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Paleoseismic Trenching

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Encyclopedia of Earthquake Engineering
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-36197-5_107-1
# Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2014

Paleoseismic Trenching
H. Serdar Aky uza*, Volkan Karabacakb and Cengiz Zabca
a
stanbul Teknik Universitesi, ultesi, Jeoloji Muh. Blumu, Ayazaa, stanbul, Turkey
Maden Fak
b
Eskiehir Osmangazi Universitesi, Muhendislik-Mimarlk Fakultesi, Jeoloji Muh. Blumu, Meelik, Eskiehir, Turkey

Synonyms
Active fault; Earthquake history; Paleoseismology; Trenching

Introduction: The Importance of Trenching in Paleoseismology

Trenching on a fault trace is a direct way to understand the historical (mainly Holocene) evolution of
a fault segment. What are signatures of past earthquakes at the Earths surface? How do we recognize
and identify past (paleo-)earthquakes? One of the most famous and fundamental principles of
modern geology, the present is the key to the past, provides the answer, from which historical
seismic events are accepted to have the same effect as modern ones do. However, the incompleteness
of the historical record makes it hard to determine and identify paleo-earthquake-related structures.
The discrimination of paleoseismic evidences from geological and geomorphological processes and
the attribution of them to certain historical events make an important contribution to the seismic risk
assessment of any region.
Paleoseismology is the art of the identication of past earthquakes in terms of location, timing,
and size by using geological and geomorphological evidence (McCalpin 2009). This branch of Earth
science is mainly based on the interpretation of features recorded and preserved by depositional and
erosional processes. Paleoseismology addresses a specic timescale that connects neotectonics and
instrumental seismology, mostly from the Late Pleistocene to the present day. A detailed
paleoseismic study can reveal a seismic history even going back several thousand years. Charac-
terizing past earthquake parameters (e.g., fault location, earthquake magnitude, and recurrence
interval) helps construct a strong database, which can be used in the modeling of potential seismic
hazards.
However, there are no xed or standard techniques for the study of past earthquake records.
Accordingly, different methods and approaches must be specically applied to each individual case.
The most widely used and effective method is the trenching of recent deposits across active faults.
The aim of trenching is to expose the stratigraphic and structural relationships of buried modern
deposits and to discriminate the signature of paleo-events. A paleoseismologist determines the
timing of identied earthquakes by using various Quaternary-dating methods allowing correlation
with historical documents. The main target of a paleoseismic study is to understand the history of
studied fault segment(s) and to develop a knowledge base for establishing the location and
magnitude of future earthquakes for the same region. Paleoseismic results play a vital role for
seismic risk assessments. This chapter aims to summarize the main steps undertaken during
a paleoseismic trenching study. The most commonly used dating methods in paleoseismology are
also briey outlined.

*Email: akyuz@itu.edu.tr

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Flowchart in Trenching Studies

The identication of a paleo-event, its dating, and its correlation with a historical earthquake is the
main objective of a paleoseismic study. However, to reach that nal goal, there are several steps that
need to be undertaken, such as site location, logistic settings, selection of the trench type, taking of
safety precautions, preparation of trench walls for logging, sampling for dating, and post-eld
studies, which will all be briey mentioned in the following sections.

Site Selection: Geoinformatics, In Situ Observations, Shallow Geophysical

Methods, and the Micro-Topographic Surveys
The determination of a suitable site plays a fundamental role in paleoseismology. Not only nding
the fault trace but also exposing the suitable sedimentation is crucial for the recovery of a paleo-
event in a trench study. Although the techniques may differ from region to region, the general
sequence of investigations start with geoinformatics, continue with in situ observations, and usually
end with the application of shallow geophysical and micro-topographic surveys.

Geoinformatics: Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

Aerial photographs are one of the main sources used in the identication of faults and other tectonic
landforms. Analyses of aerial photograph stereopairs allow easily visualization of pseudo-3D
reections of the study region in a 2D environment. Skilled researchers can easily interpret fault
scarps and tectonic landforms by using aerial photographs of actively deformed regions. Detailed
topographic datasets also assist in the interpretation of physiographic features. Technological
progress has greatly advanced remote sensing abilities. For example, one of the latest commercial
satellites, Geoeye-2, is planned to start collecting satellite images of the Earth with a ground
resolution up to 0.34 m by the second half of 2013 (GeoEye Elevating Insight 2013). Moreover,
advances in LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) and high computational technologies make the
analysis of high-resolution digital elevation models (DEM) possible. These topographic data with
submeter pixel resolution not only provide the easy identication of fault scarps but also yield auto-
quantication of displacements (Zielke and Arrowsmith 2012) or precise mapping of seismogenic
faults even in highly forested mountainous terrains (e.g., Cunningham et al. 2006). It is possible to
merge all these products in a GIS database and to make sophisticated spatial analyses of tectonic
landforms in site selection for trenching. These modern tools can focus attention on small study
areas; thereby they signicantly save time and reduce budgets in paleoseismological projects.

In Situ Observations: Geological and Geomorphological Mapping

To understand geometrical relations among recent (late Quaternary) geological units, and sometimes
between older rocks and recent deposits, geological mapping of units and landforms of a trench site
should be undertaken. Detailed mapping can also identify piercing points (i.e., offset features) along
or across faults. Remote sensing analysis on the region of interest is controlled with eld observa-
tions during the mapping of geological and geomorphological features. Mapping usually includes
fault scarps and detailed subdivisions of Quaternary deposits across the fault. The paleoseismic
history is interpreted from the constructed relationship of the mapped Quaternary deposits and the
faulting pattern. The displacement measurements are often indicated on these maps. Beside the
mapped features, the depositional conditions and sedimentary sources of the site are studied to
gather the maximum information for understanding the local stratigraphy before trenching.
Modern depositional and erosional processes at a paleoseismic site supply data so that the trench
stratigraphy can be interpreted. Paleoseismologists mostly prefer ne-grained sediments, where

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slow sedimentation rates allow an older history to be recorded at relatively shallower depths.
However, boulder- and cobble-rich sediments can be deposited abruptly and can instantaneously
cover paleo-events. Furthermore, it is also difcult to recognize deformational structures within
these coarse-grained sediments. As a result, mixed sedimentary environments such as uvial and
alluvial rivers (mostly oodplains and point bars), seasonal swamps, marshes, sag ponds, deltas,
alluvial fans (especially the distal part), piedmonts, and deserts are the ideal for paleoseismic
trenching.
Colluvium in front of the fault scarp is one of the most important depositional features recording
the material shed from the uplifted fault block. The clast type, size, and shape that form colluvial
deposits depend on the lithology of uplifted block but may also change laterally from proximal to
distal parts.

Shallow Geophysical Methods

Geophysical exploration methods have a critical role for detecting the exact location of main faults
and any subsidiary branches. The application of geophysical techniques can be useful in denition
of the stratigraphy and the deeper structure of the fault zone, aspects that cannot be determined by
trenching or drilling. Geophysical methods are often applied in regions where tectonic landforms are
buried and cannot be identied by surcial observations. The most commonly used geophysical
methods are seismic reection/refraction, ground-penetrating radar (GPR), and electric, magnetic
(aero and electro), and gravity techniques in paleoseismological studies. For example, along the
1999 zmit earthquake rupture (North Anatolian Fault, Turkey), GPR proles clearly show not only
the fault zone but also displaced uvial channels of different ages (Ferry et al. 2004). In addition to
2D representations, for faults with a more complicated tectonic setting, 3D GPR images are needed
to constrain fault structure, such as demonstrated on the hidden faults in the transpressional setting of
the Alpine Fault (South Island, New Zealand) (Carpentier et al. 2012).

Micro-Topographic Surveys: Construction of Very High-Detailed Morphology

Before the excavation of a natural surface on a trenching site, detailed surveying of the morphology
of the eld can reveal landscape anomalies, which cannot be easily recognized with the naked eye.
Interpretation of high-resolution topographic data can be used to analyze the effect of tectonic
activity in the formation of such morphological features. A quantitative assessment of morpholog-
ical structures provides detailed information especially about the likely characteristics of the
faulting. Moreover, well-dened and well-analyzed detailed morphology also decreases the exca-
vation length (and time) at a probable trench site. Toward this goal, micro-topography and the related
physiographic features can be measured by using instruments such as the electronic theodolite (total
station), d-GPS (or RTK GPS), and the terrestrial LiDAR (TLS) in the eld. With the introduction of
the high-resolution topographic data collection of the TLS, it is even now possible to constrain the
3D-slip vectors recorded by displaced landforms (Gold et al. 2012). Not only detailed topographic
maps but also topographic proles across fault zones provide invaluable information about the
history of deformation.

Final Decision: Site Selection

The best location for a trench is highly site dependent. The site selection is undertaken through the
synthesis of all datasets and studies, which are briey listed above. All combined data are interpreted
to identify two (or alternatively three) targets in a trench study in order to expose (a) the full rupture
geometry and the style of faulting; (b) the stratigraphy, which reects the most complete depositional
history; and (c) any buried displaced feature, if present. For the rst goal, it is important to stay on the

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main fault strand, which records the most complete seismic history of the deformation zone.
However, it is also common to target trench studies on secondary faults. Pantosti et al. (2008)
preferred to excavate one of their trenches on an antithetic fault scarp instead of the main displace-
ment zone, because of logistic reasons. Secondly, a paleoseismologist always tries to nd the most
suitable place with a continuous sedimentation for the most complete stratigraphic record. Even
depositional environments with very slow sedimentation rates can be chosen for slow-moving faults,
like the Alhama de Murcia Fault (Eastern Betic shear zone, Spain) to expose a longer paleoseismic
record (Ortuo et al. 2012). These rst two objectives mostly yield the recovery of location and
timing of a faulting event by fault-perpendicular trenches. However, on strike-slip faults, the
magnitude of displacement can only be obtained with fault-parallel trenches, where buried and
laterally displaced features are exposed.

Logistics: Administrative and Environmental Issues

Administrative Issues: Local and Governmental Permissions
Following the site selection, one of the mandatory issues is getting excavation permissions both
from local (land owners) and administrative authorities. If the site is located in an archeological site
or is close to a military base, then additional permissions may be required.
On cultivated lands, rstly, it is important to get the permission of the landowner but the local
authorities must also be informed. The contact also provides logistic information for researchers
about the existence of any possible human-made structures, such as waterworks, electricity cables,
and oil/gas pipelines, which can easily be destroyed during a trench excavation. Moreover, these
authorities, like local municipalities, may help in nding the work machines, which are used in
trenching.

Environmental Issues: Water Table, Geography, and Transportation

The high water table in a site can cause the collapse of trench walls or it can make almost impossible
for researchers to move inside the trench. The dewatering for a more pleasant working space is done
in two general ways: (a) periodically pumping the water out of the trench and releasing it some
distance away, and (b) draining the water by digging a shallow pit downslope from the toe of the
trench. Also, the drier season is selected to have a lower water table as much possible in most cases.
It ought to be possible to nd a proper work machine for excavation (e.g., backhoe, trackhoe, or
bulldozer) in most study areas. But the trench location may be located too far from a settlement, or
there may be no excavation machine around. In such cases, trenches can be dug by hand. Prentice
et al. (2002) dug several hand-made trenches even up to several meters in length and depth in
Mongolia, where there are no settlements nearby.
The excavation of a site also means the destruction of the local stratigraphy and structures.
Therefore, any trenching should be done in the most preservative way to avoid damage both for the
ongoing and any future studies at the same site. Moreover, excavation material should be backlled
carefully, especially on cultivated lands. For example, preservation of the natural soil can be critical
and can be done by separating it from other excavated materials and putting it back at the end of the
trench study.

Excavation: Choosing the Trench Orientation, Size, and Pattern

The choices for trench excavation depend on several factors such as the kind of material being
trenched, the width of the deformation zone, the fault type, the relief of the site, the target depth, the
stability of the trench walls, and the style of working.

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Trench Orientation: Fault-Perpendicular and Fault-Parallel Trenches

The sense of fault displacement is the major criteria in positioning trenches before starting the
excavation. Fault-perpendicular trenches are often used to locate fault zones and identify the
recurrence patterns. Dip-slip paleo-events can be characterized in terms of recurrence and displace-
ment by a single fault-perpendicular trench, especially where the deformation is localized in
a narrow zone. However, multiple trenches, both fault-perpendicular and fault-parallel, are needed
to measure the horizontal slip along strike-slip faults. The concept of 3D trenching was developed
for this type of faulting, where both recurrence and displacement history could be inferred. To reveal
the slip history, several approaches could be used, such as (a) multiple trenches closely spaced;
(b) successive exposures, which are dug orthogonally to the fault zone; or (c) two fault-parallel
trenches on each side of the fault, exposing the offset features (piercing lines). In all of these
approaches, at least one fault-perpendicular trench is excavated to locate the fault zone. For example,
Marco et al. (2005) used buried stream channels as piercing lines to restore the slip history of
individual and cumulative events at the Jordan Gorge Segment of the Dead Sea Fault.

Trench Size
The main goal in trench studies is to expose maximum information with the most efcient
excavation. Thus, determination of excavation dimensions plays a crucial role in the planning of
the study time and budget. Depending on the width of the fault zone, the trench length may vary from
a few meters to several hundred meters. Excavations are often started from footwall side and
extended toward the hanging wall across dip-slip faults. The trench length is relatively shorter
across strike-slip faults. The width is preferred to be large enough for the maintenance of a safe and
comfortable working space, especially for taking photos of the trench walls. Depth mostly depends
on the stability of walls and water table. Deeper trenches increase the probability of exposing
a longer seismic history. Safety precautions are also very important in planning of the trench
dimensions. (Please see the relevant section in this article). On the other hand, the geometry of
trench walls, either oriented vertically or inclined, should have a planar shape as much as possible for
a perfect projection surface to log.

Trench Patterns
Trench arrangement usually differs according to the structural and depositional properties of sites.
The most appropriate arrangement is mostly selected according to the water table, stability of trench
walls, type of deposits, logistic conditions, and the budget. Figure 1 shows cross sections of different
trench types (Type 1 to Type 6). The most often used pattern is single-slot (California-style, Type 1)
trench, which is easily shored with a minimum material excavation and is least time consuming
(Fig. 2a). This style of trenching is also the cheapest one, but also may acquire hydraulic or wooden
shores against collapse of trench walls, especially in loose sediments. On the other hand, it is obvious
that deeper sections increase the possibility for the recovery of the longer seismic history. Thus,
paleoseismologists tend to excavate deeper trenches in suitable sites (Fig. 2b). Deeper trenches,
Type 2 to Type 6, expose more faulting events, but they are expensive and time consuming.
Multistepped or sloped patterns are mainly precautions against trench collapse.

Safety Precautions
Trench walls tend to collapse easily under various geological and morphological conditions. Fault
zones easily reduce the cohesion of the material by crushing and creating open voids. High water
table can evoke the collapse of unconsolidated young sediments. Cohesion differences between
stratigraphic units in a section may also cause caving inside the cohesionless unit. Precautions,

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Fig. 1 Cross sections showing different types of trench patterns. Type 1, single slot; Type 2, one-side stepped; Type
3, two-side stepped; Type 4, multistepped; Type 5, one-side sloped; Type 6, two-side sloped (or open pit) (Modied and
redrawn after McCalpin 1989)

Fig. 2 Sample photos from different trench types: (a) single slot (Photo by Dr. Aynur Dikba) and (b) two-side stepped
(Photo by Dr. Taylan Sanar)

which are listed under two subtitles below, include only general and most common suggestions.
Local regulations must always be consulted and followed. BS 5930 the code of practice for site
investigations in the UK, for example, gives detailed guidance on legal, environmental, and
technical matters relating to site investigation. It should be well understood that trenching is
dangerous and loss of life can occur if undertaken unsafely. All available and mandatory risk
assessments should be undertaken prior to work commencing and then reviewed once the trench
is open to take into account any unexpected ground conditions.

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Safety Precautions Inside the Trench

Trenching in loose materials or high water table may cause collapsing or caving of trench walls.
Stepped- or sloped-type trenches are relatively safer with respect to single-slot type based on local
conditions. For example, according to safety regulations in the USA, the vertical walls exceeding
1.5 m high in Type A or 1.2 m in Type B and Type C soils must contain another 1.5 m-wide
horizontal bench on each side (OSHA 1989). In addition to benching, the stability of walls can be
supported by hydraulic or wooden shores (Fig. 2a). If trench walls contain blocky materials, fallen
boulders or cobbles can easily harm or even kill researches who work inside. Hard hats should
always be worn in any trench over 1 m deep, which can be deadly under the right circumstances.

Safety Precautions Outside the Trench

Trenches with considerable depths are dangerous spots not only for domestic animals but also for the
people who live nearby. An excavation area can attract especially kids and curious adults, and
closing to the trench edges can be dangerous both for them and researchers inside. Paleoseis-
mologists usually use safety tapes or simple fences to avoid such accidents. One member of the
study team should also stay outside not only to inform cautious visitors but also to monitor any
progressive cracks on the ground following the excavation of the site.

Preparing Trench for the Study

Following the excavation and implementation of safety precautions, the walls must be perfectly
cleaned enough to expose all stratigraphic and structural relationships. The shovel of work machines
usually leaves many scars, clay packs, or pseudo-corrugations. Tools such as scrapers, masonry
towels, hammers, brushes, and water sprays are used for the cleaning of different material types on
the trench walls.
After a careful cleaning process, a reference grid is constructed for logging. A typical grid is
composed of perfect vertical and horizontal lines, which are generally spaced 1 m (or 0.5 m) apart.
Horizontality and verticality can be constructed and checked using a spirit level. Laser levelers,
which increase the precision and save lots of time, are getting more common each day in trench
studies. At the end of gridding, every horizontal and vertical reference point is labeled successively
every 1 or 0.5 m (Fig. 3).

Logging: Recording the Stratigraphic and Structural Relationships

Trench logs are the key records, which contain almost all information regarding the stratigraphy and
structures in a trench study. These logs not only document primary and/or secondary earthquake
evidence, but they also show the precise coordinates of sampling points. In many trench studies,
usually a single wall is logged. However, logging of both walls provides conrmation of structural
features and also helps the 3D reconstruction of the distribution of stratigraphic units. There are two
common logging methods: manual and photomosaic.
Squared paper is used in the traditional manual method, for which each critical stratigraphic
horizon and structure is logged with plotting the measurements of critical points with respect to the
reference grid (Fig. 4). An ordinary tape measure or a measuring rod with a spirit level is used in
taking these coordinates. In manual logging, there must be at least two people working simulta-
neously for an efcient study. While one person measures the horizontal and vertical distances from
trench features to the nearest grid line, a second person plots the positions of these measurements on
the squared paper with a scale.
Especially after the development of the digital photography techniques, logging on the photo-
mosaic of walls has almost become a standard in trench studies. The trench walls are photographed

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Fig. 3 An ideal reference grid (Photo by Dr. Volkan Karabacak)

and combined into a mosaic covering the whole wall (Fig. 5). Fast orthorectication of photos
provide precise representation of trench exposures.
In addition to these two common techniques, there are different methodological attempts in
logging of a trench wall. These relatively new methods aim to provide more quantitative information
about structures and the distribution of the depositional units by using such as spectral imaging
(Ragona et al. 2006) or the magnetic susceptibility measurements of the trench walls (Fraser
et al. 2009).
Irrelevant to which method is chosen during the logging, the nal record is digitized by using
vector-based drawing software in post-eld studies. All stratigraphic units are labeled and shown
with proper symbols and colors. In addition to the clear imaging of faults and event horizons, the
reference grid is provided to give a true spatial sense (Fig. 6).

Types of Sediment-Structure Relations in the Identification of Paleo-

earthquakes
Destructive earthquakes, mainly with magnitude >6, often produce surface deformation, which
depends on parameters such as the physical structure of the crust, the type of faulting, and the focal
depth. In a properly selected trench site, it is highly probable to see surface faulting within the young
deposits. A key objective of paleoseismologists is to identify and dene event horizon(s) and recover
the seismic history of the studied fault segment with dating of the relevant stratigraphic units.
Each trench has its own story. The historical evolution of the studied fault segment is hidden on
the trench wall exposures. Even though there are some denite event structures for different fault
types, all fault-related structures can be classied under two major titles: (a) on-fault (primary) and
(b) off-fault (secondary or indirect) structures (Fig. 7). On-fault structures are mostly preferred in
trench studies, due to the ambiguous nature of off-fault structures.

On-Fault Structures
The most commonly seen evidence for a past earthquake on the trench wall is upward termination of
a fault against overlying strata (Fig. 7a). The thickness change of a layer on both sides of the fault
reects an erosional and depositional stage after an earthquake (Fig. 7b). A colluvial wedge is
another clear evidence for a paleo-surface rupture, where a vertical separation or offset occurs

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Fig. 4 Traditional manual log of a trench wall (Taken from Dr. Volkan Karabacak)

between faulted blocks (this is also possible in lateral fault movements in rugged areas) (Fig. 7c).
A monoclinal-like structure develops above the faulted zone in environments with high sedimen-
tation rates (Fig. 7d). Open ssures can often be seen both on extensional and strike-slip faults. They
can be lled by younger inlls, which mark an event on the trench wall (Fig. 7e). Disoriented pebble-
or cobble-sized clasts, seen in coarse-grained layers or in shear zones within ne-grained sediments,
usually indicate a surface deformation of an earthquake (Fig. 7f, g).

Off-Fault Structures
Where it is not possible to open a trench on the main fault zone, for a variety of reason, paleoseis-
mologists will then look to examine secondary (or off-fault) structures, to reveal the paleoseismic
history. Angular unconformities within the modern sediments are important markers, indicating
a nearby fault-related deformation (Fig. 7h). Sandblow (or boil), mud diapirism, liqueed sand,
minor fractures, and cracks are all soft-sediment deformational structures that are related to ground
shaking and can be interpreted as indicators of paleo-earthquakes (Fig. 7ik).

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Fig. 5 Photomosaic of a trench wall (Photo by Dr. Volkan Karabacak)

Fig. 6 A nal log of a trench study (Taken from Dr. Volkan Karabacak)

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Fig. 7 Earthquake indicators used in the identication of paleo-events. On-fault structures: (a) upward termination of
a fault, which is overlain by undeformed stratum; (b) difference in thickness of strata at each side of the fault and
downward growth of the displacement along the fault trace; (c) scarp-derived colluvium; (d) formation of monoclinal
folding, where fast sedimentation covers the fault scarp; (e) open surface cracks, inlled with material of the overlying
unit; (f) disordered pebbles covered by undeformed layer; and (g) sheared layer covered with unsheared one. Off-fault
structures: (h) angular unconformity within modern sediments; (i) sand boil, sand dike, and liqueed sand; (j) minor
cracks and ssures with no offset; and (k) soft-sediment deformation in general that blankets with undeformed one
(Modied and redrawn after Allen (1986); reprinted with permission from Active Tectonics (1986) by the National
Academy of Sciences, Courtesy of the National Academy Press, Washington, DC)

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Dating Paleo-earthquakes
In addition to identication of paleo-earthquakes on trench walls, it is crucial to date important
seismic horizons to model paleo-earthquakes and future risk. During or after the logging of
stratigraphic horizons and structural features on the trench wall, horizons are sampled for dating
to construct the temporal relationships. Especially event horizons, which cover earthquake-related
structures, are the key levels in the recovery of the seismic history in a trench study. Late Quaternary
deposits can be dated by a wide range of correlated, relative, numerical, and calibrated age methods.
Among all, radiocarbon dating is the most common applied method in paleoseismological studies.
The main materials are in situ organic compounds, such as bones, teeth, shells, charcoals, peats,
chunks, and organic soils for radiocarbon dating. Advances in luminescence dating also introduced
the application of this method in trench studies. Other dating methods of young sediments such as
varve chronology, electron spin resonance, amino acid racemization, etc. can be used in suitable
environments. Prior to sampling for dating, the most proper method should be determined, and the
careful sampling techniques should be applied to avoid any contamination.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Trenching Studies

Paleoseismic trenching plays an important role in the reconstruction of a seismic history and makes
an invaluable contribution to seismic risk assessments of a region (G urpnar 2005). However,
paleoseismology has advantages and limits like any other applied techniques. It is important to
know all these aspects of paleoseismic studies to construct a sound project and solve a scientic
problem.

The Advantages of Paleoseismic Trenching

Paleoseismic trenching can provide the exact location of the fault (or deformational structures),
which is very important information in urban or industrial planning.
The reconstruction of the seismic history from well-chosen trench sites provides reliable infor-
mation for seismic risk assessments.
In addition to the location and timing of a paleo-event, well-located fault-perpendicular trenches
for dip-slip faults or fault-parallel trenches for strike-slip faults provide the slip history
(magnitude of displacement).

The Disadvantages of Paleoseismic Trenching

Sometimes the destructive earthquakes do not produce any surface rupture along the source fault.
These kinds of paleo-earthquakes do not leave their surface expressions on the Earths surface,
which make it impossible to identify anything in a trench study. Thus, paleoseismic trenching
may only give information for large earthquakes that produce surface deformations.
The distributed deformation, especially in thick water-saturated sediments, can be reected as
departed surface faulting after different events. Studies, especially with only a single trench under
these circumstances, are resulted with missing recovery of total history.
The thickness of stratigraphic units, which records the event history in a trench study, is directly
affected by the sedimentation rate. Continuous sedimentation is always desired in trench studies;

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however, very fast sedimentation can cover event horizons with a thick pile of sediments, which
prevent reaching the paleo-events.
High water table usually prevents reaching deeper (older) stratigraphy.
Logistics (i.e., permissions or environmental issues) may prevent excavating a perfect trench site,
which is not ideally located or positioned.
There may not be enough and suitable sampling material for dating based on environmental
and/or sedimentary conditions.
Measured displacements may also include post-seismic and/or creeping motions in addition to the
coseismic slip.
It is hard to identify all individual earthquakes along fast-moving faults (especially at overlapping
sections of neighboring segments) due to limitation of dating methods.

Summary
In the developing world, mankind needs better life conditions, new settlements, and new industrial
areas. It is well known that most part of the Earths crust has a perpetual motion and that earthquakes
are one of the most destructive natural hazards. Therefore, scientists have to nd safe zones in which
to live, especially at actively deformed regions, or provide information to mitigate against the
seismic hazard. To achieve this, they have to know the exact location of the deformation zone and
understand the characteristic behavior of the fault zone. Then, they can predict the future seismic risk
of the area. Paleoseismological trenching is the most important tool to understand the nature of
paleo-earthquakes and to predict the present and future behavioral characteristics of studied fault
segments. The famous phrase of James Hutton the present is the key to the past, then, can be
improved to the past is the key to the future in the paleoseismic point of view. Of course, the term
past covers mainly Holocene or Late Pleistocene, but not millions of years, while the term future
embraces tens to thousands of years.
Trenching is a multidisciplinary study, including geology, geophysics, geomorphology,
geoinformatics, geochronology, history, even mythology, etc. Pre-eld, remote sensing studies
provide important information on the location of the deformation zone and possible trench sites,
which saves time, manpower, and budget. After the completion of desk and preliminary eld studies,
the rst step is to nd a convenient site for trenching. Important issues in proper location are
continuous sedimentation, a low water table, presence of dating material, and sufcient logistic
conditions (transportation, providing a work machine, etc.). Detailed geomorphological and geo-
logical maps are prepared to understand depositional or erosional conditions around trench sites.
High-resolution micro-topographic maps give invaluable and precise information about effects of
deformation and offset structures. Shallow geophysical methods are also important to dene exact
deformation zone and the continuation of the fault in depth.
After deciding on the placement of the trench site, the orientation, size, and pattern of the
excavation should be chosen based on scientic and logistic conditions. Safety precautions during
and after excavation are very important both inside and outside of the trench. These precautions must
be strictly applied until the closure of the trench. After excavation, the trench is prepared for
a detailed study within the following steps: (1) The trench walls are cleaned and the traces of the
work machine are removed; (2) the walls are put in a reference frame with vertical and horizontal
lines (mainly by using a plastic string) in 1  1 or 0.5  0.5 m grids; and (3) stratigraphic horizons
and critical structures are mapped onto squared paper scaled appropriately. Alternatively, systematic
photographs and their photomosaics of trench walls can also be used for logging. Note that the

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identication of past (paleo-)earthquakes on trench walls needs careful, detailed, and accurate
analyses of both exposed trench stratigraphy and structure. On-fault or off-fault deformation and
structures (primary and/or secondary) are used to reveal seismic history of the studied fault segment.
(4) Sample collection for dating of critical (event) horizons should be undertaken and is important in
trench studies to model the timing of events and recurrence intervals. Finally, after the collection of
all available data at the trench site, the excavated material is lled back carefully to restore the
original environmental conditions as much as possible.
In conclusion, paleoseismological trenching, the direct observation method of historical earth-
quakes, provides both the exact location and history of the fault. Exposing faulted modern
(or Holocene) sediments in suitable environments gives invaluable information about surface-
rupturing earthquakes for a few hundreds to thousands of years. These paleoseismic data are very
important in the planning of urban and industrial settlements and, most importantly, in providing
a safer life for mankind.

Cross-References
Archaeoseismology
Earthquake Recurrence
Earthquake Return Period and Its Incorporation into Seismic Actions
Landscapes, Paleoseismic
Luminescence Dating in Paleoseismology
Paleoseismic Ground Investigation Techniques
Paleoseismic History of the Dead Sea Fault Zone
Paleoseismic History of the North Anatolian Fault Zone
Paleoseismic History of the San Andreas Fault Zone
Paleoseismology
Paleoseismology: Integration with Seismic Hazard
Radiocarbon Dating in Paleoseismology
Seismic Event Detection

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