Mechanics of Materials 37 (2005) 11431152

www.elsevier.com/locate/mechmat

Modelling of Bauschinger eect by various constitutive

relations derived from thermodynamical formulation
M. Choteau, P. Quaegebeur *, S. Degallaix
Laboratoire de Mecanique de Lille (UMR CNRS 8107), Ecole Centrale de Lille BP 48, 59651 Villeneuve dAscq Cedex, France

Received 11 April 2004; received in revised form 28 October 2004

Abstract

Bauschinger eect in an AISI 316L austenitic stainless steel at room temperature was studied as a function of the
plastic prestrain. Typical uni-axial Bauschinger tests in tensioncompression and in compressiontension were carried
out. Internal and eective stresses were evaluated from the experimental stressstrain curves using the method proposed
by Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf and Laird. Four constitutive relations derived from a thermodynamical formulation were iden-
tied using an inverse identication method. The modelled stressstrain curves were then compared to the experimental
ones. Bauschinger eect was characterised using Bauschinger indicators proposed in the literature in terms of strain,
stress and energy, respectively. These indicators were evaluated from the experimental stressstrain curves on the
one hand, from the modelled ones on the other hand. Their variations as functions of prestrain were then compared.
The best constitutive relation uses two non-linear kinematic work-hardening terms.

2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Bauschinger eect; Austenitic stainless steel; Constitutive relation; Uni-axial tensioncompression test; Kinematic work-
hardening; Isotropic work-hardening

1. Introduction stress lower than that reached in the prestrain

First in 1881, Bauschinger observed that in
many metallic materials, after a plastic prestrain
in tension (respectively in compression), a follow-
ing loading in the opposite direction leads to ow
*
Corresponding author. Fax: +33 03 20 33 53 52.
E-mail address: philippe.quaegebeur@ec-lille.fr (P. Quaege-
beur).
direction (Bauschinger, 1881). Further, this phe-
nomenon has been called the Bauschinger eect
(BE). But this phenomenon is much more complex
than only a lowering of yield stress in reverse direc-
tion: in fact, the whole shape of the second loading
work-hardening curve is modied.
The consequences of this phenomenon are
important for forming processes of materials and
for the further mechanical properties of formed

0167-6636/$ - see front matter
2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.mechmat.2004.12.001
1144 M. Choteau et al. / Mechanics of Materials 37 (2005) 11431152
Nomenclature
BE Bauschinger eect (see Fig. 1)
br Bauschinger stress indicator (see Fig. 1)
be Bauschinger strain indicator (see Fig. 1)
bE Bauschinger energy indicator (see
Fig. 1)
Ep plastic prestrain energy (see Fig. 1)
rint internal stress (see Fig. 2)
re eective stress (see Fig. 2)
ECNL1 relation: relation using one non-linear
kinematic work-hardening term and
with /(p) = 1 (see denition in Section 3)
structural elements. The BE induces a material
anisotropy leading, among others, to a shift of
the centre of the stressstrain hysteresis loop in
low-cycle fatigue (Welter, 1949), and to a plastic-
ity-induced crack closure in fatigue crack growth
(Pommier and Bompard, 2000).
Since 1881, many authors have characterised
the BE by dierent parameters (or indicators)
expressed in terms of stress (Jamieson and Hood,
1971; Ibrahim and Embury, 1975; Woillez et al.,
1977; Pederson et al., 1981), strain (Buckley and
Entwistle, 1956; Stoltz and Pelloux, 1974; Wool-
ley, 1953) or/and energy (Saleh and Margolin,
1979; Aran et al., 1987). These studies often use
a single parameter or a combination of two of
them. They do not usually use a combination of
three parameters like Abel (1973), Li et al. (1978)
and Irimescu (1984) do.
Nevertheless, none of these parameters or
group of parameters express all the consequences
of the BE, even for simple uni-axial tensioncom-
pression tests. Indeed, the plastic strain in the for-
ward direction modies basically the stressstrain
curve in the reverse direction, and a complete
description of this stressstrain curve is necessary.
Another more physical approach of the BE can
be considered. Some authors use the concept of
internal and eective stresses (Rees, 1981; Embury,
1987; Feaugeas, 1999). During plastic loading, the
stress applied can be divided into two components:
the internal stress, or back stress, due to long-range
stresses acting on the mobile dislocations, which is
ECNLdif1 relation: relation using one non-
linear kinematic work-hardening term
and with /(p) 5 1 (see denition in Sec-
tion 3)
EC2NL relation: relation combining two non-
linear kinematic work-hardening terms
(see denition in Section 3)
EC2NLI relation: relation combining two non-
linear kinematic work-hardening terms
and an isotropic work-hardening term
(see denition in Section 3)
then athermal; and the eective stress, or friction
stress, due to short-range stresses acting on the
mobile dislocations, which is then thermally acti-
vated. The BE is attributed to the internal stresses.
Indeed, with a microstructural point of view, the
BE has been explained in terms of polarisation
of work-hardening, due to the accumulation of
internal stresses during plastic deformation (Em-
bury, 1987). This last approach can be linked to
the thermodynamical formulation of the constitu-
tive relations of a material, in terms of kinematic
and isotropic work-hardenings (Lemaitre and
Chaboche, 1985). In these constitutive relations,
the BE is expressed by kinematic work-hardening
terms. Other more complex models as polycrystal
plasticity models can account for BE, among other
phenomena (Cailletaud, 1992; Cailletaud and
Pilvin, 1994; Pilvin, 1994; Abdul-Latif et al., 1998;
Toth et al., 2000).
The purpose of the present study is to charac-
terise and model the BE exhibited by an austenitic
stainless steel under uniaxial tensioncompression
loading. First, uniaxial tensioncompression and
compressiontension tests were performed at room
temperature in order to study experimentally the
Bauschinger eect shown by this steel. Next, a
few relevant indicators found in the literature were
chosen and calculated from the experimental data,
in order to characterise as completely as possible
the BE. Then, the internal and eective stresses
were derived from the experimental stressstrain
curves. Finally, few constitutive relations derived
 M. Choteau et al. / Mechanics of Materials 37 (2005) 11431152 1145

from the thermodynamical formulation were were used here all together, to characterise as com-
tested relative to their taking into account of the pletely as possible the BE during typical Bauschin-
BE. The results of modelling were compared to ger tests. The denitions of these indicators are
the experimental ones, in terms of work-hardening given schematically and analytically in Fig. 1.
curves, elastic characteristics and Bauschinger The Bauschinger stress indicator, br, is a func-
indicators. tion of the prestress reached during the rst load-
ing, rmaxi, and of the reverse loading yield stress,
Re2. Because rmaxi is also the yield stress of a sec-
2. Experimental method ond loading in the same direction as the rst load-
ing, br is then representative of the lowering of
2.1. Material and mechanical tests yield stress.
The Bauschinger strain indicator, be, takes into
The material studied is an AISI 316L austenitic account the strain shift b between the two work-
stainless steel. Its chemical composition in wt.% is: hardening curves put in the rst quadrant of the
C: 0.027; Si: 0.61; Mn: 1.28; Ni: 11.10; Cr: 16.62;
Mo: 2.03; S: 0.026; P: 0.021; N: 0.02. The steel
was solution treated and then water-quenched be-
fore machining of the specimens. The specimens
were cylindrical and button-headed with a 10 mm
diameter and a 15 mm length in the useful part.
The tests were performed at room temperature
on a 300 kN electromechanical testing machine.
The tests were carried out with a total strain con-
trol at the total strain rate e_ t 4
103 s1 . Strain
was measured by a strain gauge extensometer with
a 12.5 mm gauge length. Tests and data recordings
were computer-controlled. Each test consists of a
plastic prestrain in tension (respectively in com-
pression) up to a given total strain level (in the
range 0.25%) followed by a reverse loading in
compression (respectively in tension) until the
opposite of the maximum stress of the rst loading
is exceeded. More details on the experimental
procedure can be found in Choteau (1999) and
Choteau et al. (1999). Six tensioncompression
tests (noted T + C in Figs. 3 and 4) and six
compressiontension tests (noted C + T in Figs. 3
and 4) with dierent prestrains were performed.
Such tests are usually called typical Bauschinger
tests in the literature.

2.2. Bauschinger eect indicators

All the indicators used in the literature in order

to characterise the BE can be put in three catego-
ries: those in terms of stress, those in terms of
strain and those in terms of energy. Three indica- Fig. 1. Denition of Bauschinger indicators used to character-
tors proposed by Abel (1973), one of each type, ise the BE.
1146 M. Choteau et al. / Mechanics of Materials 37 (2005) 11431152

stressstrain plane, and is dened as the ratio of

this shift to the plastic prestrain. max
The Bauschinger energy indicator, bE, is the
ratio of the amount of stored and then returned
energy, Es, to the plastic prestrain energy, Ep. Re1
The three indicators, br, be and bE, are equal to
zero when no BE exists and with a very strong BE,

2eff
br is equal to its maximal value 2, and be and bE
tend to the innity.

int
These three indicators were calculated from the
experimental stressstrain curves, using specic

software developed in the laboratory. Forward
and reverse yield stresses were calculated using a
plastic strain oset equal to 2 104. Re2

2.3. Internal and eective stresses

Internal and eective stresses (rint, re) are - max

today widely used to study the Bauschinger eect
(Vogt et al., 1993; Feaugeas, 1999; Plumtree and
max Re2
Abdel-Raouf, 2001). These two components of eff =
2
the ow stress reveal the physical nature of the
max + Re2
work-hardening of the materials. The internal int =
2
stress corresponds to the stress associated with a
local strain process leading to long-range interac- Fig. 2. Denition of the internal and eective stresses, accord-
ing to Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf and Laird partitioning method
tions with mobile dislocations. The eective stress
(Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf and Laird, 1979).
is the stress locally required for a dislocation to
move. It corresponds to short-range stresses like
friction stress (due to the crystal lattice, to the sol-
tension + compression
utes . . .) and dislocation forest contribution.
From a mechanical point of view, the back stress compression + tension
300
is associated with the translation of the elastic do-
main, and thus with kinematic work-hardening. 200
On the contrary, the eective stress is associated
100
with the size of the elastic domain at a given plastic
int (MPa)

plastic prestrain
strain, and thus with isotropic work-hardening.
0
A stress partitioning method, based on the ana- 0 0.02 0.04
lysis of Cottrell (1953), was proposed and used by -100
Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf and Laird (1979) in low-cycle
fatigue. This method is shown in Fig. 2 on the rst -200
three quarters of a cyclic loading. Dickson et al.
-300
(1984) proposed a slightly dierent method, but
this last method is more dicult to use when the Fig. 3. Internal stresses evaluated from experimental data as
elastic part of the work-hardening curve is short. functions of the absolute value of the plastic prestrain.
Because the yield stress of the 316L stainless steel,
and then the elastic part of the work-hardening reverse loading yield stress, Re2, dened for the
curve are dicult to dene, the rst method is used BE stress indicator br are used here to dene inter-
in this work. The same maximal stress, rmax, and nal and eective stresses.
 M. Choteau et al. / Mechanics of Materials 37 (2005) 11431152
tension + compression
compression + tension
200
100
plastic prestrain
eff (MPa)
0 were chosen, using dierent kinematic work-hard-
0 0.02 0.04
-100
-200
Fig. 4. Eective stresses evaluated from experimental data as
functions of the absolute value of the plastic prestrain.
Although the Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf and Laird
partitioning method has been discussed in the liter-
ature (Dickson et al., 1984; Feaugas, 1994; Polak
et al., 1996), only the variations of the internal
and eective stresses as functions of plastic pre-
strain are of interest here. Indeed, the aim of this
part is only to know the relative part of kinematic
and isotropic work-hardening contributions.
Internal and eective stresses were calculated at
the maximal stress of the rst loading on the exper-
imental stressstrain curves. They are plotted as
functions of the plastic prestrain in Figs. 3 and 4,
respectively.
The same behaviour is observed whatever the
direction of the rst loading, for internal and eec-
tive stresses, respectively. The internal stresses in-
crease continuously with the plastic prestrain. On
the contrary, the eective stresses decrease only
very slightly at low plastic prestrain (ep 6 8
103), and then are quasi-constant whatever the
plastic prestrain level.
As it was previously reported in the literature
(Feaugas, 1994), the present results indicate clearly
that the AISI 316L austenitic strainless steel exhib-
its a typical kinematic behaviour rather than an
isotropic one.
3. Constitutive relations
Dierent constitutive relations are proposed in
the literature to describe the Bauschinger eect.
1147
Constitutive relations derived from thermodynam-
ical formulation (Lemaitre and Chaboche, 1985)
are used here.
Due to the fact that the eective stress is quasi-
independent of the prestrain level, three constitu-
tive relations derived from the thermodynamical
formulation and dened for uniaxial conditions
ening terms and no isotropic work-hardening
term: two relations using one non-linear kinematic
work-hardening term dierent for each relation
(called ECNL1 and ECNLdif1 relations) and a
relation combining two non-linear kinematic
work-hardening terms (EC2NL relation). And in
order to verify that no isotropic work-hardening
exists, a fourth relation combining two non-linear
kinematic work-hardening terms and an isotropic
work-hardening term (EC2NLI relation) was used.
Equations of these relations are the followings:
f jr  X i j  k  R 0


1 r  Xi r  Xi
dep  dr 
h k k
dr
Sgnr  X i if r  X i  dr > 0
h
h C i  ci  /p  X i  sgnr  X i B  Q  R
where
P
X iX i
dXi = Ci dep  ci /(p) Xi jdepj
dR = B (Q  R) dp
/(p) = /1 + (1  /1) exp(x p)
with f is the yield stress, r the uni-axial stress, R
the isotropic variable, p the cumulated plastic
strain, Xi the kinematic variable, i = 1, 2, k the
yield stress, ep the plastic strain, Ci work-harden-
ing modulus, and hXi = X if X > 0, hX i = 0 if
X 6 0. ci, x and /1 are characteristics of the
material.
The ECNL1 relation corresponds to R = 0,
i = 1, /(p) = 1 and B = 0.
The ECNLdif1 relation corresponds to R = 0,
i = 1, /(p) 5 1 and B = 0.
The EC2NL relation corresponds to R = 0,
i = 1, 2; /(p) 5 1 and B = 0.
1148 M. Choteau et al. / Mechanics of Materials 37 (2005) 11431152

The EC2NLI relation corresponds to i = 1, 2;
/(p) 5 1.
Parameters of the models (k, Ci, ci, /1, x, B
and Q) were identied by inverse method simulta-
neously on all the experimental stressstrain
curves, using SiDoLo software (Pilvin, 1995).
More details on the inverse identication
method can be found in Choteau et al. (2000).
Identications give:
ECNL1 relation: C = 13,230 MPa; c = 85 MPa;
k = 228 MPa;
ECNLdif1 relation: C = 42,940 MPa; c = 365
MPa; k = 180 MPa; /1 = 0.32; x = 18;
EC2NL relation: C1 = 42,940 MPa; c1 =365
MPa; C2 = 1345 MPa; c2 = 38 MPa; k =157
MPa; /1 = 0.38; x = 20;
EC2NLI relation: C1 = 51,800 MPa; c1 = 460
MPa; C2 = 295 MPa; c2 = 16 MPa; k = 172
MPa; /1 = 0.28; x = 15; B = 5; Q = 51.
Only the results of the tests with tension for-
ward loading are presented here. Despite the slight
dierences between experimental results in tension
and compression initial loading, the results of the
tests with compression forward loading lead to
the same conclusions.
4.1. Comparison between experimental
and modelled stressstrain curves
Figs. 58 compare the modelled stressstrain
curves with the experimental ones for the four
calculated
experimental
v (MPa)
300
100
v

-100
-0.04 -0.02 0 0.02 0.04
4. Results and discussion - - 300

The comparison between modelling results and - 500

experimental results will be carried out in two
Fig. 5. Comparison between experimental and modelled stress
times. strain curves (ECNL1 relation: model using one non-linear
First, the shapes of experimental work-harden- kinematic work-hardening term and with /(p) = 1).
ing curves and modelled ones will be compared
relative to three zones: the elastic zone (comparison
between modelled and experimental Young moduli calculated
and yield stresses), the transient part between the experimental
elastic zone and the quasi-linear plastic zone (com-
parison of the shapes of this zone), and the quasi- v (MPa)
linear plastic zone (comparison between modelled 300
and experimental slopes in this zone).
Then the variations of various parameters 100 v
experimentally obtained (reverse loading yield
stresses and Bauschinger indicators) with the pre- -0.04 -0.02 0 0.02 0.04
-100
strain direction and level will be compared with
those calculated from the modelled stressstrain
curves. -300
The four constitutive relations used in this work
lead to stressstrain curves which are symmetrical -500
in tension and in compression. On the contrary, Fig. 6. Comparison between experimental and modelled stress
experimental stressstrain curves are not exactly strain curves (ECNLdif1 relation: model using one non-linear
symmetrical, but the dierences are weak. kinematic work-hardening term and with /(p) 5 1).
 M. Choteau et al. / Mechanics of Materials 37 (2005) 11431152 1149

whatever the prestrain level. Such asymptotes are

calculated
not observed on the experimental curves.
experimental
The experimental curves are much better taken
into account by the three other models. First, the
v (MPa) asymptote is suppressed due to the term /
300 (p) 5 1. Then, the slope change between elastic
and plastic parts is not as marked as it is with
100
v the ECNL1 model. Moreover, the dierences be-
-0.04 -0.02 -100 0 0.02 0.04
tween ECNLdif1, EC2NL and EC2NLI models
are not very marked. Calculated slopes and stress
levels in the quasi-linear plastic zone dier only
-300
slightly from those of experimental curves. The
-500 comparison between Figs. 7 and 8 conrms that
an isotropic work-hardening term is not necessary
Fig. 7. Comparison between experimental and modelled stress for the experimental curves to be well represented.
strain curves (EC2NL relation: model combining two non-
Finally, the best relation for the experimental
linear kinematic work-hardening terms).
curves to be expressed is the EC2NL relation.

4.2. Comparison between experimental

calculated
and modelled yield stresses
experimental

Fig. 9 compares the reverse loading yield stres-

v (MPa) ses evaluated from experimental curves and from
300
modelled curves, at the same 2 104 residual
plastic strain.
100
v
-0.04 -0.02 0 0.02 0.04
-100

Experimental
-300 ECNL1
one non-linear kinematic work-hardening with (p)=1
-500 ECNLdif1
one non-linear kinematic work-hardening with (p) 1
Fig. 8. Comparison between experimental and modelled stress EC2NL
strain curves (EC2NLI relation: model combining two two non-linear kinematic work-hardeningsa
non-linear kinematic work-hardening terms and an isotropic
work-hardening term). 150 Re0.02%
(MPa)
50
constitutive relations ECNL1, ECNLdif1, EC2NL
and EC2NLI, respectively. -50
The curves obtained using ECNL1 constitutive
relation present a slope change at the points corre- -150
sponding to the rst and second loading yield stres-
ses. Thus, the actual curvature of the transient -250 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
elbow between elastic and plastic zones is not taken
tension plastic prestrain
into account by this relation. Moreover, the -350
modelled curves tend to a horizontal asymptote, Fig. 9. Comparison between reverse loading yield stresses
due to the term /(p) = 1. The asymptotic stress obtained from the dierent constitutive relations and from
value is the same for forward and reverse loadings, experimental tests.
1150 M. Choteau et al. / Mechanics of Materials 37 (2005) 11431152

The comparison of the four model yield stresses Experimental

reveals better the dierences between the models ECNL1
ECNLdif1, EC2NL and EC2NLI than the com- one non-linear kinematic work-hardening with (p)=1
parison between the experimental and modelled ECNLdif1
curves. All the reverse loading yield stresses ob- one non-linear kinematic work-hardening with (p) 1
EC2NL
tained from modelling increase with the prestrain two non-linear kinematic work-hardenings
increasing like experimental yield stresses do, but
with calculated values lower than experimental
values. Experimental reverse loading yield stresses 2.4
are negative for prestrains lower than 102 and 2
then become positive. On the contrary, reverse 1.6
loading yield stresses evaluated from ECNL1, 1.2
ECNLdif1 and EC2NLI models stay negative at 0.8
least until 5% of prestrain. Only reverse loading
0.4
yield stresses evaluated from EC2NL model be-
come positive for prestrains higher than 3%. 0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
So the EC2NL model ts the best the experi-
tension plastic prestrain
mental reverse loading yield stresses.
Fig. 11. Comparison between the Bauschinger strain indicators
4.3. Comparison between experimental obtained from the dierent constitutive relations and from
and modelled BE indicators experimental data.

Figs. 1012 compare the variations of the

Experimental
Bauschinger indicators br, be and bE obtained ECNL1
from the dierent constitutive relations with those one non-linear kinematic work-hardening with (p)=1
obtained experimentally. ECNLdif1
one non-linear kinematic work-hardening with (p)1
EC2NL
two non-linear kinematic work-hardenings
Experimental
0.6
ECNL1 E
one non-linear kinematic work-hardening with (p)=1 0.5
ECNLdif1
one non-linear kinematic work-hardening with (p) 1 0.4
EC2NL
0.3
two non-linear kinematic work-hardenings
0.2
1.2 0.1

0
0.8 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
tension plastic prestrain

0.4 Fig. 12. Comparison between the Bauschinger energy indica-

tors obtained from the dierent constitutive relations and from
experimental data.
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
tension plastic prestrain Experimental and calculated Bauschinger stress
Fig. 10. Comparison between the Bauschinger stress indicators indicators br increase in the same way when the
obtained from the dierent constitutive relations and from prestrain increases (Fig. 10). All the calculated
experimental data. values are lower than the experimental values.
 M. Choteau et al. / Mechanics of Materials 37 (2005) 11431152
ECNL1 model gives the lowest values, while the
other models give values which are relatively close.
EC2NL model gives the values the closest to the
experimental ones.
Experimental and calculated Bauschinger strain
indicators be decrease when the prestrain increases
(Fig. 11). All the calculated values are close to
the experimental results, except for the ECNL1
model.
Finally, experimental Bauschinger energy indi-
cator bE decreases when the prestrain increases
(Fig. 12). On the contrary ECNL1, ECNLdif1
and EC2NLI models give values which increase
with the prestrain at low prestrain (lower than
0.5%), and then decrease for higher prestrain. Only
EC2NL model gives an energy indicator which de-
creases continuously when the plastic prestrain in-
creases, as the experimental energy indicator does.
Once again, EC2NL model ts the best the exper-
imental values.
5. Conclusions
The aim of this work was to model as com-
pletely as possible the Bauschinger eect exhibited
by an AISI 316L austenitic stainless steel under
uni-axial mechanical loading.
Typical tensioncompression and compression
tension tests were carried out in order to study the
Bauschinger eect at room temperature as a func-
tion of the plastic prestrain.
Internal and eective stresses on the one hand,
three Bauschinger indicators proposed in the liter-
ature in terms of stress, strain and energy, respec-
tively on the other hand, were evaluated from the
work-hardening curves. The results of internal and
eective stresses conrmed that the work-harden-
ing behaviour of a AISI 316L stainless steel is
essentially with a kinematic nature.
Therefore various constitutive relations derived
from a thermodynamical formulation, with dier-
ent formulations of the kinematic work-hardening,
were identied from the experimental work-hard-
ening curves using an inverse identication
method.
The experimental and modelled work-harden-
ing curves on the one hand, the Bauschinger indi-
1151
cators evaluated from the experimental and the
modelled curves on the other hand, were then
compared.
A constitutive relation with two non-linear
kinematic work-hardening terms gives the best
results in terms of both stressstrain curves and
Bauschinger indicators as a function of the
prestrain.
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