Note that the above Fick’s Law equation showed a differential concentration

change over a differential distance. See the Figure below. To obtain the total
molar flux over a given distance, integration of the equation needs to be
carried out. This will be shown later.

Z2, CA2, pA1

Figure: Fick’s Law of Molecular Diffusion

Similarly, for component-B:

where DBA is the diffusivity of B in a mixture of A and B.

NOTE: A more recent development in molecular mass transfer in the Maxwell-

Stefan approach which states that in order to achieve separation, there must
exist a relative motion between the molecular species.

Diffusion Through Moving Bulk Fluid

Consider a bulk fluid of binary mixture A and B moving in the z-direction as
shown, with an average bulk fluid velocity V m/s, as shown in Figure

Figure: Diffusion within a Moving Bulk Fluid

Concentration of A at any point in the mixture is CA kg-mole/m3.
The flux of A is now given as:

Movement of A is now due to 2 contributions:

• Molecular diffusion

• Bulk movement of fluid

[This is similar to the mass flux in fluid flow: rV where r is the fluid density,
e.g. mass flux = (kg/m3) x (m/s) = kg/(m2.s) ]

This is the general equation describing mass transfer of component-A by

diffusion through moving bulk fluid. It allows one to calculate the mass
transfer rate (molar flux, e.g. in kg-mole/m2.s) between 2 points.

Similarly, for component B:

Both equations are valid for diffusion in a gas, liquid or solid.

Two special cases of molecular diffusion are covered in the next 2 sections.
These are: (a) Equimolar counter-diffusion, and (b) Uni-molecular diffusion,
or more commonly known as “diffusion of one component in another stagnant
or non-diffusing component”.

Equimolar Counter-Diffusion
In equimolar counter-diffusion, the molar fluxes or A and B are equal, but
opposite in direction, and the total pressure is constant throughout. Hence we
can write:

N A = - NB

Thus: JA = – JB [ Equimolar Counter-Diffusion ]

[Remember: pressure is caused by the collisions of molecules with the

container wall. If the pressure is constant at any point in the container, then
it must be implied that the number of molecules acting on the wall at any
point is also constant. In other words, if certain amount of A has diffuse away,
then they are replaced by the same amount of B]

Under equimolar counter-diffusion, the diffusivity of A in B is the same as the

diffusivity of B in A, i.e.
DAB = DBA
Fick’s Law for Steady-State Equimolar Counter-Diffusion of Ideal Gas Mixture:
consider 2-component gas mixture (A and B)

Ideal Gas Law: PV = nRT

where P is the total pressure, and n is the total moles of gas

For component-A: PAv = nART

where pA is the partial pressure of A and nA is the moles of A

Concentration of A:

Differentiating with respect to distance z,

Replacing into Fick’s Law :

We have:

Under constant total pressure and temperature conditions, the above

equation for can be integrated over a diffusional path from z2 to z1 to as
follows:

Integrate from pA1 to PA2, where pA1 is the partial pressure of A at point 1
and pA2 is the partial pressure of A at point 2:
We have, for steady-state equimolar counter-diffusion of ideal gas mixture:

Similarly, the molar flux for component-B can be written as:

Diffusion of One Component in Another Stagnant or Non-Diffusing
Component

This special case of diffusion can be illustrated using 2 examples as shown in

Figure below.

Case (a) shows the diffusion of benzene in air. Liquid benzene is stored in a
long tube, with one end of the tube exposed to air. The air inside the tube is
stagnant, and benzene is evaporating through this stagnant air. The diffusion
path is from point 1 at the gas-liquid interface to point 2 at the edge of the
tube, i.e. across the distance ( z2 - z1 ).

Case (b) shows an ammonia-air mixture exposed to liquid water. The

ammonia diffuses through the gas mixture from point 1 in the bulk gas phase
to point 2 at the gas-liquid interface and eventually is being absorbed into
water. Air is assumed to be non-soluble in water, hence it does not diffuse, i.e.
it is the non-diffusing component. Again, the diffusion path is the distance
( z2 - z1 ).

Figure: Diffusion of One Component in Another Stagnant or Non-diffusing

Component

In this case, NB = 0, and the equation simplifies to

Again, using the Ideal Gas equation, we have:

where pA is the partial pressure of A, and P is the total pressure

Differentiating with respect to distance z,

Integrating from point 1 to point 2: the partial pressure of A changes from

pA1 to pA2 :

We have the equation for diffusion whereby only 1 component (say

component A) is diffusing:

The other component (i.e. component B) is stagnant or non-diffusing.

Note: In the above equation the driving force for diffusion in the gas phase is
expressed in terms of partial pressure. Other measure of concentration in the
gas phase includes mole fraction, volume %, etc.

Molecular Diffusion in Liquids

Since the molecules in a liquid are packed very closely together, the
attraction forces between the molecules are much stronger than in the
gaseous phase. Molecular diffusion in liquid is much more difficult than in
gases.

Examples:
Air-NH3 DAB = 0.198 x 10-4 m2/s
H2O-NH3 DAB = 1.64 x 10-9 m2/s
Air-CO2 DAB = 0.142 x 10-4 m2/s
H2O-CO2 DAB = 2.00 x 10-9 m2/s
Here, we can see that the diffusion coefficient for the gas phase is much
larger than that in the liquid phase, indicating that diffusion in liquid is slower
than in gases.

We can derive similar equation for diffusion in the liquid phase, for example,
using concentration (mole/volume, such as kg-mole/m3) as the driving force
for diffusion. One such equation is:
GAS ABSORPTION & DIFFUSION

Gas absorption essentially involved the transfer of materials from the gas
phase to the liquid phase. It is “defined” as the operation in which a gas
mixture is contacted with a liquid for the purpose of preferentially dissolving
one or more components of the gas mixture and to provide a solution of them
in the liquid.

The gaseous component is said to be absorbed by the liquid. The transferred

component is known as the solute. In the simplest case, gas absorption
involves at least 3 components. As an illustration, consider an ammonia-air-
water system. The gas contains ammonia-air mixture. Ammonia is the solute
and it is very soluble in water while air is not. Hence, by means of contacting
the gas mixture with water, ammonia will dissolves preferentially in water,
and a solution of ammonia in water (ammonium hydroxide) is obtained.

Gas absorption processes are widely used in the industry. It can be used for
removing contaminants or impurities from a gas stream. One of the most
common examples of gas absorption and stripping is the amine absorption
and regeneration unit whereby toxic H2S gas from a fuel gas mixture is
removed by liquid amine (DEA, MEA or glycol) as will be discussed later.

Other example includes the absorption of CO2 using hot potassium carbonate,
or using the solvent Selexol®.

Yet in other applications, it can be used for gas dehydration when an insoluble
gas is dried by contact with a dehydrating liquid. An example is in the drying
of chlorine using 98 wt% sulfuric acid.

In air pollution control, the various oxides of nitrogen can be removed by

absorption with water, sulfuric acid, and organic solutions. Gaseous ammonia
can be removed by absorption with water.

Equilibrium Distribution (Solubility) Curve

The gas absorption process involves the re-distribution of solute between the
gas phase and the liquid phase when the 2 phases come into close contact
and achieves equilibrium condition.

The relationship between solute

concentration in the gas phase and in
the liquid phase at constant
temperature and pressure is known
as the equilibrium distribution curve,
as shown in Figure. The presence of
the solute in the liquid represents the
gas solubility at the prevailing
temperature and pressure.

Figure: Equilibrium Distribution Curve for a Solute

between gas and liquid phase
NOTE: The equilibrium solubility curve for gas absorption as seen here is not
the same as the equilibrium curve for distillation. Some of the important
differences to observe:

• the equilibrium solubility curve is plotted for a particular constant

temperature. Any point on the same curve represent gas solubility at
the same temperature. For the equilibrium curve in distillation, the
points represent vapour-liquid equilibrium at different temperatures.

• there is no 45o diagonal for solubility curves, i.e. the solubility curve
can lie anywhere in the x-y plot (or p-y plot, etc). On the other hand,
the equilibrium curve for distillation normally lies above the 45o
diagonal line (except, of course, for azeotropic mixtures).

• the equilibrium solubility curve is not usually plotted over the entire
concentration range from 0.0 to 1.0 mole fractions (as in customary
done for design of continuous distillation column using McCabe-Thiele
Method). This is because generally most gases are soluble in a liquid
only over a narrow concentration range.

Before we looked into the design of gas absorption equipment (i.e. tray or
packed towers where the gas and liquid streams come into contact), we need
to understand how this mass transfer actually take place between the phases.
To do so, we turn to analysis using film concept.

Film Concept in Mass Transfer

As previously noted, gas absorption operation involves mass transfer from the
gas phase to the liquid phase. That means the gas molecules must diffuse
from the main body of the gas phase to the gas-liquid interface, then cross
this interface into the liquid side, and finally diffuses from the interface into
the main body of the liquid.

Figure below showed a typical gas-liquid interface. This interface can

represent any location in the gas absorption equipment where the gas
contacts the liquid.

Figure: Gas-Liquid Interface in a Column

In the gas phase, 3 flow regimes can be visualized :

• Fully developed turbulent region where most of the mass transfer

takes place by eddy diffusion
• A transition zone with some turbulence
• A laminar film with molecular diffusion

Such phenomena are difficult to analyze. Instead, we will use a simplified

TWO-FILM THEORY as a basis for analysis as well as development of various
correlations of mass transfer phenomena.

Note: The Two-Film Theory mirrors closely the heat transfer process where
the tube wall separating the hot fluid and the cold fluid is equivalent to
the mass transfer interface. There are thin films on both sides of the
interface. Heat (mass) is transferred from the hot fluid (gas-phase) to
the gas film, then across the tube wall (interface), into the liquid film,
and finally into the cold fluid (liquid-phase).

Two-Film Theory of Mass Transfer

Once again consider the interface between the gas phase and the liquid
phase, now simplified as shown in Figure below.

Figure. Two-Film Theory of Gas-Liquid Interface

This interface can represent any point in the gas absorption equipment where
the gas contacts the liquid. See Figure below that shows a countercurrent gas
absorption column. We will study the diffusion of solute A from the gas phase
into the liquid phase, for example NH3 that is diffusing from an gaseous air-
NH3 mixture into liquid phase water.

Figure: Application of Two-Film Theory to any point in Column

Assumptions of two-film theory:

• Steady-state: concentrations at any position in the tower do not

change with time.
• Interface between the gas phase and the liquid phase is a sharp
boundary.
• A laminar liquid film exist at the interface between the gas and liquid
Equilibrium exists at the interface, thus there is negligible resistance to
• mass transfer across the interface: (xi, yi) is the equilibrium
concentration.
• No chemical reaction: rate of diffusion across the gas-phase film must
equal the rate of diffusion across the liquid-phase film.
Two-Film Theory and Equilibrium Solubility Curve

In the analysis of gas absorption, we are interested in the transfer of

materials throughout the entire gas absorption equipment, not just a single
location in the equipment. Therefore the two-film theory can be analyzed
more effectively by using the equilibrium solubility curve.

The concentrations at the interface in the gas ( yAi ) and in the liquid ( xAi ) is
represented as a point M on the equilibrium curve. Point M thus has the
coordinates (yAi, xAi ). As we move along the column along the continuous
interface, we can trace out an equilibrium curve.

Very often, the subscript “Ai” is dropped, and the equilibrium curve is simply
a relationship between y and x; i.e. y = f(x). The concentrations in the bulk
gas phase ( yAG ) and in the bulk liquid phase ( xAL ) is represented as a point
P above the equilibrium curve. Point P thus has the coordinates ( xAL, yAG ).

Notation:

yAG = composition of A in the bulk gas phase (mole fraction)

xAL = composition of A in bulk liquid phase (mole fraction)
(xAi, yAi ) = equilibrium interface compositions (mole fraction)

Figure: Representation of Two-Film Theory on Equilibrium Diagram

Analysis of Mass Transfer Process using Two-Film Theory

In the gas-phase, the concentration falls from yAG in the bulk gas to yAi at the
interface. Thus, there is a concentration driving force for mass transfer from
the bulk gas to the gas film to the interface.

At the interface, the component A crossed the interface and enters the liquid
side.

In the liquid-phase, the concentration falls from xAi at the interface to xAL in
the bulk liquid. Thus, there is a concentration driving force for mass transfer
from the interface to the liquid film to the bulk liquid.

NOTE : The bulk concentrations yAG, xAL are not equilibrium values, otherwise
there would be no diffusion of A.
MASS TRANSFER EQUATIONS & COEFFICIENTS

In commercial absorption equipment, both the liquid and the gas are
usually in turbulent flow and the film thickness is not easy to determine.
Therefore instead of analysis of mass transfer using Fick’s Law, it is more
convenient to write the molar flux of A using mass transfer equations as
follow:

NA = ky ( yAG - yAi ) = kx( xAi - xAL )

Gas Phase liquid Phase

where :

NA is the molar flux of component A, mole/(area.time)

ky and kx are the mass transfer coefficients in the gas phase and in
the liquid phase respectively

(yAG - yAi ) and ( xAi - xAL ) are the driving force in the gas phase and liquid
phase respectively

Mass transfer coefficients are usually determined experimentally, or by

correlations. Because there are many analogies between heat transfer and
mass transfer, many correlations originally derived from heat transfer are
used for the prediction of mass transfer coefficients.

Analysis of Mass Transfer Equations

From the 2 mass transfer equations, by rearranging and eliminating NA:

Referring back to Figure above, we see that the ratio of mass transfer
coefficients is actually equal to the slope of line PM. This relationship is useful
if one does not know the interface equilibrium concentrations.

We can use the above equation to determine the equilibrium concentration at

the interface (xAi, yAi), i.e. to locate point M, provided that kx and ky are
known (or can be calculated using appropriate correlations). We do so by
plotting a straight line originating from point P (xAL, yAG) with slope – kx/ky.
The point of intersection of this line with the equilibrium curve gives point M
which yield the values of xAi and yAi . That way we can calculate the flux NA at
that particular point.
Table: Corresponding dimensionless groups of mass and heat transfer
Table. Mass Transfer Correlations for Simple Situations
Overall Mass Transfer Coefficients

The previous definitions for molar flux NA require the knowledge of the interface
concentrations. Since experimental sampling of the concentrations at the
interface is very difficult or virtually impossible; it is more useful to define the
mass transfer equation using overall mass transfer coefficients KX and KY :

xA* is the concentration (mole fraction) in liquid phase that is in equilibrium

with yAG.
yA* is the concentration (mole fraction) in vapor phase that is in equilibrium
with xAL.

Driving force for mass transfer: ( yAG − yA* ) in the gas phase (as indicated by line
PC) and ( xA* − xAL ) in the liquid phase (line PD). See Figure below.

Figure. Relations between Overall and Film driving forces

Relationships between kx, ky, KX, and KY :

where m” is the slope of line segment DM, and m’ is the slope of line segment
MC as shown in Figure 58. If the equilibrium line is straight, then m’ = m”.

kx, ky, KX, and KY all change with positions in the tower.

Figure. Relations between Overall and Film driving forces

NOTE: units for kx, ky, KX, and KY varies with the way the mass transfer
equation is written (vapor phase or liquid phase) and the driving forces used,
e.g. mole fractions ( y or x ), mole ratios ( X or Y ), weight fraction, partial
pressures (p), or concentrations (c) etc.
Mass Transfer Resistance and Solubility

Analysis of the above 2 equations reveal a great deal about the nature of
the equilibrium between the gas and the liquid, i.e. the solubility curve.

• 1 / kx represents the resistance to mass transfer in the liquid phase

• 1 / ky represents the resistance to mass transfer in the gas phase

• If m’ is small (i.e. the equilibrium curve is very flat), the term m’/kx is not
significant, therefore:

and the major resistance to diffusional mass transfer lies in the gas phase and
the mass transfer is said to be gas-phase controlled.

In this case, solute A can be interpreted as being very soluble in the liquid: at
equilibrium, a small concentration of A in the gas will bring about a very large
concentration in the liquid.

• If m” is large (i.e. the equilibrium curve is very steep), then the term 1/m”ky is
insignificant, therefore,

and the majority of resistance to mass transfer resides in within the liquid. The
mass transfer is said to be liquid-phase controlled.

Solute A is relatively insoluble in the liquid: a very large concentration of A in the

gas phase is required to provide even a small change of concentration in the
liquid.

REMINDER : The two-film theory and equilibrium curve can be expressed in

other ways, e.g. in terms of partial pressure (for the gas phase) and
concentration (for the liquid phase); but the analysis for them is the
same as outlined before for mole fractions ( x and y).
Refer to the Figure below which showed the two-film theory and equilibrium
curve expressed in partial pressures and concentrations.

Figure: Two-Film Theory of Gas-Liquid Interface

Figure: Relations between Overall and Film driving forces

Examples of Gas Solubility Analysis

Figure below shows the solubilities of some gas-air mixtures in water (partial
pressure of solute vs. liquid mole fraction of solute).

Figure: Solubilities of Gases in Water

From the solubility plot, note that:

• at the same temperature (10oC) HCl is more soluble than NH3, which in
turn is more soluble than SO2.
• solubility of any gas is dependent on temperature. In most cases (but not
always), the solubility of a gas decreases with increasing temperature.
• NH3 is less soluble at 30oC than at 10oC.
• The solubility generally increases with partial pressure of the gas.
• The relatively insoluble gas is high in concentration in the gas phase, i.e.
high partial pressure at equilibrium. Conversely, very soluble gas has low
partial pressure. In many practical cases, only one component in the gas
mixture is relatively soluble in the liquid, e.g. in the NH3-Air-H2O system
above, since NH3 is relatively more soluble than air in water, thus, pAir >>
pNH3.

[ Equilibrium solubility curves for other liquids are also available ]

HENRY’S LAW FOR NON-IDEAL SOLUTION

When the gas mixture in equilibrium with an ideal liquid solution follows the
ideal gas behavior, we have – as seen previously - the Raoult’s Law:

When the solution is non-ideal, Raoult’s Law cannot be applied.

For non-ideal solution, we must use Henry’s Law which states that:

where H is the Henry’s Law Constant.

Since

we have

( PT = total system pressure )

Thus, an alternative form of Henry’s Law is:

Where
y = mole fraction of solute in gas phase
x = mole fraction of solute in liquid phase
m = Henry’s Law Constant = H / PT

Very often, the subscript ‘A’ is dropped.

Henry’s Law predicts a linear equilibrium relationship. Still, most equilibrium

relationships are actually non-linear. Henry’s Law is only applicable over a
modest liquid concentration range, especially when the solution is dilute.

NOTE: Several other variations of Henry’s law are available, depending on

applications, e.g. membrane separation. Care must be exercised in the
correct unit for the constant. For example, H has the unit of pressure/mole
fraction, while m is dimensionless. m is independent of total pressure,
whereas H does not.
Table below showed the values of Henry’s Law constant as a function of
temperature for several gases.
Experiment:

Guidelines for Gas Absorption Separation experiment

Students will be assessed based on their in-class performance and type

written report. The report is to be submitted to Prof. ______________
two weeks after the practical session.

Practical In-Class Assessment:

(a) Understanding of Objective(s)
(b) Understanding of Experimental Procedures
(c) Understanding of Theory
(d) Safety Practice (includes punctuality and attire)
(e) Data Collection and Preliminary Analysis (sample calculation)

Report Assessment:
(a) Tables and Graphs
(b) Sample Calculations
(c) Discussion of Results

Data Collection Sheet:

(a) Raw data should be well-tabulated.
(b) Any calculation must be neatly illustrated or tabulated for
practical class assessment.

Report Assessment:
All reports must be type-written.
(a) Results (Tables, Graphs):
Raw data and calculated results must be neatly tabulated with
consistent SI units. The tables must be numbered and titled.
For example:
Table I. Back Titration Result
Graphs must be numbered and titled. For example:
Figure 1. Plot of Concentration of NaOH against
Residence Time
The axes of the graph must be properly labelled and show
quantities in SI units.
(b) Sample Calculations:
One sample calculation of each important variable should be
shown. Results of calculated values should be tabulated.
 (c) Analysis of Results:
Discuss all the questions given in Analysis of Results section.
Quote all references used.

Safety Practice:
Attire:
All students must wear lab coat and goggles in Unit Operation Lab.

- Female students: Blouse/T-shirt and long slacks/jeans. Lab coat

should be buttoned up. Well covered-up shoes must be worn.
Long hair must be tied up. No cap.
- Male students: T-Shirt and long pants/jeans. Lab coat should be
buttoned up. Well covered-up shoes must be worn. Hair must be
kept short.
Operating Instructions – Gas Absorption
Pilot Plant

1. Turn on the exhaust fan blower.

2. Open the gas cylinder supply for CO2 and CH4. At the

pressure regulator, check that the pressure (from the

high pressure gauge) of each gas is at least 10 barg.

3. Open the valve of compressed air supply.

4. Check that the liquid (pre-prepared by the lab

technician) level in both feed and spare tank is at

least 60% full.

5. .Turn on the main power supply.

6. The system is ready for experimental run.

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI PETRONAS

Bachelor of Engineering (Hons) CHEMICAL

Syllabus No :
Subject : Separation Processes I
Experiment : Gas Absorption Separation

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Gas absorption is a mass transfer operation in which a gas mixture is

contacted with a liquid to preferentially absorb one or more of the
components of the gas stream. This operation is found in many industries for
the recovery of valuable products and cleaning of exhaust or vent streams. If
necessary the solute can be recovered from the absorbing liquid by distillation
and the liquid can be recycled or it can be discarded completely. In some
cases, a solute is removed from a liquid by contacting it with a gas. This
operation is the reverse of gas absorption and is called desorption or gas
stripping. This study deals with the absorption of CO2 from air by contacting
the gas mixture with water in a packed tower. This system has the advantage
that significant mass transfer occurs over the entire length of the column.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

• To determine the loading and flooding points for the air-water system.
• To study the relationship between the pressure and flowrate for a gas
absorption operation.

3.0 EQUIPMENT

Four columns filled with different sizes of packing suitable for gas absorption
operation.

Columns

Three (3) units Borosilicate glass columns for absorption and one (1) unit
Borosilicate glass Column for stripping with packing materials

Column Diameter: 100mm

Packing Height: approx. 1.5m
Column height: 2.97m

Absorption - PACKING MATERIAL

• BERL SADDLES 10 x10 m ceramic

• BERL SADDLES 15 x 15 mm ceramic
• RASCHIG RINGS 10 x 10 mm glass
Stripping - PACKING MATERIAL

• RASCHIG RINGS 10 x 10 mm glass

 Five sets of infra red gas analyzers, each equipped with infra red sensors to
detect CO2 independently, are installed at each gas Absorption inlet and outlet
point. Temperature transmitters (PT100), Pressure Transmitters (Pressure
Transducer) and Mass Flow Controllers as well as Mass Flow Meter are
installed and assembled to work in conjunction with the online data acquisition
software, NI Labview to capture real time experimental data.

4.0 PROCEDURE

4.1 Line Tracing

4.1.1 Identify the experimental equipment listed in paragraph 2.0.

4.1.2. Perform line tracing on each Absorption operation. Students must trace
and demonstrate to the lecturer the actual feed gas entry-exit path as
well as liquid entry-exit routes.

4.2 Operating Column 1 – CO2 Absorption in NaOH solution

4.2.1 Refer to Figure below. Ensure all valves are closed before system start
up except for V6, V4, V14 and V16. (Note: V24, V25, V26 and V34 are
always OPEN).
Feed Heater

V13
Sample

D
D D D
Gas Analyzer
V8 V26 V34
V24 V25
Water
Cgas-out, 3 Cgas-out, 4
V9 V10 V11 V12 Cgas-out, 1 Cgas-out, 2
E

F gas-out, 3 Tgas-out, 4
Fgas-out, 1 Tgas-out, 2 F gas-out, 2 Tgas-out, 3 F gas-out, 4
Tgas-out, 1
Feed Tank T liq-in, 1 T liq-in, 2 T liq-in, 3
Makeup T liq-in, 4
Tank
V6 V14

B
CVliq-in, 1 CVliq-in, 2 CVliq-in, 3
V7 Pump feed Pump makeup CVliq-in, 4
V15 Fliq-in, 2
F liq-in, 1 Fliq-in, 3 Fliq-in, 4
Drain Drain

C
E
V23
V22 V27 V33

Spent Sol B Spare

Tank Tank Sample Sample Sample
Sample
V4 V16

V5 Pump spare
Pump spent V17
Tgas-in, 2
Drain Drain T gas-in, 1 T gas-in, 3 T steam-in, 4
V20 V28 V31
V18

Fair,in
V3
F gas-in, 1 Fgas-in,2 Fsteam-in,4
Air F gas-in,3
Tliq-out, 1 Fliq-out, 1 Fliq-out, 4
Tliq-out, 2 Fliq-out, 2 Tliq-out, 3 Tliq-out, 4
Fliq-out, 3
FCO2,in V19 V29
V2 Cfeed V21 V32
CO2 Inline Mixer
A A A C
Cooler
FCH4,in
V1 Gas Analyzer
CH4
Steam
V30 Steam Control Valve Set Pump strip

4.2.2 Starting the system. Switch on the main power supply. At the control
panel, a Green light will light up. Turn on the main power supply to the
computer and activate the National Instrument (NI) data acquisition
system. Ensure that the activation procedures for the NI software are
closely followed according to the steps stipulated in Appendix C.

4.2.3 Manually Open V18. Check level gauge of the Make-up Tank and ensure
that water level in the tank is more than half. If the level is below 50%,
 open V10 and shut V9, then turn on “Pump-feed” to fill then “Tankmake up”.
Once the level is above 50%, shut V10 and turn off the pump.

Preparing 0.0155M NaOH solution

4.2.4 Calculate the amount of NaOH solution required (in grams) to be

added into the half full 100L Tankmake up in order to achieve a
concentration of 0.0115M. Pre-mix the NaOH pellets using a beaker
with small amount of water (this will dissolve the pellet before
transferring this solution to the Tankmake up). Test the conductivity of
the solution in the tank (it should read as 2.50). Note that there is an
increase in temperature in the pre-mixed solution (why?).

Running the CO2 absorption experiment

4.2.5 Fully open V11 and V14 to prime the “Pumpmake up”. Allow the solution in
the tank to be mixed thoroughly. Turn off Pumpmake up.

4.2.6 Shut V19 and turn on the Pumpmake up from the NI control panel. (Note:
A green light will light up at the control panel) Collect the water to a
constant level (at the mark) at the bottom of Column 1, and then stop
the pump.

4.2.7 Wait for 15 minutes before proceeding to next step. You can allow the
air to flow through the Column 1 at a certain flowrate. (Why?)

4.2.8 Calculate the mass flow controller (MFC) settings if the following
experiments are required.

Expt CO2 Flowrate CH4 Flowrate Total Flowrate Conc CO2 Feed
(ml/min) (ml/min) (ml/min)
1 1000 0 1000 100
2 900 100 1000 90
3 800 200 1000 80
4 700 300 1000 70
5 600 400 1000 60
6 500 500 1000 50
7 400 600 1000 40
8 300 700 1000 30
9 200 800 1000 20
10 100 900 1000 10
11 0 1000 1000 0

4.2.9 Set the MFCs for experiment 1. Open the CO2 and CH4 gas supply.
Open V2 and V3.

4.2.10 Turn on Pumpmake up and regulate the flowrate of 0.015M NaOH solution
to a feed flowrate of 2.5L/min. Stand for 2 minute for the system to
achieve steady state.

4.2.11 Data of each inlet and outlet of gas as well as liquid must be recorded
as follows;
Data Sheet 1

CO2 Gas Absorption - Column Raschig Ring Packing 8 x 8mm

CO2 CH4
Flowrate Flowrate Total
(ml/min) (ml/min) Flowrate Conc CO2 Feed Conc CO2 Exit Conductivity Liq Feed Conc Liq Feed Conductivity Liq Exit Conc Liq Exit
(ml/min)

1000 0 1000 100

900 100 1000 90
800 200 1000 80
700 300 1000 70
600 400 1000 60
500 500 1000 50
400 600 1000 40
300 700 1000 30
200 800 1000 20
100 900 1000 10
0 1000 1000 0
4.2.12 Repeat the Steps 4.2.9 and 4.2.11. Then, close V2 and V3 completely
to stop all gas flow to the system.

4.3 Repeat procedures stipulated in 4.2 for Column 2 and 3.

4.4 Shut down the system. Turn off the main switch at the control panel.
Switch off the main power supply. Turn off the main compressed air
supply.

5. QUESTIONS FOR THE PRACTICAL

5.1 Have you observed CO2 absorption during the running of each column?

5.2 Which column has the highest CO2 absorption efficiency?

5.3 Explain the reason for doing the step 4.2.7.

5.4 What is the phenomenon of “channelling”? Explain it briefly.

5.5 Define Fick’s Law.

6. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

6.1 Convert your experimental readings of CO2 percent and gas flowrate
and perform at least one mass balances for each stream.

6.2 Plot the CO2 concentration and NaOH concentration for each column.

6.4 Analyse the behaviour of the packed column with variation in CO2 gas
concentration.

7.0 PRE-PRACTICAL CLASS WORK:

Students are encouraged to read from the following recommended text in

order derive the equations necessary to understand this practical class as well
as to complete the in-class assessment:

1. C.Judson King Separation Processes, 2nd edition (McGraw- Hill Inc.)

2. Robert E. Treybal Mass-Transfer Operations, 3rd edition (McGraw- Hill
Inc.)

8.0 PRECAUTIONS:

Always be sure that V24, V25, V26 and V34 are fully open.

List of References

1. C.Judson King Separation Processes, 2nd edition (McGraw- Hill Inc.)

2. Robert E. Treybal Mass-Transfer Operations, 3rd edition (McGraw- Hill
Inc.)
3. Warren L. McCabe, Julian C. Smith, Peter Harriott Unit Operation of
Chemical Engineering, 4th edition (McGraw- Hill Inc.)
4. J.M. Coulson, J.F. Richardson Chemical Engineering Volume Two, 3rd
edition (Pergamon )
5. Philip A. Schweitzer Handbook of Separation Technigues for Chemical
Engineer, 2nd edition
6. Kirk -Othemer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology Vol.1, 4th edition
7. F.H.H. Valentin Absorption in gas - liquid dispersions
8. Nicholas P. Chopey Handbook of Chemical Engineering Calculations, 2nd
edition
9. Edgar, T.F. & Himmelblau, D.M. Optimisation of Chemical process,
(McGraw-Hill Inc.)
10. B. Finlayson Non-linear Analysis in Chemical Engineering, (McGraaw-Hill)
11. T.K. Sherwood, R.L. Pigford Absorption and Exraction (McGraw- Hill Inc.)
12. Kreyzig Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 7th edition (John Wiley)
13. R.H. Perry, D. Green Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 6th edition,
(McGraw-Hill)
14. C.R. Wilke, U.V. Stockar Industrial Engineering Chemical Fundamental,
16(2), 88, 1977
16. M. Oh, C.C. Pantelides A Modelling and Simulation Language for
Combined Lumped and Distributed Parameter Systems 1994
 Answers to Questions for Practical

GAS ABSORPTION SEPARATION

Fick’s Law of Diffusion

Fick’s Law stated that for the diffusion of component-A in a binary mixture of
A and B:

[Note: the above refers only to one-directional diffusion, in the z-direction]

where

JA = molecular diffusion flux (kg-mole/m2.s)

DAB = diffusivity @ diffusion coefficient of A in a mixture of A and B (m2/s)

= concentration gradient (kg-mole.m-3/m)

The concentration gradient dCA /dz is the driving force for diffusion. The (–)
showed that CA decreases as z increases.

Note that the above Fick’s Law equation showed a differential concentration
change over a differential distance. See the Figure below. To obtain the total
molar flux over a given distance, integration of the equation needs to be
carried out. This will be shown later.

Z2, CA2, pA1

Figure: Fick’s Law of Molecular Diffusion

Similarly, for component-B:

where DBA is the diffusivity of B in a mixture of A and B.

NOTE: A more recent development in molecular mass transfer in the Maxwell-

Stefan approach which states that in order to achieve separation, there must
exist a relative motion between the molecular species.

Diffusion Through Moving Bulk Fluid

Consider a bulk fluid of binary mixture A and B moving in the z-direction as
shown, with an average bulk fluid velocity V m/s, as shown in Figure

Figure: Diffusion within a Moving Bulk Fluid

Concentration of A at any point in the mixture is CA kg-mole/m3.
The flux of A is now given as:

Movement of A is now due to 2 contributions:

• Molecular diffusion

• Bulk movement of fluid

[This is similar to the mass flux in fluid flow: rV where r is the fluid density,
e.g. mass flux = (kg/m3) x (m/s) = kg/(m2.s) ]

This is the general equation describing mass transfer of component-A by

diffusion through moving bulk fluid. It allows one to calculate the mass
transfer rate (molar flux, e.g. in kg-mole/m2.s) between 2 points.

Similarly, for component B:

Both equations are valid for diffusion in a gas, liquid or solid.

Two special cases of molecular diffusion are covered in the next 2 sections.
These are: (a) Equimolar counter-diffusion, and (b) Uni-molecular diffusion,
or more commonly known as “diffusion of one component in another stagnant
or non-diffusing component”.

Equimolar Counter-Diffusion
In equimolar counter-diffusion, the molar fluxes or A and B are equal, but
opposite in direction, and the total pressure is constant throughout. Hence we
can write:

N A = - NB

Thus: JA = – JB [ Equimolar Counter-Diffusion ]

[Remember: pressure is caused by the collisions of molecules with the

container wall. If the pressure is constant at any point in the container, then
it must be implied that the number of molecules acting on the wall at any
point is also constant. In other words, if certain amount of A has diffuse away,
then they are replaced by the same amount of B]

Under equimolar counter-diffusion, the diffusivity of A in B is the same as the

diffusivity of B in A, i.e.
DAB = DBA

Fick’s Law for Steady-State Equimolar Counter-Diffusion of Ideal Gas Mixture:

consider 2-component gas mixture (A and B)

Ideal Gas Law: PV = nRT

where P is the total pressure, and n is the total moles of gas

For component-A: PAv = nART

where pA is the partial pressure of A and nA is the moles of A

Concentration of A:

Differentiating with respect to distance z,

Replacing into Fick’s Law :

We have:
Under constant total pressure and temperature conditions, the above
equation for can be integrated over a diffusional path from z2 to z1 to as
follows:

Integrate from pA1 to PA2, where pA1 is the partial pressure of A at point 1
and pA2 is the partial pressure of A at point 2:

We have, for steady-state equimolar counter-diffusion of ideal gas mixture:

Similarly, the molar flux for component-B can be written as:

Appendix A
Introduction to Absorption Separation Processes - Technology and
Business Opportunities by G. Srikanth

The development of ion exchange Absorption some forty years ago paved the
way for the Absorption separation technology. Since then due to a whole lot
of technological innovations, especially in the area of new materials,
Absorption technologies have been established as very effective and
commercially attractive options for separation and purification processes.

What is a Absorption?

The Absorption can be defined essentially as a barrier, which separates two

phases and restricts transport of various chemicals in a selective manner. A
Absorption can be homogenous or heterogeneous, symmetric or asymmetric
in structure, solid or liquid, can carry a positive or negative charge or be
neutral or bipolar. Transport through a Absorption can be effected by
convection or by diffusion of individual molecules, induced by an electric field
or concentration, pressure or temperature gradient. The Absorption thickness
may vary from as small as 100 micron to several millimeters.

Absorption Separation Technology

A Absorption separation system separates an influent stream into two effluent

streams known as the permeate and the concentrate. The permeate is the
portion of the fluid that has passed through the semi-permeable Absorption.
Whereas the concentrate stream contains the constituents that have been
rejected by the Absorption.

Absorption separation is employed in numerous industrial applications with

the following advantages:

• Appreciable energy savings

• Environmentally benign
• Clean technology with operational ease
• Replaces the conventional processes like filtration, distillation, ion-
exchange and chemical treatment systems
• Produces high, quality products
• Greater flexibility in designing systems.

Types of Absorptions

The proper choice of a Absorption should be determined by the specific

application objective:

• particulate or dissolved solids removal,

• hardness reduction or ultra pure water production,
• removal of specific gases/chemicals etc.

The end-use may also dictate selection of Absorptions for industries such as
potable water, effluent treatment, desalination or water supply for electronics
or pharmaceutical manufacturing. The following section explains the types of
Absorptions commonly used.
Absorption Modules

The Absorptions can be cast as flat sheets, tubes and fine hollow fibres. For
accommodating such shapes and structures, different types of Absorption
modules are available. The last decade of Absorption and module
development has lessened the effects of physical compaction and has brought
forth spiral Absorption modules capable of operating at pressures in excess of
800 psig (55.2 bar). The techno-economic factors for the selection, design
and operation of Absorption modules include cost of supporting materials and
enclosure (pressure vessels), power consumption in pumping and ease of
replaceability.

The following Absorption modules are largely used for industrial applications:

• Plate and frame module

• Spiral wound module
• Tubular Absorption module
• Capillary Absorption module
• Hollow fibre Absorption module.

Absorption Separation Processes

Various types of Absorption separation have been developed for specific

industrial applications. Some of the widely used processes are discussed
hereunder:

Reverse Osmosis (RO)

Unlike water filtration, that can only remove some suspended materials larger
than 1 micron, the process of reverse osmosis (RO) will eliminate the
dissolved solids, bacteria, viruses and other germs contained in the water. RO
is essentially a pressure driven Absorption diffusion process for separating
dissolved solutes. The RO is generally used for desalination seawater for its
conversion into potable water. The salient features of the process are that it
involves no phase change and it is relatively a low energy process.

Almost all RO Absorptions are made of polymers, cellulose acetate and

aromatic polyamide types rated at 96%-99+% NaCl rejection. RO Absorptions
are generally of two types, asymmetric or skinned Absorptions and thin film
composite (TFC) Absorptions. The support material is commonly polysulfones
while the thin film is made from various types of polyamines, polyureas etc.

RO Absorptions have the smallest pore structure, with pore diameter ranging
from approximately 5-15 A0 (0.5 nm - 1.5 nm). The extremely small size of
RO pores allows only the smallest organic molecules and unchanged solutes
to pass through the semi-permeable Absorption along with the water. Greater
than 95-99% of inorganic salts and charged organics will also be rejected by
the Absorption due to charge repulsion established at the Absorption surface.

RO finds extensive applications in the following:

• Potable water from sea or brackish water

• Ultrapure water for food processing and electronic industries
 • Pharmaceutical grade water
• Water for chemical, pulp & paper industry
• Waste treatment etc.

Future Directions for RO Applications

• Municipal and industrial waste treatment

• Process water for boilers
• De-watering of feed streams
• Processing high-temperature feed- streams etc.

In the last six to eight years the technology has gained industry acceptance
as a viable water treatment option for many different fluid separation
applications. Low operating costs and the ability to remove organic
contaminants and 95-99% of inorganic salts with minimal chemical
requirements make RO an attractive technology for many industrial
applications.

A complete RO equipment comprising pre-treatment system, Absorption

modules etc. is estimated to cost around US $ 450 per m3 of flow per day.
The operating cost for RO system has been estimated as Rs.24 per m3 of flow,
excluding the cost of labour and chemicals used.

Nanofiltration (NF)

Nanofiltration is a form of filtration that uses Absorptions to separate different

fluids or ions. NF is typically referred to as "loose" RO due to its larger
Absorption pore structure as compared to the Absorptions used in RO, and
allows more salt passage through the Absorption. Because it can operate at
much lower pressures, and passes some of the inorganic salts, NF is used in
applications where high organic removal and moderate inorganic removals
are desired. NF is capable of concentrating sugars, divalent salts, bacteria,
proteins, particles, dyes and other constituents that have a molecular weight
greater than 1000 daltons.

Absorptions used for NF are of cellulose acetate and aromatic polyamide type
having characteristics as salt rejections from 95% for divalent salts to 40%
for monovalent salts and an approximate 300 molecular weight cut-off
(MWCO) for organics. An advantage of NF over RO is that NF can typically
operate at higher recoveries, thereby conserving total water usage due to a
lower concentrate stream flow rate. NF is not effective on small molecular
weight organics, such as methanol.

Ultrafiltration (UF)

Ultrafiltration is most commonly used to separate a solution that has a

mixture of some desirable components and some that are not desirable. UF is
somewhat dependent on charge of the particle, and is much more concerned
with the size of the particle. Typical rejected species include sugars, bio-
molecules, polymers and colloidal particles. The driving force for transport
across the Absorption is a pressure differential. UF processes operate at 2-10
bars though in some cases up to 25-30 bars has been used. UF processes
perform feed clarification, concentration of rejected solutes and fractionation
of solutes. UF is typically not effective at separating organic streams.

UF Absorptions are capable of retaining species in the range of 300-500,000

daltons of molecular weight, with pore sizes ranging from 10-1000 Angstroms
(103-0.1 microns). These are mostly described by their nominal molecular
weight cutoff (1000-100,000 MWCO), which means, the smallest molecular
weight species for which the Absorptions have more than 90% rejection.

UF usually implies separation of macromolecules such as protein from low

molecular weight solvents. Pores in the support layer of the Absorption are
relatively larger than those of the surface layer. Material passing into fine
pores can readily be transported through the open-celled, sponge-like
structure of the support layer. For example, in electrodeposition paint
recovery, the paint, composed of resin, a pigment and water are separated
into two streams that can he reused. The first stream includes the water and
a small amount of paint resin, which can he used to rinse the parts later in
the process. The paint pigment is separated from that stream and can be re-
used in the paint bath, allowing the bath to be concentrated to a useable level.

It is found that, whenever the solvent of a mixture flows through the

Absorption, retained species are locally concentrated at the Absorption
surface, thereby resisting the flow. In the case of processing solution, this
localized concentration of solute normally results in precipitation of a solute
gel over the Absorption. When processing a suspension, the solids collect as a
porous layer over the Absorption surface.

In view of the above, it is clear that the permeate rate can be effectively
controlled by the rate of transport through the polarization layer rather than
by Absorption properties. Hence, UF throughput depends on physical
properties of the Absorption, such as permeability, thickness, process and
system variables like feed consumption, feed concentration, system pressure,
velocity and temperature.

UF has a wide range of applications as shown below:

• Oil emulsion waste treatment

• Treatment of whey in dairy industries
• Concentration of biological macromolecules
• Electrocoat paint recovery
• Concentration of textile sizing
• Concentration of heat sensitive proteins for food additives '
• Concentration of gelatin
• Enzyme & pharmaceutical preparations
• Pulp mill waste treatment
• Production of ultra pure water for electronics industry
• Macromolecular separations replacing the conventional change of
phase methods.
The important characteristics for Absorption materials are porosity,
morphology, surface properties, mechanical strength and chemical resistance.
Polymeric materials, viz., polysulfone, polypropylene, nylon 6,
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), PVC, acrylic copolymer etc. have been used
successfully as UF Absorptions. Inorganic materials such as ceramics, carbon
based Absorptions, zirconia etc. have been commercialized by several
vendors.

UF may find wide range of applications in the near future and some of those
processes important from the separation and energy savings point of view are
mentioned below:

• Ultraflitration of milk
• Bioprocessing: Separation and concentration of biologically active
components
• Protein harvesting, useful for grass proteins, algal / plankton proteins
• In food areas based on the ability to change protein and starch/ sugar,
salt and water ratios
• Refining of oils.

Microfiltration (MF)

This is by far the most widely used Absorption process with total sales greater
than the combined sales of all other Absorption processes. Microfiltration has
numerous small applications. It is essentially a sterile filtration with pores
(0.1-10.0 microns) so small that micro-organisms cannot pass through them.

Microfiltration is a process of separating material of colloidal size and larger

than true solutions. A MF Absorption is generally porous enough to pass
molecules of true solutions, even if they are large. Microfilters can also he
used to sterilize solutions, as they are prepared with pores smaller than 0.3
microns, the diameter of the smallest bacterium, pseudomonas diminuta.

While the mechanism for conventional depth filtration is mainly adsorption

and entrapment, MF Absorptions uses sieving mechanism with distinct pore
sizes for retaining larger size particles than the pore diameter. Hence, this
technology offers Absorptions with absolute rating, which is highly desirable
for critical operations such as sterile filtration of parental fluids, sterile
filtration of air and preparation of particulate,free-water for the electronics
industry.

The MF Absorptions are made from natural or synthetic polymers such as

cellulose nitrate or acetate, polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF), polyamides,
polysulfone, polycarbonate, polypropylene, PTFE etc. The inorganic materials
such as metal oxides (alumina), glass, zirconia coated carbon etc. are also
used for manufacturing the MF Absorptions.

The properties of Absorption materials are directly reflected in their end

applications. Some criteria for their selection are mechanical strength,
temperature resistance, chemical compatibility, hydrophobility, hydrophilicity,
permeability permselectivity and the cost of Absorption material as well as
manufacturing process.
MF has a wide array of applications as mentioned below:

• Preparation of parenterals and sterile water for pharmaceutical

industry
• Food & beverages (concentration of fruit juices and alcoholic beverages
• Chemical industry
• Microelectronics industry
• Fermentation
• Laboratory/analytical uses etc.

The following are the likely applications of MF in the near future:

• In biotechnology for concentration of biomass, separations of soluble

products
• In diatomaceous earth displacement
• In non-sewage waste treatment for removing intractable particles in
oily fluids, aqueous wastes which contain particulate toxics and stack
gas
• In paints for separating solvents from pigments etc.

Electrodialysis (ED)

This is an electro-Absorption process in which the ions are transported

through a Absorption from one solution to another under the influence of an
electrical potential. ED can be utilised to perform several general types of
separations such as separation and concentration of salts, acids and bases
from aqueous solutions or the separation and concentration of monovalent
ions from multiple charged components or the separation of ionic compounds
from uncharged molecules. ED Absorptions are usually made of cross-linked
polystyrene that has been sulfonated. Anion Absorptions can he of cross-
linked polystyrene containing quaternary ammoniuri groups. Usually, ED
Absorptions arx fabricated as flat sheets containing about 30-50% water.
Absorptions are fabricated by applying the cation and anion-selective polymer
to a fabric material.

The system consists of two kinds of Absorptions: cation and anion, which are
placed in an electric field. The cation-selective Absorption permits only the
cations, and anion-selective Absorption only the anions. The transport of ions
across the Absorptions results in ion depiction in some cells, and ion
concentration in alternate ones.

Electrodialysis is used widely for production of potable water from sea or

brackish water, electroplating rinse recovery, desalting of cheese whey,
production of ultrapure water etc.

The present ED industry has experienced a steady growth rate of about 15%
since 15 years. To ensure further growth beyond desalination and salt
production, new areas of application are being exploited in the areas of
chemicals and pharmaceuticals, food, industrial & municipal effluent
treatment etc. This can be achieved through slight modifications in the
conventional processes as well as extensive R&D work in those areas.
The following are some new business opportunities in ED separation process:

• De-ionized water from conductive spacers

• Radioactive wastewater treatment by using radiation resistant
Absorptions
• Deacidification of fruit juices
• Heavy metal recovery
• Recovery of organic acids from salts
• pH control without adding acid or base
• Regeneration of ion-exchange resins with improved process design
• Acid recovery from etching baths etc.

The capital cost for an electrodialysis (including pre-treatment system,

Absorption modules, pumps and electrical etc.) is estimated around US $ 275
per m3 of flow per day.

Gas Separation

The Absorption gas separation technology is over ten years old and is proving
to he one of the most significant unit operations. These processes compete
with technology alternatives such as adsorption, cryogenic distillation etc. in
niche application areas. The Absorption processes enjoy certain advantages,
viz., compactness and light in weight, low labour intensity, modular design
permitting easy expansion or operation at partial capacity, low maintenance
(no moving parts), low energy requirements and low cost especially so for
small sizes. Absorptions made of polymers and copolymers in the forms of flat
film or hollow fibre have been used for gas separation.

Different gases pass through certain Absorptions at significantly different

rates, thus permitting a partial separation. The rate of permeation is
proportional to the pressure differential across die Absorption and inversely
proportional to the Absorption thickness. The rate of permeation is also
proportional to the solubility of the gas in the Absorption and also to the
diffusivity of gas through the Absorption

Gas separation is thus affected by three key performance attributes of

Absorptions, viz., selectivity towards the gases separated, Absorption flux or
permeability and the life of the Absorption, maintenance and replacement
costs.

The Absorption gas separation has been used for hydrogen separation and
recovery, ammonia purge gas, refinery hydrogen recovery, 'syngas'
separation in petrochemicals industry, CO2 enhanced oil recovery, natural gas
processing, landfill gas upgrading, air separation, nitrogen production, air
dehydration, helium recovery etc.

The gas separation technology may enjoy the following applications in the
near future:

• N2 enrichment of air
• Low level O2 enrichment of air
• H2 and acid gas separation from hydrocarbons
• Helium recovery
 • Natural gas dehydration

Pervaporation

This is a Absorption based process for separating miscible liquids. Here the
absorption of one of the components of the liquid by the Absorption, diffusion
of this component across the Absorption and evaporation, as permeate
vapour, into the partial vacuum applied to the underside of the Absorption.
Pervaporation differs from all other Absorption processes because of the
phase change of the permeate, non-porous. Transport through these
Absorptions is effected by maintaining a vapour pressure gradient across the
Absorption.

Applications of pervaporation Absorptions: Pervaporation offers significant

capital and energy savings in applications that are difficult to separate by
more conventional techniques such as azeotropic mixtures or mixtures of
close boiling components. Pervaporation has been used for separation of
ethanol-water mixture, solvent recovery, separation of heat sensitive
products or enrichment of organic pollutants etc.

Advantages of this process over other separation techniques are given below:

• Effective and economic separation of mixtures of substances with small

difference in boiling point and azeotropic mixtures
• Modular Absorption design
• No entrainers for separation of azeotropic mixtures
• Reduced capital costs compared to conventional systems.
Industrially Important Absorption Separation Processes, Their
Operating Principles and Applications

Table 1 represents the characteristics of Absorptions used in different

Absorption separation processes, process driving forces and applications of
such processes

Emerging Absorption Technologies

Absorption based solvent extraction devices, recently developed, appear to

eliminate high capital, operating and maintenance costs of centrifugal devices
and additionally provide very high volumetric transfer rates. Systems have
been designed by using microporous Absorptions (hydrophobic or hydrophilic)
for non-dispersive solvent extraction.

Hollow-fibre-contained-liquid-Absorptions (HFCLM) have been used for gas

separation through a nonporous polymeric Absorption. Microporous
polypropylene hollow fibres have been used as the Absorption material. Gas
separations such as N2-CO2, CH4-CO2, SO2-CO2-N2 and others have been
studied by HFCLM technique.

A New Class of Intelligent Ion-exchange Absorptions

A new type of ion-exchange Absorption developed by the Absorption research

group at McMaster University, Canada, is based on the simple concept of
taking a cheap, chemically and physically rugged microporous Absorption and
filling the pores with a flexible, ionic 'jelly'. This gel fill is anchored into place
and confined by the microporous substrate. These Absorptions, which in fact
contain 70% water, show remarkable separation properties including very
large chemical value effects. One feature of this new class of Absorptions is
that they show 'intelligence' for being able to sense the nature of the solution
in contact with the Absorptions and modify their properties.

These Absorptions find extensive application in electrodialysis, diffusion

dialysis, nanofiltration, Absorption solvent extraction and facilitated transport
applications. The prototype Absorptions have excited the interest of a series
of companies in different parts of the globe.

An interfacial polymerization/coating technique has been recently developed

at McMaster University. It evenly coats all the interior surfaces of a
microfiltration Absorption with polymers such as polyamides, polyesters, and
polysulphonamides. The coatings which cannot he removed, modify the
surface chemistry and provide different types of properties for the
Absorptions. Thus, the Absorption remains microporous, but, with different
surface chemistry. Photochemically active groups have also been incorporated
into the coated layer to modify their chemical properties.

5.5 Pervaporation Absorptions are being developed for the removal of trace
organics from water using coatings derived from silicone based oligomers.
Research in this area is also being carried out in collaboration with National
University of Singapore, and Industrial Absorption Research Institute,
University of Ottawa. The Absorption pervaporation performance test is also
carried out using a completely automated testing apparatus that analyzes
feed and permeate streams online for 24 hours continuously.

Absorptions for Fuel Cells/Electrolysis

One breakthrough in the application of ionic conducting polymer Absorptions

is the proton exchange Absorption fuel cell, a device that converts chemical
energy directly into electrical energy without burning. As the electrochemical
combination of hydrogen (the fuel) and oxygen produce water, the fuel cell is
environmentally clean and is expected to replace the gasoline engine or
rechargeable battery in the automobiles. Structural and electrical properties
of such ion containing Absorptions were studied extensively using AC
impedance spectroscopy, high- resolution X-ray scattering and solid state
NMR over the past few years at the polymer lab of the Materials Science and
Engineering Department, McMaster University, Canada.

Encapsulating Absorptions

Research in the area of design and preparation of encapsulating media for

environmentally sensitive materials addresses phospholipid liposomes
modified with synthetic polymers anchored on the Absorption outer surface,
and non-phospholipid liposomes (NPL) prepared from commercially available
surfactants. The aim of the above is to tailor the encapsulation medium and
process to specific applications in industrially relevant areas. The liposomes
structure and properties are studied by spectroscopic techniques, such as
fluorescence, size exclusion chromatography and capillary electrophoresis.

G-50 Ultrafiltration systems replaces the conventional oily wastewater

treatment systems which are limited to sludge generation, insufficient
removal of oil, and high operating costs. The G-50 UF systems are used to
treat oily waste streams to recover water and oil or to meet discharge
regulations. G,50 UF systems generally designed to operate in batch mode at
a net pressure of 620-825 kPa.

Advantages of G-50 UF systems

Supported Liquid Absorption (SliM) Process

Commodore's SliM is the first Absorption technology that is capable, in a

single process, of selectively extracting multiple elements or compounds ftorn
a mixed process stream. The conventional methods for separating metals
and/or removal from solubilized process streams presently include ion
exchange, RO, UF, nanofiltration, precipitation and chromatography. Most of
these methods have certain drawbacks, including lack of selectivity in the
separation process, inability to handle certain metals in the process streams
and the creation of sludges and other harmful by-products which require
further post-treatment prior to disposal.

SliM is a superior and cost-effective alternative to the existing forms of

Absorption filtration technologies, as it has the following advantages:
 The SliM process involves passing a contaminated aqueous or gaseous
feedstream through a hollow, porous fibre Absorption. This Absorption is
previously loaded with chemicals whose composition varies depending on the
targeted substance in the feedstream. As the feedstream enters the module,
the metal or other substance to be extracted reacts with the proprietary
chemical combination in the module, and the metallic or other ions are
extracted through the Absorption into a strip solution which is concentrated
and collected in a separate storage container. The balance of the feedstream
is either recycled or simply discharged as normal effluent.

This is an ideal system for finishers, electroplating shops, PCB manufacturers,

remediation sites, landfills and mines.

Liquid Absorption Extraction

The study undertaken by Am Berends, developed a technique for in-line

removal of trace impurities from solids containing process streams by
combining extraction and stripping in one process step. Liquid Absorptions
can be used to extract trace amounts of heavy metal ions frorn process
streams in one process step. The liquid Absorption is a thin layer of organic
phase, separating two aqueous phases. To achieve metal ion extraction, an
extractant is dissolved in the organic Absorption phase. It acts as a shuttle,
extracting the metal ion from the feed phase and releasing it again at the
other side of the Absorption. Advantages of the process are the high driving
force and the low organic inventory.

The second type of liquid Absorption is emulsion liquid Absorption (ELM),

which is water in oil emulsion, stirred in the third water phase. This system is
studied by GRM Breembroek. The main subject of the research is the
investigation of the influence of various process parameters on the extraction
rate in various liquid Absorption systems, and the adaption of the system for
the treatment of solid-containing process streams.

Other Emerging Absorption Technologies

The other emerging Absorption technologies, which enjoy excellent

applications potential are Absorption reactors, hydrogen generation,
purification and degassing, hydrogen sorption in metals, Absorption based
transport devices, electrostatic pseudo-liquid Absorption (ESPLIM), Absorption
distillation, controlled release etc.

Technology Trends: The Patent Scenario

Patent is an important tool to assess the technology trends and directions in

the future. In fact, inputs to technology forecasting can he drawn from a well-
studied analysis of international patents concerning a specific technology. In
order to understand the technology development efforts and future scenario
for Absorption separations, a patent search was carried out on the US patents
in the relevant areas. Patents related to some of the latest Absorption
separation technologies are briefed as follows:
Ultrafiltration

US patent #5858238 granted in 1999, related to Baxter Research Medical Inc.,

Midvale, UT, discloses a method and apparatus for salvaging blood from a
patient. The blood salvaging and/or blood processing circuit is coupled to a
cardiopulmonary by-pass circuit, cardiotomy circuit or directly to the patient.
It comprises a hemocentrator for removing water, fluids and low rnolecular
weight solutes by ultrafiltration and a sorbent containing plasma separator for
removing a selected solute, such as heparin.

The device is equipped with a closed plasma chamber containing a plasma

solution and a hollow fiber plasma, separating Absorption for receiving blood.

US patent #5707673 (granted in 1998) belonging to PreWell Industries,

Jackson, MS, describes a process for extracting lipids and organics from
animal and plant matter or organics containing waste streams. It uses the A
method for concentrating raw milk is invented by Hibbard C David and
Raghunath Bala of Wisconsin Rapids, WI, in 1997 (US patent # 5654025). It
is a process of concentrating raw milk at farm level before transportating to
the market and comprises the following steps:

Microfiltration

US patent #5865899 filed by Applexion, Epone, France, in 1999, discloses a

process for refining raw sugar from the sugarcane. It is an energy efficient
process and finds extensive application in sugar industries. The process
comprises the following steps:

US patent # 5814513 filed by Ajinomoto Co. Inc., Tokyo, Japan, in 1998,

describes a method for removing cells from fermentation broth using a
Absorption. This method improves the Absorption permeation rate as
compared to when no polyethyleneimine is added. The process involves
removing cells from a fermentation broth, which is obtained by culturing a
microorganism belonging to the genus Escherichia through a Absorption and
is explained in the following steps.

USF Filtration and Separations Group Inc., Timonium, MD, (US patent #
5834107) invented highly porous polyvinylidene difluoride Absorptions in
1998. It relates to the field of synthetic polymeric Absorption materials, which
are formed by casting polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) polymer solutions
and/or dispersions. Absorptions obtained in this process are highly porous
and are useful in a variety of microfiltration and ultrathin applications.

Gas Separations

US patent #5873928 assigned to Enerfex Inc., Burlington, VT, granted in

1999, describes a multiple stage semi-permeable Absorption process and
apparatus for gas separation. The process produce s a very high purity
permeate gas by using a multiple stage Absorption. This involves a primary
and a secondary stage. In primary stage, feed gas mixture is passed through
a primary Absorption separator, which comprises a Absorption of relatively
high intrinsic permeability. It produces an intermediate permeate gas and a
retentate gas. In the secondary stage, the intermediate permeate gas is
passed through secondary Absorption separator comprising a Absorption of
relatively low intrinsic permeability, to produce a very high purity permeate
gas.

US patent (# 5709732) filed by Praxair Technology Inc., Danbury, CT, and

granted in 1998, describes an advanced Absorption system for separating
gaseous mixtures. In this system, energy requirement are lower and product
purity as a function of energy requirements is improved. For example,
purified oxygen gas (60-90% purity) may be derived from ambient air in an
efficient manner using this technology. Systems and methods are provided by
which at least three permeator stages are used while requiring less than one
compressor per stage.

A method for capturing nitrogen from air using a gas separation Absorption is
invented by Opus Services Inc., Post, TX, in 1998 (US patent # 5730780). It
is an improved process for generating nitrogen from air. Here a vacuum is
generated on the permeate side of a gas separation Absorption, usually of the
polysulfone type, which results in highly enhanced flow rates and nitrogen
purity. This process is useful for the grain silos and also for the oil and, gas
pipelines repair works.

US patent No. 5647894 granted in 1997, related to Nitto Denko Corporation,

Osaka, Japan, describes a composite gas separating Absorption and a process
for separating the gases using the same. It comprises two types of polyimide
resin layers having different molecular structures and each having solubility in
an organic solvent. The first one comprises a porous polyimide supporting
Absorption having a nitrogen gas permeation flux density of 2 Nm3/m2/atm at
250 C. The second polyimide resin layer comprises a polyimide thin film
having at least three fluorine atoms in a repeating molecular structure. It has
a very high gas permeation flux density while maintaining high gas
permeability. It is a cost-efficient technology and is widely used in heat
resistance and chemical resistance applications.

Another US patent # 5688307 filed by Absorption Technology and Research

Inc., Menlo Park, CA, in 1997, discloses a process for separating low-boiling
gases using super-glassy Absorptions. It involves separation of hydrocarbon
gases of low boiling point, particularly methane, ethane and ethylene from
nitrogen. The process is performed using a Absorption made from a super-
glassy material. The gases to be separated are mixed with a condensable gas,
such as C3+ hydrocarbon. In the presence of such condensable gas, improved
selectivity for the low-boiling point hydrocarbon gas over nitrogen is achieved.

L’Air Liquide Society, Paris, France, patented (US patent # 5472480) a

process for supplying nitrogen by means of semi-permeable Absorptions by
adsorption, in 1995. The process is meant for supplying nitrogen to at least
two user stations, whose requirements as to nitrogen purity are different. The
following steps explains the overall process:

Pervaporation

University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, has filed a US patent (# 5723639) in 1998,

on the esterification of fermentation-derived acids using pervaporation. It is a
low temperature method for esterifying ammonium and amine containing
salts. In this process, the salt reacts with an alcohol in the presence of heat
and a catalyst and then subjected to dehydration and deamination processes
using pervaporation. The invention also provides a method for producing
esters of fermentation derived organic acid salts.

US patent # 5755967 by three scientists Mr. Meagher Michael, Mr. Qureshi

Nasibuddin and Mr. Hutkins Robert of Lincoln, NE, granted in 1998, reveals a
silicalite Absorption and method for the selective recovery and concentration
of acetone and butanol from model ABE solutions and fermentation broth. The
silicalite filled polymer Absorption and process are particularly suitable for the
removal of acetone and butanol from clostridium acetobutylicum fermentation
media. In this, the Absorption is not fouled by the fermentation media and
may be used without removing cells from the fermentation media. This
Absorption shows excellent selectivity to the adsorption of acetone and
butanol relative to ethanol, acetic acid and butyric acid components of
fermentation media.

US patent (# 5849195) belonging to Metallgesellschaft Akitiengesell-Schaft,

Frankfurt, Germany, granted in 1998, describes a composite Absorption for
removing water from dilute organic or inorganic acids by pervaporation. The
composite Absorption is of a porous carrier layer, a porous backing layer and
a non-porous separating layer. It consists of a PVC-PCac copolymer having a
PV content of 10 to 25% by weight of the copolymer.

Absorption Technology and Research Inc., Menio Park, CA, has been granted
a patent (# 5670051) in 1997 on the process of separating unsaturated
hydrocarbons from fluid mixtures. This differs from conventional methods, in
that the feed and permeate streams both be dry, and the Absorption need not
be solvent swollen or contain water. The Absorption is characterized by a
selectivity for an unsaturated hydrocarbon over a

saturated hydrocarbon having the same number of carbon atoms (about 20)
and a pressure-normalized flux of unsaturated hydrocarbon. The flux and
selectivity can from a gas mixture containing and unsaturated hydrocarbons
in a dry environment.

Reverse Osmosis

Nitto Denko Corporation, Osaka, Japan, filed a US patent (.# 5674398) in

1997, on a novel composite reverse osmosis Absorption. It comprises a thin
film and a microporous substrate as a support layer. Here, the thin film
comprises a crosslinked polyamide, which is obtained by the interfacial
polymerisation of the following:

An amine component comprising at least one monomeric amine compound

with two primary and/or secondary amino groups, and

An acid halide component which is either a benzenehexacarbonyl halide or a

mixture of benzenehexacarbonyl halide with a monomeric acid halide
compound having at least two acid halide groups.

This Absorption exhibits high water permeability and high desalting

performance even under low operational pressure (i.e., 5 Kgf/cm2).
MacMillan Bloedel Ltd., Canada (US patent # 4995983) invented a new type
of Absorption separation process in 1991. The process is particularly suited
for increasing the concentration of hydrogen peroxide. Certain chemicals such
as hydrogen peroxide may he concentrated in an aqueous solution by
increasing the pH of feed liquor, to increase the amount of the chemical in an
ionized form. This means increasing the ionized fraction and then separating
the feed liquor by reverse osrnosis into a retentate having an enhanced
concentration of chemical in ionized form and a permeate, having a reduced
concentration of chemical in ionized form relative to the feed liquor.

US patent #4944882, filed by Bend Research Inc., Bend, OR, in 1990,

describes Hybrid Absorption-based separation systems that are useful in
separating solvents and solutes. The hybrid systems combine, any of the
solvent removal processes like RO, nanofiltration, Absorption distillation and
pervaporation with any one or more of the solute removal processes utilizing
pervaporation Absorptions, supported-liquid Absorptions, coupled transport
Absorptions and Absorption contactors. The solvent and solute removal
processes forming part of a recycle stream that utilizes Absorption separation
retentates as feeds and as recycled feed stream make-up.

Electrodialysis

A US patent (# 5792315) granted to Eka Chamicals AB, Bohus, Sweden, in

1998, describes a process for purifying aqueous effluents of pulp mills using
electrochemical Absorption. The system consists of two ion permeable
Absorptions as a unit cell through which an electric current is passed between
anode and cathode. The effluent is fed into the system where it gets purified
by removing the metal impurity cations through a cation selective Absorption
on the cathode side of the compartment. The purified effluent may he utilized
as raw water for washing purpose in the pulp mill.

Yeda Research and Development Company Ltd., Rehovot, Israel, filed a US

patent (# 5714512) in 1998, disclosed the novel heterogenous ion exchange
Absorptions useful for electrodialysis. These Absorptions have anti-
polarisation and anti-fouling properties. They comprise in addition to ion-
exchange particles embedded in the matrix, a layer of at least one hydrophilic
cross-linked polymer having fixed electric charge.

A US patent (# 5520813) filed by two inventors viz., Korin Amos and Korin
Netta of Weston, CT, in 1996, discloses a method for processing nuclear
waste solutions by Absorption separation technology. It is a process for
separating monovalent ions from a sodium bearing radioactive waste stream.
It is achieved by passing such waste stream through a ion exchange
Absorption having permselectivity for monovalent ions. Here, the monovalent
ions permeate or diffuse across the ion exchange Absorption to form a
permeate of monovalent ion-enriched stream. Also, a retentate is formed
from the sodium bearing radioactive waste stream, which is substantially
depleted of monovalent ions.
Appendix B
GAS ABSORPTION SYSTEM

The Absorption gas separation technology is over ten years old and is proving
to be one of the most significant unit operations. These processes compete
with technology alternatives such as adsorption, cryogenic distillation etc. in
niche application areas. The Absorption processes enjoy certain advantages,
viz., compactness and light in weight, low labour intensity, modular design
permitting easy expansion or operation at partial capacity, low maintenance
(no moving parts), low energy requirements and low cost especially so for
small sizes. Absorptions made of polymers and copolymers in the forms of flat
film or hollow fiber have been used for gas separation.

Different gases pass through certain Absorptions at significantly different

rates, thus permitting a partial separation. The rate of permeation is
proportional to the pressure differential across die Absorption and inversely
proportional to the Absorption thickness. The rate of permeation is also
proportional to the solubility of the gas in the Absorption and also to the
diffusivity of gas through the Absorption.

Gas separation is thus affected by three key performance attributes of

Absorptions, viz., selectivity towards the gases separated, Absorption flux or
permeability and the life of the Absorption, maintenance and replacement
costs.

The Absorption gas separation has been used for hydrogen separation and
recovery, ammonia purge gas, refinery hydrogen recovery, 'syngas'
separation in petrochemicals industry, CO2 enhanced oil recovery, natural gas
processing, landfill gas upgrading, air separation, nitrogen production, air
dehydration, helium recovery etc.

The gas separation technology may enjoy the following applications in the
near future:

N2 enrichment of air
Low level O2 enrichment of air
H2 and acid gas separation from hydrocarbons
Helium recovery
Natural gas dehydration
A typical Absorption system consists of a pre-treatment skid and a series of
Absorption modules. The system is highly adaptable to accommodate
treatment of various gas volumes and product-gas specifications. The
technology’s compactness makes it the preferred technology for offshore gas
treatment.

Currently, gas separation Absorptions are most widely used in industry for:

• Hydrogen separation, for example, hydrogen/nitrogen separation in

ammonia plants and hydrogen/hydrocarbon separations in
petrochemical applications;
• Separating nitrogen from air;
• CO2 and water removal from natural gas;
• Organic vapor removal from air or nitrogen streams.

At the moment, the most widely used Absorption materials for gas separation
are polymers. They are attractive as Absorptions because they can be
processed into hollow fibers with high surface areas. The relatively low cost of
manufacturing the fibers makes them of interest for large-scale industrial
applications. Examples of such Absorptions are the MEDAL and PRISM
Absorptions produced, respectively, by Air Liquide and Air Products for wide-
ranging gas separation applications. Each device contains thousands of fibers.

Absorption devices for gas or vapor separation usually operate under

continuous steady-state conditions with three streams. The feed stream--a
high-pressure gas mixture--passes along one side of the Absorption. The
molecules that permeate the Absorption are swept using a gas on the other
side of the Absorption in the so-called permeate stream. The non-permeating
molecules that remain on the feed-stream side exit the Absorption as the
retentate stream. A pressure difference across the Absorption drives the
permeation process.

The economics of a gas separation Absorption process is largely determined

by the Absorption's transport properties--that is, its permeability and
selectivity for a specific gas in a mixture. Ideally, Absorptions should exhibit
high selectivity and high permeability. For most Absorptions, however, as
selectivity increases, permeability decreases, and vice versa. That's the trade-
off.

A Absorption is a selective semi-permeable barrier that allows different gases,

vapors, or liquids to move through it at different rates. A Absorption is
defined by what it does and not what it is. The Absorption restricts the motion
of molecules passing across it so that some molecules move more slowly than
others or are excluded. A wide range of mechanisms are available for this
restriction; for example, size variability of the molecules, affinity for the
Absorption material, and permeation driving forces--typically concentration or
pressure difference.

Each gas component in a feed mixture has a characteristic permeation rate

through the Absorption. The rate is determined by the ability of the
component to dissolve in and diffuse through the Absorption material.
Hollow Fiber Absorption

Figure 1 illustrates an internally staged permeator which splits the pressure

difference between the feed and permeate side into two steps with two
Absorptions of the same type. The permeate, Lm enriched in a more
permeable component emerging from the first Absorption at an intermediate
pressure would then be applied as feed to the second Absorption for the
second permeation step. Since the pressure arrangement follows pu > pm > pp,
the internally staged permeator can be operated without interstage
recompression. The main purpose for such a pressure arrangement is to
optimize the use of pressure energy for the enrichment of a desired product.

Schematic diagram of an internally staged permeator

Conventionally, the internally staged permeator can be assembled using flat

sheet Absorptions or hollow fiber Absorptions. In the case of hollow fiber
Absorptions, two bundles of the hollow fibers are required to be housed in a
permeator shell which has four openings as shown in Figure 2a. In order to
provide a better flow distribution and to maximize the packing densities of the
Absorption permeator, one may propose to use annular hollow fiber
Absorptions for the fabrication of the internally staged permeator as shown in
Figure below. To date, however, no such hollow fiber Absorptions are
available commercially.

Schematic diagram of internally staged hollow fiber permeators prepared

from a) two bundles of hollow fiber Absorptions, b) annular hollow fiber
Absorptions. The insert illustrates hollow fiber lumen, annular space in the
single fiber and the fiber potting at both ends of the permeator.
Figures 3a and 3b are SEM photomicrographs showing cross-sectional views
of the annular hollow fiber Absorption at magnifications of 400 and 5,000,
respectively. It can be seen from Figure 3b that the width of the annular
passage is around 5 8m. The structures for both inner and outer walls of the
Absorption are similar to those obtained by the conventional single orifice
spinneret. It is interesting to note that stringy structures were formed from
both the surfaces and they were tangled to each other within the annular
passage, which binds the inner and outer hollow fibers into a stable
concentric annular hollow fiber Absorption.

Figure 3 Scanning electronmicrographs of Absorption cross sections for the

annular hollow fiber Absorption, (a) part, 400 and (b) annulus, 5,000.

Figure 4 shows the gas enriching performance of an annular hollow fiber

permeator studied both experimentally and theoretically. It can be seen that
at a given overall stage cut, the annular hollow fiber permeator offers a
considerably higher enriching performance compared to the conventional
single stage permeator at the same energy consumption. The experimental
results, in general, can be predicted well by the theoretical models developed
with incorporation of pressure drops in both the hollow fiber lumen and the
annular passages. Commercial application of the annular hollow fiber
permeator developed to purify a binary gas mixture can be expected as this
technique holds advantages over a conventional Absorption process.
Figure 4 Permeate concentration vs. overall stage cut, 1. Conventional hollow
fiber permeator operated at countercurrent flow, 2. Internally staged
permeator operated at co/counter-current flow, pu = 7 bar, pm =0.75, pp =0
bar(gauge).

Hollow Fiber Absorption (HFM)—air is passed through a bundle of fibers that

are made of a special polymer designed to absorb oxygen. As air moves
down the tube of fibers, oxygen is absorbed into the walls of the fibers. The
longer the tube of fibers, the more oxygen that can be absorbed.
Basic Morphology

Two basic morphology of hollow fiber Absorption are isotropic and anisotropic
(Fig. 1). Absorption separation is achieved by use of these morphologies.

Fig. 1 Basic Absorption morphology

The anisotropic configuration is of special value. In the early 1960s, the

development of anisotropic Absorptions exhibiting a dense, ultra thin skin on
a porous structure provided a momentum to the progress of Absorption
separation technology. The semi permeability of the porous morphology is
based essentially on the spatial cross-section of the permeating species, ie,
small molecules exhibit a higher permeability rate through the fiber wall.
While the anisotropic morphology of the dense Absorption which exhibit the
dense skin, is obtained through the solution-diffusion mechanism. The
permeation species chemically interacts with the polymer matrix and
selectively dissolves in it, resulting in diffusive mass transport along the
chemical potential gradient, as what demonstrated in the pervaporation
process.
Absorption Configurations

Types of the Absorption configuration are given in Fig. 2 as below:

Fig. 2 Absorption configuration

Advantages and Disadvantages of Hollow Fiber

Hollow fiber is one of the most popular Absorptions used in industries. It is

because of its several beneficial features that make it attractive for those
industries. Among them are :

• Modest energy requirement : In hollow fiber filtration process, no

phase change is involed. Consequently, need no latent heat. This
makes the hollow fiber Absorption have the potential to replace some
 unit operation which consume heat, such as distillation or evaporation
column.
• No waste products : Since the basic principal of hollow fiber is
filtration, it does not create any waste from its operation except the
unwanted component in the feed stream. This can help to decrease the
cost of operation to handle the waste.
• Large surface per unit volume : Hollow fiber has large Absorption
surface per module volume. Hence, the size of hollow fiber is smaller
than other type of Absorption but can give higher performance.
• Flexible : Hollow fiber is a flexible Absorption, it can carry out the
filtration by 2 ways, either is "inside-out" or "outside-in".
• Low operation cost : Hollow fiber need low operation cost compare
to other types of unit operation.

However, it also have some disadvantages which lead to its application

constraints. Among the disadvantages are :

• Absorption fouling : Absorption fouling of hollow fiber is more

frequent than other Absorption due to is configuration. Contaminated
feed will increase the rate of Absorption fouling, esapecially for hollow
fiber.
• Expensive : Hollow Fiber is more expensive than other Absorption
which available in market. It is because of its fabrication method and
expense is higher than other Absorptions.
• Lack of research : Hollow fiber is a new tachnology and so far,
research done on it is less compare to other types of Absorption.
Hence, more research will be done on it in future because of its
potential.

Physically and Chemically constraints : Hollow fiber which made of

polymer cannot use on corrosive substances and high temperature condition

Absorption Processes

Various types of Absorption processes can be found in almost all of the

literature references. In this text, we will confine ourselves to the few
Absorption processes that we will encounter in the further discussion of the
industrial applications.

Reverse osmosis (RO)

There is considerable confusion in the open literature as to the distinction

between few Absorption separation processes, i.e., the microfiltration (MF),
ultrafiltration (UF) and reverse osmosis (RO). Occasionally one will see it
referred to by other names such as "hiperfiltration (HF)". In order to
distinguish these separation processes clearly, Porter in his paper presented
one of the useful method based on the smallest particles or molecules which
can be retrained by the various Absorptions. Accordingly, RO has the
separation range of 0.0001 to 0.0018m (i.e., 1 to 10 Å ) or < 300 mol wt.

RO is a liquid-driven Absorption process, with the RO Absorptions are capable

of passing water whilst rejecting microsolutes, such as salts or low molecule
weight organics (< 1000 daltons). Pressure driving force (1 to 10 MPa)
needed to overcome the force of osmosis that cause the water to flow from
dilute permeate to concentrated feed. The principle use of this Absorption
process is desalination, which show its great advantage over the conventional
technique of desalination, i.e. ion exchange.

Pervaporation (PV)

In this process, liquid mixture are fed under pressure to a non-porous

Absorption, where components pass through the Absorption by solution-
diffusion and evaporate at the permeate side of the Absorption. This
technique is able to separate an azeotropic mixture. It current usage is well
know in dehydration of the organic solvents and mixtures and the removal of
organics from aqueous stream. The future application of this process, which is
now under the main interest of the researcher is the hydrocarbon separation,,
which shows its advantages of energy require compared to the conventional
distillation technique.

Gas separation

Two type of gas separation processes have been encountered: gas

permeation (GP) and gas diffusion (GD). The gas separation of the industrial
interest is the former process, which is a pressure driven process where vapor
components pass through a non-porous Absorption by a solution-diffusion
mechanism; analogous to RO. While gas diffusion process can be done for the
microporous Absorptions, operating under a concentration or partial pressure
gradient.

Industrial Application

Absorption processes in chemical & petrochemical industry

• Gas Separation

Gas Absorptions are now widely used in variety of application areas, as shown
in Table 2. This is because of its advantages in separation, low capital cost,
low energy consumption, ease of operation, cost effectiveness even at low
gas volumes and good weight and space efficiency.
As the matter of fact, hollow fiber is playing a important role in gas
separation. It is because of its high separation areas and selectivity. The
hollow fibers have approximately 30 times the productivity of other oxygen
enriching Absorptions plus excellent inertness associated with their totally
flourinated chemistry. The market of the gas separation include, small and
intermediate scale industrial oxygen and nitrogen at moderate purity
levels(oxygen 25%-40% or nitrogrn 82%-95%), portable oxygen for
respiratory care, enhanced engine power and emissions reduction and
removal gases from liquid.

Hollow fibers have demonstrated stable, high flux with moderate selectivity in
full scale system. The high flux from hollow fibers is due to the combination of
high transfer or separatin areas and thin Absorption wall. Besides, it also has
a low surface energy.

With such characters, hollow fiber is widely used in many gas separation
industries. For instance, it is used in O2/N2 separation for oxygen enrichment
and inert gas generation, H2 /hydrocarbons separation for refinery hydrogen
recovery, H2 /CO separation for sygas ratio adjustment, H2/N2 separation for
ammonia purge gas, CO2/hydrocarbons separation for acid gas treatment and
landfill gas upgrading, H2O/hydrocarbons separation for natural gas
dehydration, H2S/hydrocarbons separation for sour gas treating, helium
separation and etc. (refer Table 3)
Apart from that, low capital cost of hollow fiber also lead to its popularity. For
example, for oxoalcohol feed separation, the process cost is about 1.000 for
hollow fiber Absorption. However, for crygenic(partial condensation) and PSA
processes are about 1.234 and 1.133 respectively.(appen ) From here, we
can see that most of the cost for hollow fiber is for compression and not for
purification. It is because hollow fiber itself already provides a good medium
for purification.

• Desalination

As mentioned in the above section, RO is mainly use to remove the dissolved

ion in the feed water. Its current extensive use in Malaysia industry sector is
found in the production of ultrapure water in the semiconductor
manufacturing industry. Historically, distillation and ion exchange was first
used to remove the inorganic salts, but RO Absorption processes with the
combination of ion-exchange system has promised a better result in both the
product requirement and a better economic view point.

Other usage of RO included the removal of organics, salts and silica ahead of
deionizers in boiler feed water, removal of inorganic salts, phosphorus and
nitrogen compound in the municipal waste water treatment and also the
demineralization of sea water and brackish water in the production of potable
water. Porter provide a good reference in the comparison of product quality
and economic of the above processes.

Absorption processes in biotechnology and biochemical industry

The biotechnology industry, which originated in the late 1970s, has become
one of the emerging industry that draws the attention of the world, especially
with the emergence of the genetic engineering as a means of producing
medically important proteins, during the 1980s. Two of the major interest
applications of Absorption technology in the biotechnology industry will be the
separation & purification of the biochemical product, as often known as
Downstream Processing; and the Absorption bioreactor, which developed for
the transformation of certain substrates by enzymes (i.e. biological catalysts).
Lots of literature has been published since the last ten years for these topic
which serve as a good reference is sited in the Reference.
 • Downstream processing

"Downstream Processing", a new key term given a decades ago, devotes

towards the science and engineering principles in separation and purification
in this emerging industry, has become a key issue to enhance the quality of
the biochemical product. It is particularly important because it typically
accounts for nearly three-fourths of the manufacturing costs in this new
industry and because reliable and effective purification can be of the utmost
important to the user. Absorption separation, together with the bioaffinity
chromatography, liquid extraction and selective precipitation are the few
techniques in the bio-separations, which gain attention from both the
industries and researcher in order to upgrade the product quality of the
biochemical industry.

Lots of study has been put in this area involving the most of the recovery of
the biofuels and the biochemicals. Throughout the available literature, the
most useful review is presented by Stephen A Leeper (1992), which compiles
a large number of the previous and current studies' data on the different
types of biofuels and the biochemicals product recovery, consisting of the
usage of different types of Absorption materials, Absorption processes,
together with the operating parameters of the studies being carried out.

• Absorption bioreactor

Since its introduction in the 1970s, Absorption bioreactor has granted a lot of
attention over the other conventional production processes is the possibility of
a high enzyme density and hence high space-time yields. Whereas
downstream processing is usually based on discontinuously operated
microfiltration, Absorption bioreactor are operated continuously and are
equipped with UF Absorptions. Two type of bioreactor designs are possible:
dissolved enzymes, (as in used with the production of L-alanine from
pyrurate) or immobilized enzymes Absorption.

Future Prospects

Absorption science began emerging as an independent technology only in the

mid-1070s, and its engineering concepts still are being defined. Many
developments that initially evolved from government-sponsored fundamental
studies are now successfully gaining the interest of the industries as
Absorption separation has emerged as a feasible technology.

As were noted by the US National Research Council, the technological

frontiers of the Absorption technology should be concerned more in the
developing of new Absorption materials and the identification of new ways of
using permselective Absorptions.

New Absorption materials to be used is still a big option in the research of this
brand new technology, as most of the researchers are always intend to get a
better improvement for this separation process. Journal of Absorption Science
serve as a good reference, where lots of the new Absorption materials
research may be found.
For the latter, Absorption-based hybrid system serve as a good example, as it
is a combination of conventional unit operations and Absorption separation
processes, which often results in separation processes that offer significant
advantages over the exclusive use of either component process. Such
advantages may include more complete separation, reduced energy
requirement, lower capital cost, and lower production cost. Two good example
of this hybrid system are the RO / evaporator hybrid system to concentrate
corn steep water, and a Absorption / vapor-recompression hybrid process to
recover energy in hot, moist dryer exhaust. Studies has also been carried out
and proven that these hybrid system did perform a better of the washwater
purification and reuse pilot plant (HUMEF) which has been successful installed
in Eindhoven pumping station, the Netherlands.

Spiral Wound Absorption

The spiral wound Absorption process combines a compression-condensation

step with a Absorption separation step. The feed gas - a mixture of
hydrocarbons in nitrogen, hydrogen, or methane - is compressed and cooled,
condensing a portion of the hydrocarbons in the gas. The liquid hydrocarbons
are recovered; the remaining gas, which still contains significant amounts of
hydrocarbons, is fed to the Absorption. The Absorption separates the gas into
a hydrocarbon-rich permeate stream and a hydrocarbon-depleted residue
stream (the purified gas). The permeate is recycled to the compressor; the
residue stream is vented or reused.

How do Absorptions work?

This Absorptions separate gas mixtures on the basis of solubility. Large

hydrocarbon molecules with greater solubility in the Absorption permeate
much faster than smaller, less soluble molecules such as nitrogen, hydrogen,
or methane.

By comparison, conventional Absorptions separate gases on the basis of size.

Small molecules are selectively permeated because they diffuse through the
Absorption more rapidly than large molecules.
How are Absorptions packaged?

Absorptions are manufactured as flat sheets and rolled into spiral-wound

modules. The feed gas enters the module and flows between the Absorption
sheets. Spacers on the feed side and the permeate side of the Absorption
sheets create flow channels. The hydrocarbon vapor that passes preferentially
through the Absorption flows inward to a central permeate collection pipe.
The light gas (nitrogen, hydrogen or methane) is rejected by the Absorption
and exits as the residue.

Spiral-wound Absorption module

Modules are three feet long and four to eight inches in diameter. As many as
four modules are placed in pressure vessels designed to meet local standards
(ASME, etc.). To meet the needs of a particular application, modules are
configured in series and parallel flow combinations.

Where are Absorption separation systems used?

Absorption separation systems are used in the petrochemical, refining, and

natural gas processing industries. Current applications include:

• Recovery of olefins from resin degassing vent streams in polyolefin

plants.
• Recovery of liquified petroleum gas (LPG) from refinery vent streams.
• Fuel gas conditioning (removal of heavy hydrocarbons from fuel gas).
• Recovery of natural gas liquids (NGLs) from natural gas streams.

What are the operating limits of Absorption modules?

The Absorption module can operate over a wide range of temperatures and
pressures. The temperature range is -40°C to 40°C. The feed pressure can be
as high as 1,500 psi. The permeate pressure can be under vacuum if required
to achieve a certain separation.

What pre-conditioning of the feed gas is required?

Several factors determine the required pretreatment. If dust or other solid

particles are present, they must be removed upstream with a high-efficiency
filter. If the feed gas contains entrained liquids, a mist eliminator vessel with
a high-efficiency coalescing agent is required. MTR will provide detailed
pretreatment requirements.

Tubular Absorption
Appendix C
(lab report format)
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI PETRONAS
Bachelor of Engineering (Hons) CHEMICAL
Syllabus No :
Subject : Separation Processes I
Experiment : Gas Absorption Separation

2nd-year Laboratory Return Sheet

Please fill in the following details

Name:

Date:
Gas Absorption Separation
Lab. expt:

Lab. group:

Marking scheme
Component Maximum Marks Comments

Report summary 20

Report introduction 10

Apparatus/experimental 10

Results 20

Discussion 20

Conclusions 10

Report presentation 5

Lab diligence 5

Total 100

General comments:

Initials of marker:
Laboratory reports should be submitted to the General Office where
the report will be date-stamped.

Summary
(Some people in companies will receive only the summaries of reports so
these must contain all necessary information for the reader to make sense of
them. A summary should contain a statement of the objective, apparatus,
procedure, results obtained and conclusions. Think of it as a mini-report but
without figures or tables. The summary should not have section headings nor
should it contain information not mentioned in the report itself. The length
should be about half a page. )

Introduction
(The purpose of the introduction is to provide the background to the work and
to 'set the scene'. In some cases, a brief account of the importance of the
subject might be appropriate; in others, an account of a problem that the
experiment attempts to deal with might be relevant. Include any theory which
is relevant to an understanding of the work being carried out. Also include
anything you will mention in the discussion or conclusions sections of the
report. If the introduction from the handout is to be used as the basis please
mention the handout in the references section. The length should be about
half a page minimum.)

Objectives
(This section should set out clearly and concisely the objective(s) of the work
that has been carried out. {A common error in lab reports is to include
educational objectives in this section. A supervisor may say to you “ The point
of this experiment is to familiarise you with heat pumps. I want you to find
how refrigerant flow affects the efficiency of this one”. Do not include 'To
familiarise ourselves with heat pumps' as an objective. The technical objective
is along the lines of 'To find how refrigerant flow affects the efficiency of a
heat pump'. Objectives should be a few lines long.})

Apparatus
(A general description of the apparatus or plant should be given without going
into too much detail on the mechanical side. A sketch or detailed drawing
should supplement this description. Full details of a process or a piece of plant
should be given where applicable together with a clearly labelled flowsheet.
Detailed descriptions of standard laboratory apparatus should be avoided.
Length depends on the apparatus and the drawing)

Procedure
(A fairly full description of the procedure should be given. Any difficulties in
operation which might lead to inaccurate results should be mentioned in
passing. Fuller comment on this aspect may be left to the discussion.)
Results and calculations
(A specimen calculation of each step should be given but avoid trivial
calculations -put more detailed calculations in an appendix if you wish. Try to
be expansive with plenty of explanation to guide the reader rather than just
presenting a mass of numbers. Experimental readings and calculated results
are best given in a tabulated form. All readings should be given, including
those, if any, considered inaccurate. If appropriate, the results can be -
presented graphically but, in general, it is regarded as bad form to give the
same results in both a table and a graph).

DISCUSSION
(Discuss the shape of plot obtained and its significance regarding the
distribution of particles in the talcum powder. State the mean particle size
and geometric standard deviation. The standard deviation is basically the
gradient of the plot and is a measure of the degree of spread of the
distribution -comment. Was it valid to assume that Stokes Law prevailed?
Errors/Other comments?)

CONCLUSIONS
(This section should summarise the findings and inferences of the work
carried out. It should be brief and consist of firm statements. One way of
looking at the conclusions is that they should provide the answer to what you
set out as the objective{s}).

REFERENCES
("References" if referred to in the report; "Bibliography" if not referred to in
the report but used by the author or may be useful for the reader.

Give title, author, volume, edition, publisher, year, page if appropriate. For
example,
("Mass-Transfer Operations", Treybal,R.E., 3rd. ed., McGraw-Hill, 1981 )

1. C.Judson King Separation Processes, 2nd edition (McGraw- Hill Inc.)

2. Robert E. Treybal Mass-Transfer Operations, 3rd edition (McGraw- Hill
Inc.)
3. Warren L. McCabe, Julian C. Smith, Peter Harriott Unit Operation of
Chemical Engineering, 4th edition (McGraw- Hill Inc.)
4. J.M. Coulson, J.F. Richardson Chemical Engineering Volume Two, 3rd
edition (Pergamon )
5. Philip A. Schweitzer Handbook of Separation Technigues for Chemical
Engineer, 2nd edition
6. Kirk -Othemer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology Vol.1, 4th edition
7. F.H.H. Valentin Absorption in gas - liquid dispersions
8. Nicholas P. Chopey Handbook of Chemical Engineering Calculations, 2nd
edition
9. Edgar, T.F. & Himmelblau, D.M. Optimisation of Chemical process,
(McGraw-Hill Inc.)
10. B. Finlayson Non-linear Analysis in Chemical Engineering, (McGraaw-Hill)
11. T.K. Sherwood, R.L. Pigford Absorption and Exraction (McGraw- Hill Inc.)
12. Kreyzig Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 7th edition (John Wiley)
13. R.H. Perry, D. Green Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 6th edition,
(McGraw-Hill)
14. C.R. Wilke, U.V. Stockar Industrial Engineering Chemical Fundamental,
16(2), 88, 1977
15. G.C. Coggan, J.R. Bourne Trans. Institute Chemical Engineers Vol(47)
1969
16. M. Oh, C.C. Pantelides A Modelling and Simulation Language for
Combined Lumped and Distributed Parameter Systems 1994
 Appendix D
(National Instruments – NI activation procedures)
Activate National Instruments Labview Software – Screen I

Activate National Instruments Labview Software – Screen II

Open pre-programmed data acquisition file – “FILE”, “OPEN”

Select “Application”
Default Screen

To run – Go to top left hand corner – Click

Ready to run screen

Click the respective button to activate the equipment
Inactive Active
 General Safety Observation

HAZARD: Rotating Equipment / Machine Tools

Personal Protective Equipment: Safety Goggles; Standing

Shields, Covered/safety Shoes

No: Loose clothing; Neck Ties/Scarves; Jewelry (remove); Long

Hair (tie back)

HAZARD: Electrical - Burns / Shock

Care with electrical connections, particularly with grounding; do not

use frayed electrical cords can reduce hazard.

HAZARD: High Pressure Air-Fluid /Gas Cylinders/Vacuum

Inspect before using any pressure / vacuum equipment.

HAZARD: Water / Slip Hazard

Any spillage must be cleaned and reported to instructor

immediately!
Gas Absorption Pilot Plant

Gas absorption is a unit operation in which soluble components of a gas

mixture are dissolved in a liquid. The inverse operation, called stripping or
desorption, is employed when it is desired to transfer volatile components
from a liquid mixture into a gas. Both absorption and stripping, in common
with distillation, make use of special equipment for bringing gas and liquid
phases into intimate contact. This section is concerned with the design of gas-
liquid contacting equipment, as well as with the design of absorption and
stripping processes.

Absorption, stripping, and distillation operations are usually carried out in

vertical, cylindrical columns or towers in which devices such as plates or
packing elements are placed. The gas and liquid normally flow counter-
currently, and the devices serve to provide the contacting and development of
interfacial surface through which mass transfer takes place.

This proposed system consists of a column of perforated plates constructed by

LENZ A/G, Germany. The gas absorption column is designed in such a area
that it permits absorption and stripping processes to be carried out either
independently or simultaneously.
Introduction

Gas absorption is a unit operation used in the chemical industry to separate

gases by washing or scrubbing a gas mixture with a suitable liquid.

There are some absorption systems in which the temperature rise is not large
and therefore the absorption process can be treated as isothermal. However,
in some case of physical absorption, thermal effects are large and heat
released causes an appreciable increase in the liquid temperature. Hence,
adiabatic absorption must be considered in the design of gas absorbers.

Gas Output

Solvent Input

Gas Input

Solvent Out

Gas absorber - Packed Column

In this manual, the focus is primarily on operation of gas absorption (packed)

column. Serious and relevant considerations include the heat effect and other
operating variables are made.

This manual is mainly divided into two parts. The first part provides some
background knowledge on the theory and fundamental equations governing
gas absorption operation. The second part comprises of the experimental
procedures as well as results.
BASIC CONCEPTS

Chemical processes may consist of widely varying sequences of steps (which

may involve chemical reactions and/or physical changes), the principles of
which are independent of the material(s) being operated upon and of other
characteristics of the particular system.

A Unit Operation involves a list of techniques that are based on principles of

science that are translated into industrial applications in various fields of
engineering, e.g. - fluid mechanics, heat transfer, process instrumentation
and control, mass transfer, etc.

Examples of unit operations: Distillation, Absorption, Humidification,

Extraction, Leaching, Crystallization, Membrane Processing, Adsorption, etc.

Typical chemical manufacturing process will involve a combination of several

unit operations, e.g. petroleum refining, petrochemical, pharmaceutical, and
other specialty chemicals.

Focus on separation processes, e.g. distillation and gas absorption where

mass transfer occurs from one phase to another.

Types Of Separation Processes

Many chemical processes materials occur as mixtures of different components

in the gas, liquid or solid phase. In order to separate or remove one or more
of the components from its original mixture, it must be contacted with
another phase.

The two phases are brought into more or less intimate contact with one
another so that a solute can diffuse (i.e. transfer) from one phase to the
other: hence inter-phase mass transfer.

(A solute is a component that dissolves in a particular phase)

Major classifications:

• Distillation (Fractionation, Fractional Distillation)

• Gas Absorption & Stripping
• Liquid-liquid Extraction
• Leaching
• Crystallization
• Adsorption
• Drying
• Humidification
• Evaporation
• Screening
• Filtration
• Sedimentation
• Centrifugation
• Membrane Processing

Each of these processes is based on a fundamental principle as the basis of

separation. The equipment used will also necessarily be different. Particularly,
gas absorption process and its principle of separations are described briefly in
the sections below:

Gas Absorption (Scrubbing)

• Transfer of one or more soluble components from a gas phase into a

relatively non-volatile liquid solvent.
• Principle of separation: Solubility of a gas in a liquid. The transferred
component must be preferentially more soluble in the liquid than other
components.
• An example is the removal of ammonia from mixture with air using water.
Ammonia is more soluble in water than air. Thus more ammonia is
preferentially removed (i.e. absorbed) by water when the ammonia-air
mixture is contacted with water.
• Reverse of absorption is stripping or desorption, e.g. steam stripping of
hydrogen sulfide from liquid DEA (diethanolamine) solution.
THEORY OF GAS DIFFUSION & MASS TRANSFER

MOLECULAR DIFFUSION

Molecular diffusion or molecular transport can be defined as the transfer or

movement of individual molecules through a fluid by means of random,
individual movements of the molecules. The molecules travel only in straight
lines and in the process, may collide with other molecules in their path. The
molecules then change direction (still in a straight line) after the collision.
This is sometimes referred to as a random-walk process as shown in Figure
49 below.

Figure: Random-walk molecular diffusion process

Now, consider a container with a mixture of 2 components A and B at

constant pressure P and constant temperature T as shown in Figure below. A
fictitious partition c-c separates the container into 2 sections. The LHS
contains more molecules of component A than the RHS, and the reverse is
true for the B.

Figure: Stationary Binary Mixture at constant T and P

Next consider what happens when the partition c-c is removed. The molecules
will move around in all directions in a random manner. But since most of the
A-molecules are to the left of c-c, more of the A-molecules will travel from the
LHS to the RHS than in the opposite direction.

This is the molecular diffusion of A in the direction of decreasing

concentration (i.e. from the region of high concentration to the region of low
concentration). At the same time there is also a net diffusion of B from the
right-hand side to the left-hand side. This diffusion continues until the
concentrations of A and B is uniform throughout.

Fick’s Law of Diffusion

Fick’s Law stated that for the diffusion of component-A in a binary mixture of
A and B:

[Note: the above refers only to one-directional diffusion, in the z-direction]

where
JA = molecular diffusion flux (kg-mole/m2.s)
DAB = diffusivity @ diffusion coefficient of A in a mixture of A and B (m2/s)

= concentration gradient (kg-mole.m-3/m)

The concentration gradient dCA /dz is the driving force for diffusion. The (–)
showed that CA decreases as z increases.

See Table below for examples of the diffusion coefficient of binary gas
mixtures at 101.32 kPa.
Table: Diffusion coefficients for binary gas mixtures at 101.32 kPa