Chapter 2

Dynamics of rigid aircraft

Goals of this chapter are manifold. Firstly, the equations of motion for a rigid
aircraft will be derived. To do so, the inertial, the NED and the body frame will be
used. Notice that, instead of the inertial frame, one may use the navigation one, for
it is a good approximation of the former.
Secondarily, the aircraft equations of motion will be linearized around a generic
reference condition. It will be also observed that, for some specic ight conditions,
exploiting the inertial and aerodynamic characteristics of a standard airplane, the
linearized equations can be decoupled into two dynamical subsystems. This will lead
to the denition of the longitudinal and lateral-directional aircraft dynamics.

2.1 Kinematic equation

To describe the orientation of the aircraft, herein the Euler angles of sequence 321
will be used. The Euler angles gives the orientation of the body triad with respect
to the triad of the NED reference N. The 321 Euler angles ( bank angle, pitch
angle and heading) and the angular velocity measured in the body frame (p roll
rate, q pitch rate and r yawing rate) are dened as

e321 = (, , )T , (2.1a)

B = (p, q, r)T , (2.1b)

and depicted in Figure 2.1.

The rate of change of the Euler angles is linked to the angular velocity by the
following relationship
B 1
B
e321 = S321 B/N , (2.2)

where

1 tan sin tan cos
B1
S321 = 0 cos sin . (2.3)
0 sec sin sec cos

Its inverse is given by

B B
B/N = S321 e321 , (2.4)

1
2 CHAPTER 2. DYNAMICS OF RIGID AIRCRAFT

Local
Heading north
Pitch angle
1
1
Roll
rate
Bank angle

Pitch
Body frame rate

2

2 Local
east

Yawing
rate 3 NED frame
3
Local
Earths center

Figure 2.1: Euler angles and aircraft angular velocity.

where
1 0 sin
B
S321 = 0 cos cos sin . (2.5)
0 sin cos cos

2.2 Nonlinear equation of motion

2.2.1 Translational motion

Consider, as usual an inertial frame I with origin I,

Q belonging to a generic point
the aircraft and a body frame B whose origin is in a generic point P , as depicted
in Figure 2.2. In order to derive the equations of motion, point P is considered as
a generic point within the aircraft body; afterwards, several simplications will be
made once P will be dened as the center of gravity G.

Navigation or 1
Inertial frame
2
1
Body frame

2 3

Figure 2.2: Generic aircraft conguration.

The velocity of Q is

vQ/I = vP/I + B/I rP Q + vQ/P . (2.6)

2.2. NONLINEAR EQUATION OF MOTION 3

The term vQ/P is 0 because the aircraft is rigid. As in the previous chapter the
acceleration are computed by derivating the velocities

I I
dvQ/I dvP/I I dB/I I
drP Q
aQ/I = = + rP Q + B/I . (2.7)
dt dt dt dt

Each term of (2.7) can be evaluated by means of the moving axes theorem. The
rate of change of the velocity of the origin is

I B
dvP/I dvP/I
= + B/I vP/I . (2.8)
dt dt
The rate of change of the angular velocity is

I B B
dB/I dB/I dB/I
= + B/I B/I = . (2.9)
dt dt dt
This expression proves that the rate of change of the angular velocity does not
depend from the observer. Finally, the rate of change of the position is

I
drP Q B drP Q
= + B/I rP Q = B/I rP Q , (2.10)
dt dt
B
in which the term drP Q / dt is by denition vQ/P , and is thus 0. By summing all
the contributions we get

B B
dvP/I dB/I
aQ/I = + B/I vP/I + rP Q + B/I B/I rP Q . (2.11)
dt dt
The rst cardinal equation for a particle of mass dm located in Q is

dfQ = aQ/I dm, (2.12)

where dfQ is the external force acting on the particle. This equation can be inte-
grated over the entire aircraft body B, yielding

!
B B
dvP/I dB/I
Z Z
dfQ = dm rP Q + B/I (vP/I rP Q B/I ) .
B B dt dt
(2.13)
The total mass of the aircraft, and the static moment tensor with respect to P are
dened as Z Z
m= dm, SP = rP Q dm, (2.14)
B B

SPT = SP .
R
while the total external force is f= dfQ . Since SP is skew symmetric,
After substituting these terms in the expression for the inertia force the translational
equilibrium is obtained

B B
dvP/I T dB/I
+ B/I mvP/I + SPT B/I .


f =m + SP (2.15)
dt dt
4 CHAPTER 2. DYNAMICS OF RIGID AIRCRAFT

2.2.2 Rotational motion

The second cardinal equation (angular momentum equilibrium) for the mass particle
located in Q writes
dmQ = dm rP Q aQ/I . (2.16)

This equation can be integrated over the entire body B, yielding

Z
dmQ
B
!
B B
dvP/I dB/I
Z
= dm rP Q rP Q + B/I (vP/I rP Q B/I ) .
B dt dt
(2.17)

The inertia tensor about pole P, is dened as

Z
JP = rP Q rP Q dm. (2.18)
B

Exploiting again the moving axes theorem, as similarly done in the previous sec-
tion, after some mathematical derivation, one obtains the second cardinal equation
for a rigid body

B B
dvP/I dB/I
mP = SP + JP + vP/I (mvP/I + SPT B/I )
dt dt
+ B/I (SP vP/I + JP B/I ). (2.19)

2.2.3 Combined nonlinear equation of motion

The translational and rotational equilibrium equations can be collected in a more

compact and convinient form.
To this end, stack the linear and angular velocities in the generalized velocity
vector, and similarly the forces and moments in the generalized force vector, as

   
vP/I f
wP = , rP = . (2.20)
B/I mP

Then dene the generalized mass matrix as

mI SPT

MP = , (2.21)
SP J P

and introduce the South-West cross-product operator .

, applied to w as

" #
B/I 0
wP .
 = . (2.22)
vP/I B/I

The equations of motion can now be rewritten concisely as

MP wP + wP .
(MP wP ) = rP . (2.23)
2.2. NONLINEAR EQUATION OF MOTION 5

2.2.4 Nonlinear equation of motion in the body frame

The nonlinear Equation (2.23) simplies when it comes to imposing the center of
gravity as origin of the body frame, as P G.
In fact, in B the static moment tensor about the center of gravity vanishes,
i.e. SG = 0. Moreover, exploiting the fact the usually aircraft are symmetric with
respect to the vertical plane (b1 , b3 ), the inertia tensor becomes

Jx 0 Jxz
B
JG = 0 Jy 0 . (2.24)
Jxz 0 Jz

With this two simplications, Equations (2.19) and (2.15) become

mv + mv = f , (2.25a)

JG + (JG ) = mG . (2.25b)

Recall now that, in the body frame the components of velocity and angular
velocity are

v = (U, V, W )T , (2.26)
T
= (p, q, r) , (2.27)

whereas force and moment components are dened as

f = (fx , fy , fz )T , (2.28)

mG = (mx , my , mz )T (2.29)

Equations (2.25) can written in scalar form as

m(U + (W q V r)) = fx , (2.30a)

m(V + (U r W p)) = fy , (2.30b)

m(W + (V p U q)) = fz , (2.30c)

Jx p Jxz r Jxz pq + (Jz Jy )rq = mx , (2.30d)

2 2
Jy q Jxz (r p ) + (Ix Iz )pr = my , (2.30e)

Jz r Jxz p + Jxz qr + (Jy Jx )pq = mz . (2.30f )

The previous equations highlight several couplings among the angular velocities,
forces or between linear velocities and moments, which may seem weird at least at
rst sight. A couple of examples can be mentioned.
Consider an aircraft that, during its ight, has in the symmetry plane xz .
has nonzero components p and r. The term (Jx Jz )pr gives rise to my , that
is a pitching moment. This is known as pitching moment due to inertia coupling.
Similarly, the term (Jy Jx )pq , in the last equation, gives rise to mz , that is a
yawing moment. This coupling is known as yawing due to inertia coupling. This
two couplings, which reminds the behavior of a gyro, have been used during the
second world war by combat pilots to increase maneuver capabilities, for example
by yawing and rolling while pitching to entail an extra pitching moment.
6 CHAPTER 2. DYNAMICS OF RIGID AIRCRAFT

The generalized force vector can then be decomposed as

r = ra + rg , (2.31)

where ()a refers to aerodynamic and propulsive forces, while ()g to gravitational
ones. Hence, separating forces and moments,

f = fa + fg , (2.32a)

mG = ma , (2.32b)

where the contribution of moments is zero, as the pole to reduce the moments
coincides with the center of gravity.
The gravitational force can be easily expressed in the NED frame as

fgN = mgnN
3 = (0, 0, mg)
T
(2.33)

being m the mass of the aircraft. Exploiting the Euler angles and the rotation tensor
between B and N , R321 , the gravitational forces in the body frame results to be

sin() 0 mg sin()
fgB = R321
NT N
fg = cos() sin() 0 = mg cos() sin() . (2.34)
cos() cos() mg mg cos() cos()

Aerodynamic and propulsive components in the body frame, are dened as

faB = (X, Y, Z)T , (2.35a)

mB
a = (L, M, N ) , T
(2.35b)

where L, M and N are respectively called roll, pitching and yawing aerodynamic
moments.
Since in the gravitational moments appear the Euler angles, one has to recall
the kinematic relation between Euler angles and angular velocities (2.2) to form the
complete set of equations.
One can nally collect all the ingredients and write the nonlinear equations of
motion in scalar form as

m(U + (W q V r)) = X mg sin , (2.36a)

m(V + (U r W p)) = Y + mg cos sin , (2.36b)

m(W + (V p U q)) = Z + mg cos cos , (2.36c)

Jx p Jxz r Jxz pq + (Jz Jy )rq = L, (2.36d)

2 2
Jy q Jxz (r p ) + (Jx Jz )pr = M, (2.36e)

Jz r Jxz p + Jxz qr + (Jy Jx )pq = N , (2.36f )

= p + tan sin q + tan cos r, (2.36g)

= cos q sin r, (2.36h)

= sec sin q + sec cos r. (2.36i)

2.3. LINEARIZED EQUATION OF MOTION 7

2.3 Linearized equation of motion

Consider a reference (equilibrium) point of the aircraft described by the reference

generalized velocity w0 and the applied generalized force r0 , such that w0 = 0 and

w0 .
 M w 0 = r0 . (2.37)

Furthermore, consider a disturbance () of reference conditions, as

w = w0 + w, (2.38)

r = r0 + r. (2.39)

Substituting the previous equation into the equation of motion (2.23) one gets

M (w0 + w) + (w0 + w) .
 M (w0 + w) = rG + rG .
0 (2.40)

Using (2.37), one gets

M w + w0 .
 M w + w .
 M w0 + w .
 M w = r. (2.41)

Finally, neglecting the quadratic term w) .

 M w the linearized equation of mo-
tion is obtained
M w + w0 .
 M w + w .
 M w0 = r. (2.42)

If we select as origin of the moving triad the center of gravity, i.e. P = G, the
static moment vanishes, and the various terms become

    
mI 0 v mv
M w = = (2.43a)
0 JG JG
   
0 0 mI 0 v
w0 .
 M w =
v0 0 0 JG
     (2.43b)
0 0 mv m0 v
= =
v0 0 JG mv0 v + 0 JG
   
0 mI 0 v0
w . M w0 =
v 0 JG 0
     (2.43c)
0 mv0 m v0
= =
v JG 0 mv v0 + JG 0 .

The terms mv0 v and mv v0 cancels each other, and by summing up all the
contributions the following is derived

m v + 0 v v0 = f , (2.44a)

JG + 0 (JG ) (JG 0 ) = mG . (2.44b)

In order to form the nal set of linearized equations, one has to linearize both the
generalized forces and the kinematic equations as well. Firstly, kinematic equations
will be considered, and secondarily the generalized gravitational forces. Finally,
the equations will be nondimensionalized to ease the derivation of the linearized
aerodynamic forces and moments.
8 CHAPTER 2. DYNAMICS OF RIGID AIRCRAFT

2.3.1 Linearized kinematic equation

Consider the inverse of the kinematic equation for convenience

B B
B/I = S321 e321 . (2.45)

The related perturbed version writes

B B B B1 1
(B/I + B/N ) = (S3210
+ S321 ), (e3210 + e321 ) (2.46)
0

where the perturbation is indicated with () and reference conguration with ()0 .
Since at reference condition, Equation (2.45) holds, and neglecting the quadratic
term, the following can be derived

B B B
B/I = S3210
e321 + S321 e3210 . (2.47)

For simplicity we will assume that in the equilibrium conguration the aircraft is
not rotating, i.e. e3210 = 0. Under this hypothesis the linearized kinematic equation
becomes

1 0 sin
B B
B/I = S3210
e321 = 0 cos cos sin (2.48)
0 sin cos cos
Finally, by inverting the previous equation, one obtain the linearized kinematic
equation as

1 tan sin tan cos p
B1 B
e321 = S3210
B/I = 0
cos sin q (2.49)

0 sin / cos cos / cos r

An additional hypothesis, the meaning of which will become clear later, is that
the roll angle in the equilibrium conguration is 0, i.e. 0 = 0 . In this case the
linearized kinematic equation is

1 0 tan 0 p
= 0 1 0 q , (2.50)

0 0 sec 0 r

This equation provides the rst evidence that the longitudinal equations can be
decoupled from the lateral-directional ones. In fact, the variation of pitch angle
is not inuenced by the variation of rolling and yawing moment p and r but only
by the variation of pitching moment q . Conversely, the couple (, ) are only
inuenced by the couple (p, r).

2.3.2 Linearized gravitational force

With passages similar to the ones used before we can write the variation of gravita-
tional force
fgB = RN
NT N NT N
B fg + RN B fg , (2.51)

where here we have not indicated the subscript 0 in the terms without the . The
second addendum,
N T f N ,
RN vanishes because of the following assumptions:
B g
2.3. LINEARIZED EQUATION OF MOTION 9

the gravitational acceleration is constant;

the Earth is at;

the fuel consumption is slow.

The variation in gravitational force then becomes

fgB = RN
NT N
B fg . (2.52)

By employing again the Euler angles to parameterize the rotation tensor, and
inserting the expression of fgN , one gets

fgB = R321
NT
mgnN
3 . (2.53)

It is possible to relate the rotation tensor to its rate of change

N N N
R321 = B/N R321 , (2.54)

and change the basis of

N ,
B/N to bring it in the body frame

N N B NT N
R321 = R321 B/N R321 R321 . (2.55)

Because of the orthogonality of the rotation tensor

N N B
R321 = R321 B/N . (2.56)

The angular velocity is linked to the rate of change of the Euler angles, so that one
can write
NT B NT
R321 = (S321 e321 ) R321 . (2.57)

It is now possible to switch from the time derivatives to the perturbations and obtain
the following
NT B NT
R321 = (S321 e321 ) R321 . (2.58)

Introducing the the variable

B = S B e
321 321 , the following is derived

NT B NT
R321 = R321 . (2.59)

The variation of the gravitational force is thus

fgB =
B NT
R321 mgnN
3 . (2.60)

The product of mgnN

3 by
NT
R321 brings the gravitational force into the body frame,
and by commuting the cross product, one gets

fgB = fgB
B
. (2.61)

We can then evaluate the variation in the gravitational force

fgB = fgB S321

B
e321

0 cc cs 1 0 s (2.62)
= mg c c 0 s 0 c c s ,
cs s 0 0 s cc
10 CHAPTER 2. DYNAMICS OF RIGID AIRCRAFT

and eventually

0 cos 0
fgB = mg cos cos sin sin 0 , (2.63)
cos sin sin cos 0

where again we have not indicated that all the Euler angles must be evaluated on
the equilibrium conguration. This formula shows that the variation in the gravity
vector is not aected by variations in the yaw angle. By applying the hypothesis of
null roll angle at equilibrium we nally obtain

0 cos 0 0
fgB = mg cos 0 0 0 . (2.64)
0 sin 0 0

2.3.3 Nondimensional equation of motion

The variation of the generalized force vector is

r = ra + rg . (2.65)

Let us separate r in its constituting parts

f = fa + fg , (2.66a)

mG = ma , (2.66b)

where mg = 0. We will make the equations of motion nondimensional with respect

to the aerodynamic actions.
The term fa can be written as

1
fa = U 2 SCf , (2.67)
2
where the vectorial aerodynamic coecient in the body triad is

T
Cf = CX , CY , CZ , (2.68)

and the speed used for the dynamic pressure is U = ||v0 ||. To make the moment
nondimensional we introduce the matrix of the distances

D = diag(b, c, b), (2.69)

where b is the wing span and c the mean aerodynamic chord.1 The linearized moment
then reads
1
mG = U 2 SDCm , (2.70)
2
1
The mean aerodynamic chord of a lifting surface is computed as
R b/2
c(y)2 dy
c = R0b/2 .
0
c(y) dy
2.3. LINEARIZED EQUATION OF MOTION 11

being

T
Cm = CL , CM , CN . (2.71)

CL is the roll moment, CM the pitching moment and CN the yawing moment.
The dimensionless linearized equations of motion nally write

m
fg
1 2
v + 0 v v0 = CF + 1 2 , (2.72)
2 U S 2 U S
1 1


1 2
D JG + 0 (JG ) (JG 0 ) = CM , (2.73)
2 U S

where D 1 = diag(1/b, 1/c, 1/b).

2.3.4 Aerodynamic and propulsive forces

The aerodynamic and propulsive part of the generalized force vector have the fol-
lowing dependence
raB (t) = raB (wB (t), (t), (t)), (2.74)

where collects the nondimensional aerodynamic groups (M, Re, . . . ), and the
aircraft inputs

= (thrust , elevator , aileron , rudder )T = (T , e , a , r )T . (2.75)

All the parameters are function of t [0, t], which is used to model the unsteady
aerodynamic eects, i.e. the memory of the system. The delay is more relevant
on the generalized velocity, then on the other terms, and so we will evaluate the
nondimensional aerodynamic groups and the aircraft inputs in t. In order to
remove the delay we linearize the generalized velocity in t = t
wB (t) 

B B
w (t) = w (t) + (t t). (2.76)
t t
This equation suggest that we might simply evaluate the generalized force vector in
t, and add to the list of the arguments wB (t).
raB (t) ' raB (wB (t), wB (t), (t), (t)). (2.77)

For the memory of the system we will keep only v , thus neglecting . The aerody-
namic force and moment coecients are then

Cf = Cf (v, , v, , ), (2.78a)

Cm = Cm (v, , v, , ). (2.78b)

To get the variation of the aerodynamic force and moment coecients we have
to make their arguments nondimensional. For the linear velocity we have

v = v/U, (2.79)

so that its variation is

(U/U) u u
v = (V /U) = v ' . (2.80)
(W/U) w
12 CHAPTER 2. DYNAMICS OF RIGID AIRCRAFT

The angular velocity vector is made nondimensional in the following way

pb/(2U)
1
= qc/(2U) = D, (2.81)
2U
rb/(2U)

and its variation is given by

(pb/(2U))
1
= D = (qc/(2U)) (2.82)
2U
(rb/(2U))

For the term v both the velocity and the time have to be made nondimensional. Let
us dene two nondimensional times for and

2U 2U
= t, = t. (2.83)
b c

These times can be used to compute the nondimensional rate of change 0 and 0

d d dt b
0 = = = , (2.84a)
d dt d 2U
d d dt c
0 = = = . (2.84b)
d dt d 2U

By neglecting the memory eect on u we can write

0 0
1
v 0 = 0 = b/(2U) = E v, (2.85)
2U
0 c/(2U)

where E = diag(c, b, c). The variation is then given by

1
v 0 = Ev. (2.86)
2U0

We can now write the variations of the aerodynamic and propulsive force and
moment coecients

Cf Cf Cf Cf
Cf = v + + v 0 + , (2.87a)
v v 0
Cm Cm Cm Cm
Cm = v + + 0
v 0 + . (2.87b)
v v

The coecients that multiply are called control derivatives, while all the others
stability derivatives. Because of the conguration of standard aircraft some of the
stability and control derivatives are assumed to be zero. For example, the lateral
force Y is not inuenced by a change of the angle of attack or longitudinal velocity
as well as the pitching moment does not suer for a variation of the rudder input.
2.3. LINEARIZED EQUATION OF MOTION 13

Eventually a chessboard structure for both stability and control derivatives can be
assumed, as

CXu 0 CX 0 CXq 0
Cf Cf
= 0 C Y 0 , = CYp 0 C Yr ,
v
CZu 0 CZ 0 CZ q 0

0 0 CX CXT CXe 0 0
Cf Cf
= 0 CY 0 , = 0 0 C Y a C Y r .
v 0
0 0 CZ CZT CZe 0 0
(2.88)
0 CL 0 CLp 0 CLr
Cm Cm
= CMu 0 CM , = 0 CMq 0 ,
v
0 C N 0 C Np 0 C Nr

0 CL 0

0 0 CLa CLr
Cm Cm
= 0 0 CM , = CMT CMe 0 0 .

v 0
0 CN 0 0 0 CNa CNr

Above we have employed the following notation

CX CX CX
CXu = , CXq = , CX = . (2.89)
u (qc/(2U)) (c/(2U))

2.3.5 Decoupling of the linearized equation of motion

The nal linearized equations of motion are obtained by summing the inertial, gravi-
tational, aerodynamic and propulsive actions, and by appending the kinematic equa-
tion. The nal linearized aircraft model writes
m

1 2
v + 0 v v0 =
2 U S

0 cos 0 0
mg
= 1 2 cos 0 cos 0 sin 0 sin 0 0 e321 + (2.90a)
2 U S cos 0 sin 0 sin 0 cos 0 0

Cf Cf Cf Cf
+ v + + 0
v 0 + ,
v v

1 1


1 2
D JG + 0 (JG ) (JG 0 ) =
2 U S (2.90b)
Cm Cm Cm Cm
= v + + 0
v 0 + ,
v v

1 tan 0 sin 0 tan 0 cos 0
e321 = 0 cos 0 sin 0 . (2.90c)
0 sec 0 sin 0 sec 0 cos 0
The chessboard structure of the aerodynamic forces and moments suggests that there
might be a decoupling between the equations for the longitudinal plane, and those
for the lateral-directional one. In order to see whether the dynamics can actually be
decoupled one has to evaluate all the not-aerodynamic terms.
14 CHAPTER 2. DYNAMICS OF RIGID AIRCRAFT

Dealing with Equation (2.90a),

0 cos 0 0
0 v v0 g cos 0 cos 0 sin 0 sin 0 0 e321 =
cos 0 sin 0 sin 0 cos 0 0

0 r0 q0 0 W0 V0
= r0 0 p0 v W0 0 U0 +
q0 p0 0 V0 U0 0

0 c 0 0
g c 0 c 0 s 0 s 0 0 e321 , (2.91)
c 0 s 0 s 0 c 0 0

It is possible to notice that the rst matrix on the right side of the equality sign
has the same structure of CF / v if, in the equilibrium conguration, p0 = r0 =
0. Additionally, the second matrix has the same structure of CF / if, in the
reference conguration, V0 = 0.
Moving on to Equation (2.90c), the decoupling of the kinematic equations is
achieved by imposing 0 = 0, see also Equation (2.50).

It follows that, in order to decouple the aircraft dynamics into two sub-systems,
the equilibrium conguration must be of the following form

v0 = (U0 , 0, W0 )T , (2.92a)
T
0 = (0, q0 , 0) , (2.92b)

e3210 = (0, 0 , 0 )T . (2.92c)

It is also simple to verify that within these assumptions also (2.90a) results to
be decoupled. In fact, imposing in (2.90a) (2.92), one gets

JG + 0 (JG ) (JG 0 )

Jx 0 Jxz 0 0 q0 Jx 0 Jxz
= 0 Jy 0 + 0 0 0 0 Jy 0
Jxz 0 Jz q0 0 0 Jxz 0 Jz

Jx 0 Jxz 0
0 Jy 0 q0
Jxz 0 Jz 0

Jx 0 Jxz q0 Jxz 0 q0 Jz 0 0 q0 Jy
= 0 Jy 0 + 0 0 0 0 0 0 .
Jxz 0 Jz q0 Jx 0 q0 Jxz q0 Jy 0 0
(2.93)

A comparison with the derivatives of CM shows that the chessboard structure is

already obtained.
2.3. LINEARIZED EQUATION OF MOTION 15

Under these assumptions the equations of motion are

m

1 2
v + 0 v v0
2 U S

0 cos 0 0
mg
= 1 2 cos 0 0 0 e321 (2.94a)
2 U S 0 sin 0 0
Cf Cf Cf Cf
+ v + + 0
v 0 + ,
v v

1 1


1 2
D JG + 0 (JG ) (JG 0 )
2 U S (2.94b)
Cm Cm Cm Cm
= v + + 0
v 0 + ,
v v

1 0 tan 0
e321 = 0 1 0 . (2.94c)
0 0 sec 0
In order to make all variable in the previous equations nondimensional, while keeping
the physical dimension in the time derivatives and the reference terms ()0 , one may
take advantage of the following change of variable

v = U v, v = Uv, (2.95a)
1 1
= 2UD , = 2UD . (2.95b)

Upon substitution one gets

mU
v + 0 v 2v0 (D 1 )


1 2
2 U S

0 cos 0 0
mg (2.96a)
= 1 2 cos 0 0 0 e321
2 U 0 S 0 sin 0 0
Cf Cf Cf 1 Cf
+ v + + 0
Ev + ,
v v 2U
2U 1
JG D 1 + 0 (JG D 1 ) (JG 0 ) (D 1 )


1 2
D
2 U S
Cm Cm Cm 1 Cm
= v + + 0
Ev + ,
v v 2U
(2.96b)

1 0 tan 0
e321 = 0 1 0 2UD 1 . (2.96c)
0 0 1/ cos 0
In this linear system the state vector and input are


v
x = , u = . (2.97)
e321
16 CHAPTER 2. DYNAMICS OF RIGID AIRCRAFT

The associated equations of motion refer to

b1

Equilibrium of forces along
Equilibrium of forces along b2

Equilibrium of forces along b3

Equilibrium of moments about b1

Equilibrium of moments about b2 . (2.98)

equilibrium of moments about b3

First kinematic equation


Second kinematic equation

Third kinematic equation

To write the longitudinal and lateral-directional equations of motion, the state

vector and the equations are separated in two subsets.

Longitudinal equations

The longitudinal degrees of freedom and inputs are

xLON = (u, , q, )T , (2.99a)

uLON = (T , e )T . (2.99b)

The associated equations are

b1
Equilibrium of forces along
Equilibrium of forces along b3
Equilibrium of moments about b2 . (2.100)

Second kinematic equation

The linearized longitudinal dynamics reads

MLON xLON + KLON xLON = ULON uLON , (2.101)

and can easily be written in state-space form

xLON = ALON xLON + BLON uLON . (2.102)

being
1 1
ALON = MLON KLON , BLON = MLON ULON , (2.103)

and

m1 c1 CX 0 0
0 c1 CZ + m1 0 0
MLON = , (2.104a)
0 c1 CM Jy1 0
0 0 0 1
CXu CX + m1 q c1 CXq + m1 W m1 Ug0 cos 0
0

U0
CZu m1 q0 CZ c1 CZq m1 m1 Ug0 sin 0
KLON =
CM
,
u C M c1 CMq 0
0 0 1 0
(2.104b)
2.3. LINEARIZED EQUATION OF MOTION 17

CXT CXe
CZT CZe
ULON = . (2.104c)

CMT CMe
0 0

where

m
m1 = 1 , (2.105a)
2 U0 S
c
c1 = , (2.105b)
2U0
Jy
Jy1 = 1 2 . (2.105c)
2 U0 Sc

Lateral-directional equations

The lateral-directional degrees of freedom and inputs are

xLAT = (, p, r, , )T , (2.106a)

uLAT = (a , r )T . (2.106b)

The associated equations are

b2
Equilibrium of forces along
Equilibrium of moments about b1

Equilibrium of moments about b3 . (2.107)

First kinematic equation
Third kinematic equation

The linearized lateral-directional dynamics reads

MLAT xLAT + KLAT xLAT = ULAT uLAT . (2.108)

and can easily be written in state-space form

xLAT = ALAT xLAT + BLAT uLAT . (2.109)

being
1 1
ALAT = MLAT KLAT , BLAT = MLAT ULAT . (2.110)

and

b1 CY + m1 0 0 0 0

b1 CL Jx1 Jxz 1 0 0

MLAT = b1 CN Jxz 1 Jz1 0 0 , (2.111a)


0 0 0 1 sin 0
0 0 0 0 cos 0
18 CHAPTER 2. DYNAMICS OF RIGID AIRCRAFT

CY b1 CYp m1 W b1 CYr + m1 m1 Ug0 cos 0

U0
0
0

CL b1 CLp q0 Jxz 1 b1 CLr + q0 (Jz1 Jy1 ) 0 0

KLAT =
CN b1 CNp + q0 (Jy1 Jx1 ) b1 CNr + q0 Jxz1 0 0 ,

0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0
(2.111b)

C Y a CYr
CL CLr
a
ULAT =
C N a
C N r .
(2.111c)
0 0
0 0

where

b
b1 = , (2.112a)
2U0
Jx
J x1 = 1 2 , (2.112b)
2 U0 Sb
Jz
J z1 = 1 2 , (2.112c)
2 U0 Sb
Jxz
Jxz 1 = 1 2 . (2.112d)
2 U0 Sb

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