UNIT 2 Continued...

Active transducers

1. Piezo-electric transducers

A piezo-electric material (such as a quartz crystal) is a material which generates electrical

voltage on application of force to it.

Principle of piezo-electric transducers:

When a force is applied to the piezo-electric material (such as quartz crystal), the dimensions
(length, breadth, height) of the crystal are changed. Also; on application of force, electric charges
move on the crystal surfaces which produce an electrical voltage (or potential) on the surfaces of
the crystal. This effect is called as piezo-electric effect.

Materials used for piezo-electric transducer:

Rochelle salts, ammonium dihydrogen phosphate, lithium sulphate, dipotassium tartarate,

potassium dihydrogen phosphate, quartz and ceramics A and B.

Except Quartz and ceramics A and B, all others are man-made crystals grown from aqueous
solutions under careful conditions. Ceramic materials are polycrystalline in nature and they are
made of barium titanate. They do not have piezo-electric properties in their original state but
these properties are produced by special polarizing treatment.

Materials which exhibit piezo-electric effect are divided into 2 categories:

i. Natural group: This includes quartz and Rochelle salt.

ii. Synthetic group: This includes lithium sulphate, ethylene diamine tartarate.

The piezo-electric element used for converting mechanical motion into electrical signals may be
thought as charge generator and capacitor. The mechanical force generates a charge and this
charge appears as a voltage across the electrodes. (See figure below)

Piezo-electric crystal used for measurement of force

The piezo-electric effect is direction sensitive. A tensile (elongative) force produces a voltage of
one polarity while a compressive force produces a voltage of opposite polarity.

Advantages or properties of piezo-electric transducers:

1) Stability: Quartz is the most stable piezo-electric material.

2) Not sensitive to temperature and humidity.
3) Output of quartz crystal is small while Rochelle salt provides highest output.
4) Good frequency response.
5) Natural crystals can withstand high stress.

Uses (Applications) of piezo-electric transducers:

1) Because of its stability, quartz is used for stabilizing electronic oscillators.

2) Piezo-electric transducers are used in ultrasonic generator elements, industrial cleaning
apparatus.
3) They are also used in underwater detection system, also known as sonar.

2. Thermocouple

A thermocouple is a device used for measurement of temperature. It is also called as thermo-

electric transducer.
Construction:

A thermocouple consists of two different (not same) metal wires joined together to form two
junctions. One junction is connected to the body whose temperature is to be measured (This is
the hot or measuring junction). The other is connected to the body of known temperature (This is
the cold or reference junction). Thus, thermocouple measures unknown temperature of the body
with reference to the known temperature. (See Figure on next page)

Operating principle:

The working principle of thermocouple is based on the seeback effect.

Seeback effect:

The seeback effect states that when two different metals are joined together at two junctions, an
emf (or voltage) is generated at the two junctions.

How it works:

The general circuit for the working of thermocouple is shown on the next page. It comprises of
two different metals A and B. These are joined together to form two junctions p and q, which
have temperatures T1 and T2 respectively. (Note: Thermocouple cannot be formed if there are
no two junctions)
 Thermocouple circuit

Since the two junctions are maintained at different temperatures, an emf V1 and V2 is generated
at both the junctions (Seeback effect). This emf in the circuit depends on the type of metal wires
used in the circuit as well as the temperature of two junctions.

Seeback effect

Case 1: If the temperature of both the junctions is the same,

Equal and opposite emf will be generated at both the junctions. Therefore, total emf in
the circuit is zero. (V1=V2) ( Total emf= V1-V2=0V)
The net current flowing through the junction is zero.

Case 2: If the temperature of both the junctions is different,

Emfs will not become zero. (V1V2)

There will be net current flowing through the circuit.

The total emf or current flowing through the circuit can be measured by voltmeter or ammeter.

Different types of materials used in the construction of thermocouple:

Nickel, chromium, constantan, copper, iron, platinum, rhodium.

Characteristics:

The voltage (emf) versus temperature characteristics of the thermocouple is almost linear.

Voltage versus temperature characteristics of thermocouple

Advantages of thermocouple:

1) Inexpensive
2) They give faster response.
3) They are simple and rugged (strong).
4) They operate at high temperatures.
5) High resolution.

Disadvantages of thermocouple:

1) They have low sensitivity.

2) Voltage versus temperature characteristics is almost non-linear.
3) Since thermocouples are made up of two different metals, they are subjected to corrosion,
which can sometimes be difficult to detect.
4) The main disadvantage of thermocouple is accuracy. Errors of less than 1 Kelvin can be
difficult to achieve.
5) Thermocouples operation is complex.

Applications (Uses) of thermocouple:

1) Thermocouples are used for measurement of temperature over a large temperature range
from 200 to 2600 degrees Celsius.
2) Thermocouples are widely used type of temperature sensor and are used in homes and
offices.
3) They are used to convert heat into electric power.

Remember: RTDs (Resistance Temperature detectors) and Thermistor that you already studied
are passive transducers since they require external electrical energy or supply for their operation.
Whereas thermocouple is an active transducer as it does not need external electrical energy for
its operation. RTDs, Thermistor and Thermocouple are the 3 types of thermo-electric
transducers. These 3 are also called as temperature transducers.

3. Optical Transducers

Optical transducers convert light rays into electrical signals. They also work on
photoelectric effect. (i.e. Ejection of electrons from surface when light falls on that surface.)

There are 3 types of optical transducers:

1) Photo diode
2) Photo transistor
3) Photocell or Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

I. Photodiode:

A Photodiode is a semiconductor light sensor that generates a current/voltage when the P-N
junction in the semiconductor is illuminated by light. A typical symbol of photodiode is shown
below.

Photo diode has two terminals named anode and cathode. The arrows in the photodiode symbol
indicate the light rays falling on the photodiode.

Construction:

The N type silicon layer is the starting material. A thin p type layer is formed on top of the n-
type layer by thermal diffusion or ion implantation. The interface between p layer and n
layer is known as pn junction. (See figure on next page)

Small metal contacts are applied on the front surface of the photodiode and the entire back
surface is coated with metal contact. The front contact is called anode while the back contact is
called cathode.

The p-type area is coated with silicon nitride, silicon monoxide or silicon dioxide for protection
and as an anti-reflecting coating. (So that incident light on p-layer does not reflect back)

The construction of photodiode is shown on next page.

 Photodiode construction

Materials commonly used in construction of photodiodes:

Silicon, Germanium, Indium, Gallium arsenide.

Working operation:

At the PN junction, there will be concentration gradient which causes electrons to diffuse into p-
type layer. This diffusion results in depletion region.

As we know, light consists of photons which have some energy. In a photodiode, incident light
falls on the p-type layer. That means, photons are incident on the p-type layer. These photons are
absorbed in the depletion region of the photodiode. (pn junction) After absorption of photons,
charge carriers (electrons and holes) are produced. These charge carriers are immediately
separated and swept across the pn junction. (i.e. electrons are swept towards n layer and holes are
swept towards p layer.) Due to this, there will be movement of charge carriers.

This movement of charge carriers produces a small photocurrent, which is detected at the
electrodes. (Anode and cathode)

Photodiode operates in the reverse bias condition. (Photocurrent flows in the reverse direction
from cathode to anode)

Characteristics of photodiode:

1) Linearity with respect to incident light.

2) Low noise.
3) Wide spectral response.
4) Mechanically strong
5) Small in size, light in weight.
6) Long life.
Characteristics of photodiode:

(a) (b)

Figure (a) shows a reverse current flowing when light falls on photodiode. Figure (b) shows the
reverse current versus light intensity characteristics of photodiode.

As the light intensity increases, the reverse photocurrent increases.

Applications of photodiodes:

1) Photodiodes are used as photo detectors.

2) They are used in cameras as light sensors.
3) They are used in consumer electronics.

II. Phototransistor:

The phototransistor is similar to regular BJT except that the base current is produced and
controlled by light instead of a voltage source.

Phototransistor is a device which converts light energy into electrical energy.

The symbol of phototransistor is given below.

Symbol of phototransistor
Construction:

The phototransistor consists of a single semiconductor wafer (Silicon or germanium) in which 3

regions are produced. These 3 regions are called the emitter, collector and base. Terminals are
connected to the emitter and collector regions of phototransistor. The base B of the transistor
does not have terminal or lead. (i.e. there is no electrical connection to the base. (See fig. below)

Construction of phototransistor

Working:

The collector-base P-N junction of the phototransistor is exposed to incident light. The
phototransistor is a transistor in which the base current is produced when light strikes the
collector-base region.

When there is no light incident on phototransistor:

There is a small thermally generated collector to emitter leakage current (I CEO) flowing
from collector to emitter. This is called the dark current and is very small.

When light strikes the collector-base p-n junction:

It causes release of electron-hole pairs thus producing base current. Base current (I) is
produced that is directly proportional to the light intensity. This action produces a
collector current (IC) that increases with base current (I)

IC I Light intensity

Characteristics:
Phototransistor bias circuit along with the characteristic curves of phototransistor is shown in the
figure on next page. Notice that each individual curve corresponds to certain value of light
intensity. (In this case the unit of light intensity is given as W/cm2) Also notice that collector
current (IC) increases with increase in light intensity.

A phototransistor does not get activated at every type of wavelengths of light. Phototransistor
will respond to only light within a certain range of wavelengths. The percentage response versus
wavelength of light intensity graph is shown in the figure on next page.
(a) Phototransistor characteristic curves (b) Phototransistor bias circuit

(b) Phototransistor response curve

Advantages of phototransistors:

1) Phototransistors produce higher current than photodiodes.

2) Phototransistors are inexpensive, simple, and small enough to fit in a computer chip.
3) They are very fast, capable of providing fast output.
4) Phototransistors are much more sensitive than photodiodes.

Disadvantages of phototransistors:

1) Phototransistors are vulnerable to spikes in electrical voltages.

2) They are made up of silicon, which is not capable of handling voltages over 1000V.
Applications of phototransistors:

1) Phototransistors are used in alarm systems.

2) They are used to count items on conveyor belt.

Difference between photodiode and phototransistor: (Remember at least 3 points)

Photodiode Phototransistor
Photodiode is less sensitive than Phototransistor is 100 times more
phototransistor. sensitive than photodiode.

In photodiode, light falls on the
semiconductor P-N junction.
Photodiodes are much faster than
phototransistors. (nanoseconds)
Photodiodes have less gain.
Photodiodes operate in reverse bias
condition.
In phototransistor, light falls on the
collector-base region of phototransistor.
Phototransistors are slower than
photodiodes. (microseconds)
Phototransistors have higher gain.
Phototransistor does not operate in
reverse bias condition.

III. Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

LDR is also called as photo resistor or photoconductive cell or photocell.

Light dependent resistor is a passive device whose resistance decreases with the incident light
intensity. They are made up of semiconductor material having high resistance. The symbol of
LDR is shown below.

Symbol of LDR or Photocell

Construction:

The light dependent resistor (LDR) consists of a light sensitive photoconductor material
deposited on an insulating substrate such as ceramic.

The material is deposited in zigzag pattern in order to obtain desired resistance and power rating.
The photoconductor materials used are cadmium sulphide, cadmium selenide and cadmium
sulphonide.

The zigzag pattern divides the area into 2 regions. Two metal contacts are connected on both the
sides of this zigzag area. These contacts form the two electrodes of LDR. (See figure below)

Construction of LDR

Working principle of LDR:

A light dependent resistor works on the principle of photoelectric effect. (Explained later)

When light falls on the LDR, the resistance of the LDR decreases. When there is no light
falling on the LDR, its resistance increases.

Let us now see how it operates.

When light falls i.e. when the photons fall on the LDR, the electrons in the valence band of the
semiconductor material (photoconductive material) are excited to the conduction band. These
photons in the incident light should have energy greater than the band gap of the semiconductor
material to make the electrons jump from the valence band to the conduction band. Hence when
light having enough energy is incident on the LDR, more & more electrons are excited to the
conduction band which results in large number of charge carriers. The result of this process is
more and more current starts flowing and hence due to this, the resistance of the LDR decreases.
This is the most common working principle of LDR. Figure below shows the working operation.
Characteristics of LDR:

When LDR is kept in dark, its resistance is very high. This is called as dark resistance. If the
LDR is allowed to absorb light, its resistance decreases drastically. Figure below shows
resistance vs. light intensity curve for LDR. The characteristics are non-linear.

Characteristics of LDR

LDRs depend upon the wavelength of light incident on them. Some photocells might not at all
respond to certain range of wavelengths.

Note: LDRs are less sensitive than photo diodes and photo transistor. (A photo diode and a
photocell (LDR) are not the same. A photo-diode is a p-n junction semiconductor device that
converts light to electricity, whereas a photocell is a passive device, there is no p-n junction in
this nor it converts light to electricity).

Advantages of LDR:

1) LDRs have low cost and simple structure.

2) They need small power and voltage for their operation.
3) They are available in variety of sizes and packages.
4) They have low power dissipation capacity.

Applications of LDR:

1) They are often used as light sensors.

2) They are used when there is a need to detect absence or presence of light like in camera
light meter.
3) They are used for counting the packages moving on a conveyor belt.
4) LDRs are used in light intensity meters, street lamp, etc.
Difference between LDR and Photodiode (or Phototransistor):

LDR Photodiode (or Phototransistor)

LDR is a passive device.
LDR is less sensitive than photodiode
or photransistor.
LDR converts light energy into change
in resistance.
LDR has slower response time.
Photodiode or Phototransistor is an
active device.
Photodiode or phototransistor is more
sensitive than LDR.
Photodiode or phototransistor converts
light energy into electrical energy.
Photodiode or phototransistor has quick
response time as compared to LDR.

4. Photo-electric transducers:

Photoelectric transducers are transducers which work on photoelectric effect. They convert light
energy into electrical energy.

Photoelectric effect: It is defined as the ejection of electrons from a metal/semiconductor

surface when illuminated by light.

Example of a photoelectric transducer is a Photovoltaic cell (or Solar cell).

Photovoltaic cell (Solar cell):

The name solar cell means that it is a cell or plate which converts solar energy into useful
electrical energy (Photovoltaic effect).

Construction of solar cell:

Solar cell is a device which is made up of p-n junction diode. The junction diode is made up of
silicon or gallium arsenide. A thin p-type layer is grown on the n-type semiconductor. The top of
the p-layer is provided with a conductor (upper contact). The bottom of the n-layer is also
provided with conductor (back contact). Light is allowed to fall on the p-type layer. (See below)
Working:

Solar cell works on photovoltaic effect, i.e. generation of voltage across p-n junction in the
semiconductor due to absorption of light radiation.

When light (photons) strikes the solar cell, the photons pass through the thin p-type upper layer.
The photons are then absorbed in the p-n junction causing the formation of electrons and holes,
equal in number. The newly formed electrons moved towards the n-side and holes move towards
the p-side layer. The electrons move through the conductor (upper contact) via the load
resistance R and back to conductor (back contact). This results in current flow through the
resistance R.

Current versus luminous flux characteristics of solar cell:

As can be seen from the above characteristics, the current increases as the incident light (in terms
of luminous flux) falling on the solar cell increases.

Current-voltage characteristics of solar cell:

Advantages of solar cell:

1) No pollution associated with it.

2) Solar cell lasts for a long time.
3) No maintenance cost. (Easy to maintain)

Disadvantages of solar cell:

1) It has high cost of installation.

2) It has low efficiency.
3) During cloudy day, the energy cannot be produced and also at night we will not get solar
energy.

Applications (or Uses) of solar cell:

1) They are used to charge batteries.

2) Used in light meters.
3) Used in spacecraft to provide electrical energy.
UNIT 2 Contd... Digital Transducer

A digital transducer is a transducer which measures physical quantity (ex. Displacement) and
transmits the information in the form of coded digital signals instead of continuously varying
currents or voltages.

A digital displacement transducer is called an Encoder.

Shaft encoder:

A shaft encoder is a device that converts angular position (or motion of shaft) into a digital code.

Shaft encoder

The shaft encoder consists of a circular disc divided into concentric circular tracks. Each track is
then divided into segments in a manner depending upon the digital code being used.

For a pure binary code, the innermost track is divided into 2 parts; the next track is divided into 4
parts; the next track divided into 8 parts, and so on. Each track has twice as many segments as
the adjacent one near the center. If the alternate segments on each track are made transparent
(white) and opaque (black), transmitted light and photocells are used. If the segments are made
reflecting (black) and non-reflecting (white), reflected light and photocells are used.

Thus if the entire disc is scanned radially, a binary 1 or 0 is obtained from each track depending
upon the angular position of the disc. (1 represents black segment and 0 represents white
segment) Each position of the disc gives a unique number comprising of the same number of
digits as there are tracks on the disc.
The accuracy of the shaft encoder depends upon the number of tracks. If there are n tracks, the
accuracy obtained is;

360
2

(a) Shaft encoder. Black segment represents binary 1 and white segment represents binary 0

(b) Table of angular position (distance) in mm and its equivalent binary (digital) code.