crushing force which can be related to Yp.

At any time that the particles are in contact, Newton's Third Law requires the internal forces, F are

equal, i.e. -m'f'= m.f where ( f . f ) are the rates of change of w and w' with respect to time (i.e.

decelerations). Since the initial velocities (w,w') are known the Impulse, or change in momentum, is specified

by the 'final' velocity of the colliding particles (or stacks). Both the comminution and restitution treatments
 69

consider those velocities to be the same: at tine t=Dt w'=Ug=w.

Hence f/f' =[ (w-Ug)/Dt]/E (n'-g)/Dt3 .

Wherefore. ( m f l / l m ' f ) =iii<w-Ug) ] / [ ' iw'-Ug)]

-KIK'

i.e. C-I 'slL and in the energy balances, particle deceleration was

accounted (or by coaparmg impulses. Strenqth however, dsptndt on th force r t m t f d *na not as h Nn IP

ihonnitii. ft partuIt- solids if the force f= n.f, stressing the particle across a tleevage area, ft ,

exceeds the yield point Yp, Fhe value of A can be assused to b related Ion avutasi ta p^rii me. ay fl i

pppprtiwi ro i,'/,*., The ^vrr*g* forre tnpuiitnt ittwui over A can be assumed to be proportional to F and

hence .f. Then the condition for a oarticle splitting i s ,

rp< k.F/A)

That is i f , Vp< k.mi/3.f 121) where k is sone constant.

This shows that if particles do not vary too much in size, their survival depends on the particle

deceleration, T following surface paction, being gentle. Also, if one particle shatters then the other

involved in the collision is likely to do the sane.

6- Differences between Stack Fluidsation Models based

on the Elastic and B r i t t l e C ollision Theories.

There is a fundamental difference between fluidisation defined by elastic collisions and brittle

collisions.

The odel in Appendix Al considers only elastic collisions. The particles in the stack lay not coalesce ur

'retain in contact' to behave as if they were a single compund-partide (sub-stack). The iodei does not

recognise such a concept nor is i t able to deal with the interaction of 'simultaneous' collisions. The model

works because it is presumed that the approach distance Ds can be defined exactly and the Model can be

incremented in such small intervals of tide Dt that i t appears stable, i.e. changing Ds and Dt does not affect

the result. That this is not aitogther satisfactory is shown by the following reasoning:

In the classic two-particle elastic collision event, the time-average approach velocity during compression
 70

is (u-u')/2: the average seoaration veloci t/ during restitution is -e.(u-u')/2. Both processes span the same

event horizon distance, Ds and so their life t u e , or duration to a first order approximation is,

Ds.2/(u-u') + Ds.2/e.(u-u') = 2.Ds. ll+e-li.Mu-u")

To ensure that the event horizun time Dt, edcompasses the event,

Dt ; 2.1)5.(Ite [nu> u'l

Hence in general the Elastic Horizon based on Poisson's Hypothesis is delimited by the criterion:

u-u' > 2 . 1 1 t - l > . D 5 ' D t (22)

The 'stack of elastic collisions' sedei almost ceartainly cannot in reality comply with such a criterion.

Consider (u-u'1=0.3 m/s icf 5 nm drop unae' gravity) and Ds=10-4 (cf dust s i z e ) , and e=0.5. Then Dt )

I'. 10-3s, and the possibility of avoiding simultaneous collision by being 'very quick' with the computer

calculations is denied. Furthermore events in which u-u'< 0.3 m/s cannot be described as an elastic collision,

and yet there is no reason to suppose that with gentler collisions the calculation of restitution can go astray.

Mathematically, replacing one constant 'e' by two constants 'q' and 'a' makes i t possible to 'model'

compaction and restitution, or coalescence and elastic strain. Coalescence of two particles produces an

elemental stack. The outstanding problem to defining single-phase fluidisation in terms of b r i t t l e collisions is

the lack of a model descrioing the collision of elemental stacks. That in turn requires a sub-model of the

strain energy SL referred to earlier. I t is possible that niversty of Aston's algorithm (ref.4 in Report) of a

particle agglomerate offers this.

'.wM I I -lp"
 71

APPENDIX B
GFA Basic Computer Programme WBSFRAME
Refer to Fig 16a in the report.
Forces acting on mass M1 are the acceleration force due to the rotation of mass M4, and
forces due to the compression of springs S1, S3 and S4.
Forces acting on mass M2 are due to the compression of springs S1, S2 and S5.
Forces acting on mass M3 are due to the compression of springs S2, S3 and S6.
The equations of motion ie the three equations given in Fig 11 are used to determine the
three accelerations X", Y" and S". Changes in velocity, v are given by multiplying the
accelerations, 'a' by a small time interval, dt. Changes in position, 'p' are calculated from:-

Pi = P + v . dt + a . - ^

The force exerted by the rotating masses as quoted by the motor manufacturer is 5786N at 24 Hz.
It is assumed that the force exerted by the two motors is proportional to the frequency squared.
So,
M4.A.VV2 = 11572. (24/f) 2
The programme is written in GFA Basic for an ATARI ST computer.
On start up the default values for the spring stiffnesses the masses and the frequency are
displayed on the screen.
Using the mouse point to any variable and press the right mouse button. This will bring up
a request for a new input for that variable.
On input of one variable (press return) the programme will start to run. Subsequent
changes can be made by pressing the left mouse button. This will allow any variable to be changed
as in start-up by using the right mouse button to select the variable. If the initial transients are
required then the first action should be to set the frequency to zero. Then although the programme
will run between entries there will be no change as there will be no driving frequency. The action
can then be "switched on" by setting the frequency to the required value.
While the programme is running graphs of the positions of the three masses and the driving
sine wave will be drawn on the screen. The graphs of masses 1, 2 and 3 will have 1 cm amplitude
tramlines marked, but the driving sine wave has no scale drawn. A half second mark is shown on
the time axis. The process of drawing the graphs removes all of the scale markings, to save time
these are only re-drawn when the right mouse button is pressed. The individual graphs are marked
X, Y, Z and S, these refer to masses 1, 2 and 3, and the driving sine wave respectively.
If any of the variables are changed then the programme continues from where it left off.
It is thus possible to simulate the transient effects of changing the frequency by a small amount.
There is provision within the programme to split spring S2 into more than one section. As
it stands at the time of writing it is only correct if the stiffness changes at zero displacement. This
can easily be made correct at any position and the facility extended to other springs if needed.
 72

The programme can be stopped by pressing and holding the right mouse button then

pressing the left button. The "exit" routine detects both buttons pressed simultaneously but if the

left one is pressed first then the "variable input" routine is entered form which the "exit" routine

is inaccessible.

tmmmtmmmstmtmmttmmmtmmmmtmmm
Prograi HBSFRAHE listing
mmttmmtmmmmmmtmmmmmmmmmmu
Setup
Repeat
T=T+Dt
If HtT/2>Pi
T=T-2tPi/H
End if
ISolve
If .lousek-i
Dritt
Ena if
Until Housek=3
Procedure Setup
Dt=8.B81 tiie interval
7=8 'tiie
n=8.i iplitde of oscillation
Hz=15 Frequency
Rei U2=WtH Redundant
x=8 initial displacement of HI
i-i Initial displacement of H2
Z=l : Initiai displacement of n3
Hl=138 Hass 1
H2=1B8 Hass 2
F2=18 Friction Not vet iipleiented
13=138 Hass 3
F3=18 Friction Not yet iipleiented
H4=i8 Hass 4 revolvin Hass not needed since H4a2 Know
Ns2=l Nuiber of sections to spring 2
Dil S2(5),Ls2(S) Dimension the arrays to hold S2 data
Si=12e08M Stiffness of SI = 4t42976n/47.5
S2(l)=aa333t2 Stiffness of part 1 of Si = 2t438il82ii/68.5
S2(2)=8 Stiffenss of part 2 of SI
32(3)= Etc
S2=S2(1) for printout oniv
Ls2ll]=2 hsolaceient belo nicn part 1 applies
ls2(2)=B 'dito Part 2
53=o388l4 :stiTfiness of spring 3 =4l432lJ2ii/57.5
34=a88BU . uitu 4 *UJ
55=8388812 'dite 5 =2t<38
 73

S6=8888B2 Idito & : Ditto

TpB=lBB plotting start position
Tp=Tp8 plotting position-'
Yxoff=288 !y offset for plotting X displacement of HI
Yyoff=25B Idito Y of 2
Yzoff=3BB Idito Z of H3
Ysoff=100 Idito S for driving function
Sc=18BB plotting scale
Drau Prints out values (Would like a drawing)
Setplot initial plotting
Title*="title"
Return
Procedure Draw
Print
Repeat
HoZ=Int(lousey/l)
Rea Print At(28,3);l1ol;a
Until Housek=2
If HoZ=18
Print flt(28,l);,Frequency ';
Input Hz2
If Hz2<>8
T=Hz/Hz2tT
Else
T=B
Endif
Hz=Hz2
Endif
If MoZ=9
Print At(2B,l);,Stiffness h "\
Input S6
Endif
If HoZ=8
Print At(2B,l);"Stiffness 5 ';
Input 55
Endif
If HoI=7
Print At(2B,i);a5tiffness 4 ";
Input S4
Endif
If HoZ=6
Print At(2fl,l);"Stiffness 3 ";
Input S3
Endif

Print At(28,l); a Stiffness 2(1)';

Input S2(i)
S2=S2(1)
Endif
If ltol=5
Print At(28,l);"Has5 3';
Input I3
Endif
If HoX=3
Print Ati28,li; :! Nass 2 ";
Input H2
Endif
If 1oZ=2
Print At(2B,l);"Stiffness i*\
Input SI
Endif
If f1o?.=i
Print A t i Z . l i i ' . I d s i :
 74

Input Hl
Endif
If MoI=8
Print At(28,l),Hass V ;
Input M4
Endif
If HoI=22
Print At(2,l),titlei";
Input Titlet
Endif
Print At(2B,l);'
Print
H4aw2=5786t2IH2A2/24A2 !H4tAIWA2 5786 N at 24 Hz per iotor
K=Hz2*Pi !2tPil Frequency
Return
Procedure Print prints intial values to left of plots
Print At(l,l);"H4 : H4;'
Print "Ml= ";N1
Print "Sl= ";S1
Print 'N2= ';H2
Print 'S2= ';S2
Print 'H3= ';H3
Print "S3= "S3
Print 'S4= ";S4
Print 'S5= 'iS5
Print "S6= "S
Print 'Hz= ';Hz
Print At(l,16);'13ii'
Print At(l(17)iaband"
Print At(5,23);Title
Return
Procedure Solve ! salves the equations
If Housek=2 executes initial plotting on louse Right Button press
ipeX=l 'flag for clearing screen (NOT used)
Setplot ! plotting let lines
Else
MipeZ=0 Flag still not used
Endif
Springs sets values of the spring constants checks parts
Ydd=(XtSl-YtS125+ZtS2)/M2 !Y acceleration
Zdd=(tS3+ytS2-ZS236)/M3 !Z accel.
dd=<-XIS134+TSl+ZtS3+QM4aN2tSin(WTi)/Ml !I accel
Yd=(Ydd)IDt+Yd !Y vel.
Zd=(Zdd)lDttZd !Z vel.
Xd=ddttv*d -I vel.
Rei Print dd,Ydd,Zdd
Yl=(8.5IDttYdd+Yd)iDt+Y !Y displ
z:=<8.5tsttzdd+Zd;sot+z :z
n=(i.5tDUXdd+l(d)tDt+l( !X
Y=Y1 ITeap Y for predictor corrector aethod if needed
Z=Z1 !dito Z
X=51 'dito I
Rei Print
Rei Input A$
Plot ! Plots the displacements
Return
Procedure Springs :sets spring values
32=52(1) 'initialise 02
Check IT there are parts
For 11=1 To Ns2! 'Icoo
IT LSili.i\lI- Che _ i r i t length if less then no change
S2=s2;r.n; jpdat; S2 if r.essecsary
-Ina: f
 75

Next IX
Endif
S125=S1+S2+S5 accumulate values
S236=S2+S3+S6 'dito
S134=S1+S3+S4 dito
Return
Procedure Plot
Q=l flag ??
Add Tp,l ! increment plotting position
If Tp>648 reset if off screen
0=1 flag ???
Tp=TpB ! reset to initial value
Endif
Color B iHhite line
Line Tp,8,Tp,335 erasing line
Color 1 back to black
Plot Tp,Yxoff-X*Sc !K displacement
Rei Plot Tp,Yzoff+5B-Zdd/9.81 acceleration
Plot Tp,Yyoff-YISc !Y dito
Plot Tp,Yzoff-ZSc !Z dito
Plot Tp,Ysoff-Sin(IT)l2fl forcing function (note own scale)
Rei print At(l,l);Tp
Return
Procedure Setplot
Text TpB+l/Dt/2-58,358,'1/2 second" ' half second larker
Line TpB+l/Dt/2,358,Tp8+l/Dt/2,68 !i/2 sec lark
Lstart=648 !1 ci larkers start
Lend=18B ! dito end
TstartX=85 Text start position
Text TstartX,Yxoff."r Lable X
Text TstartI,Yyoff,"Y". ! Y
Text TstartZ.Yzoff/Z" ! Z
Text TstartZ.YsofVS' ! S
Line Lstart,Yyoff,Lend,Yyoff (1 ci wrkers Y
Line Lstart,Yyoff-8.81tSc,Lend,Yyoff-8.81tSc dito Y
Line Lstart,Yyoff+8.BltSc,Lend,Yyoff+8.BltSc dito Y
Line Lstart,Yzoff,Lend,Yzoff dito Z
Line Lstart,Yzoff-B.aitSc,Lend,Yzoff-B.3USc dito Z
Line Lstart,Yzoff+B.81tSc,Lend,Yzoff+8.81tSc dito Z
Return

iiiiiiiuitiiiiiiiiiitmiittiimiiiimiiiiiiimiiitiiiiiiiii
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Multimedia Guide to European Science and Technology.

The on-line databases can be assessed either through a menu-based interface that makes
CORDIS simple to use even if you are not familiar with on-line information services, or for
experienced users through the standard easy to learn Common Command Language (CCL)
method of extracting data.

CORDIS comprises at present eight databases:

RTD-News: short announcements of Calls for Proposals, publications and events in the
R&D field
RTD-Programmes: details of all EC programmes in R&D and related areas
RTD-Projects: containing over 17,000 entries on individual activities within the pro-
grammes
RTD-Publications: bibliographic details and summaries of more than 57,000 scientific
and technical publications arising from EC activities
RTD-Results: provides valuable leads and hot tips on prototypes ready for industrial
exploitation and areas of research ripe for collaboration
RTD-Comdocuments: details of Commission communications to the Council of Minis-
ters and the European Parliament on research topics
RTD-Acronyms: explains the thousands of acronyms and abbreviations current in the
Community research area
RTD-Partners: helps bring organisations and research centres together for collabora-
tion on project proposals, exploitation of results, or marketing agreements.

For mor Information on CORDIS registrationforms,contact:

CORDIS Customer Service

European Commission Host Organisation
BP2373
L-123 Luxembourg
Tel.: (+352} 34 98 12 40 Fax: {+352) 34 9812 48
If you are already an ECHO uaer, please Indicate your customer number.

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