SNAME Transactions, Vol. 106, 1998, pp.

495-510

Marine Diesel and Gas Turbine Engine Emissions

Kenneth L. Tuttle, Member, United States Naval Academy, and Thomas C. Miller, Student Member,
United States Coast Guard

ABSTRACT

Emissions fi'om marine diesel and gas turbine engine's continue to be of interest to both
regulatolT agencies and ship operators. The primal y source of concern is the marine diesel
engine. Although the use of gas ,!urbines is expanding fi'om historical use on board U. S. Naval
ships into high speed ferries and cruise ships, the emission levels are very low in comparison
(considered as environmentally friendly) to marine diesel engine emissions. The difference in the
emissions from these two types of marine engines is documented by data, is substantial, and is
discussed further in this paper. Emission data from medium-speed diesel engines, low-speed
diesel engines, and gas turbine engines are also compared and the differences are clearly
identified.
The N O x emissions data from marine diesel engines, both low-speed and medium-speed,
were taken by Lloyd's Register Marine Exhaust Emissions Research Program. The gas turbine
data were taken from U.S. Navy research laboratories. The diesel engine particulate emissions
data were taken at Massachusetts Institute of Technology by the author (Miller, 1996).

1. AIR P O L L U T I O N FROM SHIPS regulated as a pollutant, the sulfur content in

Emissions, other than smoke, from marine engines
have not been subject to regulation until recently. In
comparison to highway or stationary sou.rces, marine
diesels, gas turbines, and boilers emit inherently low
levels of most pollutants. Also, because of size, type,
number, and location of sources, these emissions have
been neglected until recently (Tuttle, 1995). However,
sparked by regulatory activities of the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA), the
California Air Resources Board (CAP,SB), and the
International Maritime Organization's (IMO)
development of MARPOL Annex VI - 'The Prevention
of Air Pollution from Ships', international policy
efforts are underway to reduce emissions of nitrogen
oxides (NOx) and sulfur oxides (SOx) from ship
propulsion systems (Miller, 1997).
There are several substances emitted by marine
engines that are classified as pollutants when emitted
by automobiles or in the case of sulfur dioxide, when
emitted by coal-burning utility boilers and some
industrial boilers. Although, sulfur dioxide is emitted
by automobiles at inherently low levels and is not
automobile fuel is regulated. Carbon monoxide and
unburned hydrocarbons are emitted by industrial
boilers at inherently low levels and are not regulated as
pollutant,;. These substances are also emitted at low
levels by marine engines that they have not been
subject to regulation until the U. S. EPA and
International Maritime Organization (IMO) standards
currently being proposed. In addition, gas turbines, as
will be shown, and boilers emit substantially lower
oxides of nitrogen than reciprocating engines. Gas
turbines, as currently used on naval ships and in some
fast ferry and cruise ship applications, burn distillate
fuels low in sulfur, and therefore emit sulfur dioxide at
very low levels. These proposed regulations must
consider these inherently low levels of emissions to
ensure necessary and appropriate regulatory control is
imposed.
The emissions that might be classed as pollutants
when emitted in proximity to metropolitan areas
include soot, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide, sulfur
trioxide and nitric oxide. Soot is the predominant
constituent in particulate matter (PM) for engines

495
 burning fuels used in marine engines. Particulate
matter, has a solid carbon core and over 18,000
substances from combustion may be absorbed onto the
particulate which constitute between 15 - 65% of the
particulate mass. Sulfur emissions are predominantly
sulfur dioxide (SO2). From marine engines, SO2 is the
only sulfur emission emitted at sufficiently high levels
to be considered for regulation as a pollutant. Sulfur
emissions are solely a function of the sulfur content of
the fuel, and since the marine industry uses fuels having
sulfur levels between 1.5% and 3.5%, SO2 emissions
are high. The level of SO2 is generally calculated from
the sulfur content of the fuel rather than being
measured in marine engine exhaust, with all of the
sulfur in the fuel assumed to produce SO2 (Hell6n,
1994).
NOx is relatively high due to the high combustion
efficiencies of marine engines. NOx is mostly nitric
oxide (NO) with zero to five percent nitrogen dioxide
(NO2) when measured. The NOx analyzer commonly
detects only NO and unless the NO 2 is driven to NO by
heating the sample, the NO2 content is neglected.
Three types of marine-engine exhaust emissions
warrant examination in the quest to reduce air pollution
from ships (all are covered in the proposed U.S. EPA
and IMO standards). They are sulfur emissions from
boilers or large diesels using high-sulfur fuel, oxides of
nitrogen and particulate emissions.
1.1 Sulfur Emissions
Sulfur emissions are primarily a function of the
organic sulfur content of the fuel. Rather than
removing the sulfur from either the fuel or the stack
gases (producing a difficult waste disposal problem),
the best way to deal with the sulfur in fuel is to burn the
fuel and broadcast the emissions over a wide area
(Tuttle, 1995) (i.e. while at sea). This is a natural way
that sulfur can be returned to the environment. It has
been put forward that, no other method of dealing with
high sulfur fuel is known that is as good as burning it in
ocean-going ship engines. Another viable option is for
vessels to burn low-sulfur fuels when transiting in
coastal areas or when entering port. The International
Maritime Organization's MARPOL Annex VI -
"Prevention of Air Pollution form Ships," has opted for
a similar approach. The new regulation places an upper
limit on the sulfur content for any fuel oil used on
board ships (not to exceed 5.0%) and identifies "SOx
Emission Control Areas" requiring compliance with at
least one of the following conditions: 1) sulfur content
of the fuel oil used does not exceed 1.5%, 2) the total
emission of sulfur oxides are reduced via approved
exhaust cleaning system to 6 g/kW-hr or less, or 3) any
other technology that is verified and enforceable to
496 Marine Diesel and Gas Turbine Emissions
limit SOx emissions to a level equivalent to that
described in option 2 above. A "SOx Emission Control
Area" is defined as coastal / in-port waters, land or sea
area where SOx emissions are deemed by the IMO to
have an adverse impact on the terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems, areas of natural productivity, critical
habitats, water quality, human health and areas of
cultural and scientific significance. The U.S. EPA's
Advanced Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (ANPRM)
issued on May 22, 1998, "Control of Emissions of Air
Pollution from New CI Marine Engines at or above 37
Kilowatts," does not address the regulation of SOx
emissions. However, it is expected that if the U. S.
ratifies the proposed Annex VI to MARPOL, the
requirements for SOx emission control will default to
those listed in Annex VI. It is the opinion of the
authors of this paper that burning low sulfur fuel is the
most effective means of control (one of the options of
the proposed MARPOL Annex VI). An additional
benefit of lowering the sulfur levels of the fuel is that it
also lowers the particulate matter emission levels.
Methodologies to reduce sulfur emissions are not
further discussed in this paper.
1.2 Nitric Oxide
Nitric oxide, NO, is the oxide of nitrogen produced
by combustion and is the molecule actually measured
by a gas analyzer. Oxides of nitrogen are reported as
NO x because there are many compounds of oxygen and
nitrogen in the atmosphere. It was believed early on
and later confirmed that only nitric oxide is produced
by combustion in engines and boilers (Tuttle, 1973,
1976, 1980, and Carlton, 1990).
The adverse effects of NOx are diverse. NO2 is of
particular concern with detrimental effects on
respiration and vegetation, and also contributes
significantly to acid deposition (Carlton, 1995). Nitric
oxide is the predominant oxide of nitrogen produced
inside the engine cylinder, and the principal source of
NO is the oxidation of atmospheric (molecular)
nitrogen (Heywood, 1988). The oxidation of NO to the
more toxic NOR continues at ambient temperatures after
expulsion from the exhaust system (Carlton, 1995). A
smaller portion of the NO will also convert to nitrous
oxide (N20). Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) produced by
combustion are primarily a function of temperature
(and therefore engine output) and excess air (Tuttle,
1995). The reduction of these emission levels will be
further discussed in the following sections.
1.3 Particulate Matter
Approximately 90 percent of diesel particulate
matter is encompassed by a size range of 0.0075 to 1.0
microns. The ability of these particles to be inhaled
 and eventually trapped in the bronclhial passages and (dilution tunnel).
alveoli of the lungs classifies particulate matter as a The fuel and lubricating oil that condenses and/or
very serious health concern (Johnson, 1992). Studies adsorbs onto the soot generated during combustion is
focusing on non-cancer health effects have raised termed the Soluble Organic Fraction (SOF). This
equally alarming concerns. By correlating daily fraction of the resulting particulate matter can be
weather, air pollutants and mortality rates in five U. S. extracted (via 100% Methylene Chloride solution or
cities, scientists have discovered that non-accidental other process) which partitions the total particulate
death rates tend to rise and fall in near lockstep with the sample into the SOF and a dry insoluble fraction. The
daily levels of particulate matter (more so than other SOF can then be analyzed to determine what portion
pollutants) (Walsh, 1993). Particulate mmter clearly was derived from the fuel oil, and what fraction was
has the potential to affect a wide variety of people derived from the lubricating oil. This information can
whose livelihood links them to the possible dangers of be used to reduce the total particulate matter emitted.
particulate emissions. However, the probability and Numerous methods are available for reduction of
extent of exposure greatly varies between fixed and particulate matter emission resulting from incomplete
mobile sources of particulate matter and this must be combustion, as discussed below.
considered when determining necessary and
appropriate regulatory control. In addition, the varying
exposure rates and exposure to ambient sources of PM Nucleation
and gaseous pollutants make it difficult to measure
mortality rates.
Particulate matter is produced in diesel engines
I[ Surface Growth Cylinder
Time
when a lag in air supply creates a fuel/air ratio that is I
I
too rich. In marine diesels, this is most visible during
rapid acceleration or when the engine is overloaded.
For marine engines, operations in c.oastal waters or
II. Agglomeration -
while entering port sometimes require rapid load
I
Hydrocarbons [ Adsorption and
changes (transient operations) for maneuvering '] Condensation Dilution Tunnel
resulting in increased visibility of particulate matter
emission. Gas turbines often release a puff of smoke
on start up. Boilers normally emit soot only when
I
Figure 1
blowing tubes, but will smoke if the burners are
Particulate Formation Process
adjusted too rich. Particulate matter of all types is
inherently low from gasoline engines and therefore is
not regulated as a pollutant from those sources.
2. THEORY
Diesel particulate matter is composed of a
carbonaceous core comprised of carbon particles
2.1 Oxides of Nitrogen
formed in the cylinder during combustion. These
The tenn NOx, includes several different oxides of
particles adhere to one another forming agglomerates
nitrogen, some of which may be produced in the
that constitute the solid particulate emission (Heywood,
atmosphere from nitric oxide. Nitric oxide is produced
1988, Waldenmaier, 1990). Much of the particulate
during the combustion of any fuel in air and contributes
matter formed in the engine cylinder is; oxidized during
to smog formation. There are two principal oxides in
the combustion process; the remainder leaves the
the smog formation process. First, nitric oxide (NO) is
cylinder with the exhaust as soot. Once exhausted to
produced by the high combustion temperatures. The
the atmosphere, the exhaust gas is cooled and diluted
development of NO is the driving force in the
by ambient air accelerating the adsorption and
subsequent production of N20 and nitrogen dioxide
condensation processes (Heywood, i[988). At this
(NO2) emissions. Therefore, if the development of NO
point, the fuel and lubricating oil surv:Mng the
can be reduced during the combustion process,
combustion process (unburned hydrocarbons) that are
resulting levels of N20 and NO2 emissions will also be
exhausted to the atmosphere (simulated by the use of
reduced. Second, NO,_ is produced by the oxidation of
the dilution tunnel) begin to condense and/or adsorb
nitric oxide in the atmosphere. NO2 is one of the few
onto the soot particles. Figure 1 is a reproduction
colored gases. It is brown and produces the visible
from reference (Heywood, 1988), and displays the
haze in smog. Sunlight converts NO2 back to NO,
particulate formation process as it progresses from
liberating a free oxygen atom.
combustion (cylinder) through the exhaust phase

Marine Diesel and Gas Turbine Emissions 497

 The free oxygen atom, O, is very reactive, even
more reactive than the ozone (03) that it produces. The
oxygen atom can produce low levels of ozone in clean
air by reacting with oxygen, 02. The reactions that
produce dangerous ground level ozone are complex,
but volatile hydrocarbons may contribute to the
reaction to produce the levels of ozone that have been
measured in some cities (Perkins, 1974). Hydrocarbons
having a double carbon bond, such as in gasoline and
solvents, as well as oxygenated hydrocarbons such as
aldehydes, are of concern in the smog reaction.
Alternate fuels such as alcohols and alcohol-gasoline
blends increase aldehyde emissions (Maurice, 1975,
Tuttle, 1976). Fuels used in marine engines do not emit
the volatile hydrocarbons of concern in smog.
03, is destroyed by reacting with hydrocarbons to
form harmless carbon dioxide and water vapor. 03
reacts with all of the compounds that would normally
be oxidized by oxygen, such as carbon monoxide and
hydrocarbons. The 03 is more reactive than oxygen
and can damage man-made polymers, including for
example, tires and nylons, as well as living tissue in
plants and animals.
Few cities have the combination of emissions,
sunlight, and temperature inversion needed to create an
ozone problem or an NOx problem. Most cities do not
have an ozone problem as defined by environmental
engineers. Furthermore, it is suspected that in the worst
locations, naturally occurring sources such as tar pits,
plants such as trees, temperature inversions, biological
action, and landfills may contribute more NOx and
hydrocarbon emissions to the problem than originally
thought. Manufacturers have successfully reduced
automobile emissions by approximately 99 percent.
Although the air polluting emissions that continue to be
emitted by engines and power plants are a tiny fraction
of the emissions they once were, the U.S. EPA has just
passed extensive regulations for non-road engines, a
source that has not been regulated in the past. The U.S.
EPA has also recently issued an ANPRM for marine
engines over 37 kW and manufacturers are researching
numerous methods to reduce engine emissions.
How have these emissions been reduced? Nitric
oxide is produced during combustion at a rate that is
dependent on three primary variables and two
secondary variables. The primary variables are the
availability of nitrogen, the availability of oxygen, and
reaction kinetics as an exponential function of flame
temperature. The secondary variables are the fixed
nitrogen in the fuel and the retention time in the
combustion chamber.
Nitrogen, which constitutes about 80% of air, is
always present in normal combustion processes,
however, the availability of oxygen after combustion is
498 Marine Diesel and Gas Turbine Emissions
a function of air/fuel ratio. Nitric oxide formation has
been successfully controlled in spark-ignition engines
(i.e. gasoline engines) by burning fuel-rich mixtures. In
spark-ignition engines the air and fuel are premixed,
and a fuel-rich mixture denies the reaction oxygen.
However, additional air must be provided eventually in
order to complete the oxidation of the fuel. This
concept has been successful in at least two automotive
spark-ignition engines for at least a decade, with air
being added midway through a combination reducing
and oxidizing catalytic converter.
In diesel engines, which are compression-ignition
engines, it is not possible to consume all of the oxygen
because the fuel is injected into air after compression,
leaving only a limited time for mixing. The
combustion temperatures are very high, owing to the
high compression ratios, and excess oxygen is always
available. In addition, the ensuing combustion heats
the surrounding air, comprised of oxygen and nitrogen,
producing NO.
Nitric oxide is formed at a much lower rate when
combustion can be made to occur at reduced
temperatures. Adiabatic flame temperatures are similar
for most fuels, and the energy released by combustion
must be removed from the products of combustion in
order to control the temperature. This energy removal
is inherent in boilers, as heat is transferred to the
generating tubes, and incurs no additional loss of
efficiency. However, increasing heat loss in internal
combustion engines during combustion is detrimental
to engine efficiency. In engines, a diluent can be
added to the intake air. Various diluents have been
tried, including excess air, steam, re-circulated exhaust
gases, and water. When the dilutent is added to the
intake air, it always reduces boiler efficiency, and
usually reduces engine efficiency. Diluting the fuel or
combustion gases with liquid water has always been
found to cause a loss of efficiency but has occasionally
been used in tractors and aircraft for added cooling to
allow increased power. Recent research has shown
efficiency improvements and a reduction in NO
formation if water is injected prior to compression in a
gas turbine. Gaseous diluents also cause a loss of
power, a result that is sometimes undesirable. Recent
tests with water injection in a gas turbine showed power
is increased (Urbach, 1997, 1998).
In gasoline engines, because the air and fuel are
premixed (as described above), it is easy to reduce NO x
by enriching the mixture to deny the reaction oxygen or
by leaning the mixture to reduce flame temperatures. It
is also easy to reduce carbon monoxide (CO) and
unburned hydrocarbons (HC) by burning at the
optimum air/fuel ratio. However, it is extremely
difficult to find ways to reduce all emissions at the
same time because NO x is maximized at the air/fuel retention times on the order of seconds. Although
ratio at which CO and HC are minimized. marine boilers are relatively small the residence time is
Diesel engines present different problems for long compared to internal combustion engines,
researchers. Diluents (i.e. Exhaust (3as Re-circulation, including gas turbines. However, the effect of this
EGR) have some effect on NOx formation but retention time is overwhelmed by the low NO
aggravate the mixing problem inherent in the diesel- production in boilers.
engine combustion process, and raise emissions of CO,
HC, and soot. However, catalytic converters are being NO Emission vs Engine Loading
used to oxidize these products, but with added expense,
1800
complexity, and weight.
1600.
Another method of reducing flame temperature and 1400
a. I ' <~ioo i
NO production, applicable to boilers and all engine 1200
"= 1000 I /0~ e" ~ ok[ 1
~O Lloyd's NO (pore) i
types, is to operate at less than full power. All engines
800 i & Miller NO (ppm) J
produce the highest temperatures and the greatest levels ~= 6oo
of nitric oxide at full load. Derating boilers has been 400 ~ _ ' ~ . _ ~ . . ~ _ '~ _i ..... i.__ 1
0
z 200
used in the forest products industry to meet their
0
particulate emissions standards. (Tutde, 1980) 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%
Reduced load operation in marine engines is effective Percent Engine Loading
and is often inherent in their operation in port or coastal
waters.
The NO trends observed in Miller's results (Miller, Figure 2
1996) are consistent with those described in the paper Comparison between Lloyd's and Miller Data for
by Tuttle, "Combustion Generated Emissions in Marine Diesel Engine NO Emissions
Propulsion Systems" (Tuttle, 1995) and tho,;e displayed
in the Lloyd's report, "Register Marine Exhaust An important point in emissions reduction analysis
Emissions Research Program" (Carlton, 19!)0). Figure is the interaction between the emissions caused by
2 combines the results from 32 of the ships (4 stroke incomplete combustion and those caused by complete
and 2 stroke, medium-speed diesels, ranging from 6 to combustion. Better combustion reduces carbon
14 cylinders, main propulsion and generators) reported monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons, and soot, and also
in the Lloyd's report (Carlton, 199(I) with the results increases fuel efficiency, but tends to drive up
from a single cylinder, naturally aspirated, direct combustion temperatures, thereby increasing nitric-
injection diesel engine (Miller, 1996). The trend oxide emissions. Lean and rich mixtures of fuel and air
demonstrates the relationship discussed above between tend to reduce nitric oxide formation but result in
NO emissions and the engine loading. The aggregate greater emissions of CO, HC, and soot (Patterson,
data show that the NO emis,;ion levels, and 1972).
subsequently NOx, decreased as engine load was
decreased. As NO formation is also a function of 2.2 Particulate Matter
excess air, the result of increased excess air at reduced There are numerous possible strategies for
loading (decreased fuel-air ratio and therefore excess reducing the total particulate emission from diesel
air) further reinforces the conclusion that temperature is engines. As mentioned above, the total particulate
the primary driving function in the development of NO. matter is primarily composed of three distinct parts: 1)
In addition, secondary factors such as fixed the insoluble fraction, 2) the soluble organic fraction
nitrogen in the fuel and retention times in the derived from the fuel oil, and 3) the soluble organic
combustion chamber are both textbook methods to fraction derived from the lubricating oil. Carbon makes
increase nitric oxide production. However, the only up 80% of total particulate mass while the remaining
fuels that bear significant levels of fixed nitrogen are 20% is sulfate, mainly sulfuric acid (HzSO4). About
bio-mass fuels such as wood, agricultural, municipal, or 70% of the total carbon is elemental carbon and the rest
industrial wastes. Commonly used marine fuels bear is in the form of organic compounds (California EPA,
little or no organically fixed nitrogen, insufficient to 1998).
affect the levels of nitric oxide produced. Emissions of PM from gas turbines are relatively
The other secondary variable, retention time, is low. For example, an LM2500 gas turbine burning fuel
more of a factor in boilers than internal combustion with a sulfur content of less than 0.5 %, will produce
engines. Engines raise the gases to peak temperatures particulate matter at a rate of less than 0.14 g/kW-hr,
for very brief periods, milliseconds. Boilers have decreasing further as the sulfur level in the fuel

Marine Diesel and Gas Turbine Emissions 499

decreases (Luck, 1998). The diesel engine particulate
matter rate measured in the authors study reached levels
ranging from 0.79 g/kW-hr to 1.63 g/kW-hr when an
ultra-low sulfur fuel was used (Miller, 1996).
2.2.1 Insoluble Fraction.
Insoluble particulate matter is carbonaceous soot
generated during combustion, together with metallic
ash, sulfates, etc., and it is not affected by the dilution
process (Heywood, 1988). The primary influence on
insoluble particulate matter is the air-fuel ratio. The
air-fuel ratio decreases as the engine loading increases
(more fuel/less air). It has been documented, on
average, that nearly 80% of the fuel compounds
contributing to particulate are found in the insoluble
fraction while the remaining 20% are found in the
soluble fraction (Heywood, 1988). Insoluble
particulate matter increases as engine loading increases.
As the mixture becomes richer, more carbon is
produced during combustion and therefore the
percentage of insoluble particulate matter increases
(Miller, 1996). On average, the insoluble fraction
makes up the largest portion of the total particulate
matter. Although significant as a potential
environmental or health threat, focus on the regulation
of particulate matter is targeted primarily at the soluble
fractions derived from the unburnt hydrocarbons,
especially from the lubricating oil.
2.2.2 Soluble Organic Fraction derived from Fuel
Oil.
The level of fuel oil contributing to the soluble
organic fraction has been shown to be a very small
portion of the overall particulate matter (approximately
20% (Heywood, 1988)). However, methodologies to
improve combustion inefficiencies (premixing, leaner
operation, etc.) should help to minimize the level of
SOF derived from the fuel oil.
2.2.3 Soluble Organic Fraction derived from
Lubricating Oil.
The heaviest portions of the extractable particulate
material have properties very much like those of
lubricating oil. This fact has led to the qualitative
conclusion that much of the extractable portion of the
particulate emissions may be derived from the
consumed lubricating oil (Mayer, 1980).
Studies have shown that engine lubricating oil
consumption (hereafter referred to as lube-oil
consumption) contributes significantly to diesel exhaust
particulate emissions. For engines of older vintage, the
lube-oil contribution to particulate emissions alone far
exceeds the current standard for the total particulate
500 Marine Diesel and Gas Turbine Emissions
matter for new engines. The lubricant contribution
becomes increasingly important in efforts to reduce
total particulate emission levels (Miller, 1996).
Lubricating oil consumption is a necessary metric
that must be evaluated prior to determining what
reductions are possible for any particular engine.
Methodologies for measuring oil consumption via
analysis of the exhaust stream are well established and
in use industry wide. A primary source for introducing
lubricating oil into the combustion process occurs
through the lubrication of the piston. The ring pack
configuration has been shown to have a tremendous
effect on the amount of consumed lubricating oil
(Miller, Jackson, 1996). As expected, intentionally
compromising the effectiveness of the ring packs by
reducing the tension on the oil control ring and
inverting the scraper ring both contribute significantly
to the level of consumed oil, 5.5 and 10 times the
original level respectively. Therefore, it seems
reasonable to expect that improved ring pack and
cylinder wall lining designs could result in significant
reductions in lubricating oil consumption, significantly
reducing the level of particulate emissions. However,
reduced lube-oil consumption alone is not the complete
answer.
Specific lube-oil consumption (g/kW-hr) has been
shown to increase with increases in engine speed at a
constant load, and decrease with increases in engine
loading at constant speed (Jackson, Miller, 1996). The
increases in specific lube-oil consumption with
increases in speed at constant load point towards
increased amounts of lube-oil being drawn into the
combustion chamber. The decreases in specific oil
consumption with increases in engine loading at
constant speed points towards increased oxidation of
the oil during combustion due to the increased
combustion temperatures, but could also indicate better
ring performance. When load goes up, rings perform
better and therefore control oil better, thereby reducing
oil consumption.
Important advances are being made through
improvements in the combustion system (to reduce
levels of unburnt hydrocarbons), including changes
such as higher fuel-injection pressures, combustion
chamber and piston ring-pack design optimization,
exhaust gas re-circulation and electronic controls, etc.
In addition, engine manufacturers and suppliers are
actively investigating control of particulate emissions
contributed by the engine lubricant. In contrast to other
major combustion system changes being incorporated
in new engines, particulate reduction via lubrication
system improvement also offers the potential of
application to engines in existing ships (Miller, 1996).
3.0 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS ten thousandth of a percent. The oxides of nitrogen are
reported as nitric oxide, NO; however, if the results
3.1 Gaseous Emissions were converted to nitrogen dioxide, NO2, the parts per
Emissions data used in this paper were obtained million would not change. There is error in the fact
from a variety of ship types and sizes. Lloyd's Register that the emissions were measured as NO and the
is responsible for the gaseous emissions data from analyzer missed any NO2. The NO2 is expected to be
diesel engines (Carlton, 1990). The U.S. Navy from zero to five percent of the total oxides of nitrogen
sponsored the research for gas turbine emissions data and nitric oxide is the remainder. The longer NO is
and provided the LM2500 marine gas turbine engines exposed to oxygen, the more of the NO that oxidizes to
(Urbach, 1997 & 1998). Emissions data in the Lloyd's nitrogen dioxide.
report included sulfur dioxide and unburned The nitric oxide emissions from the Ro-Ro engine
hydrocarbons in addition to the oxides of nitrogen and are substantially higher than fi'om the smaller tanker
carbon monoxide data that are used here. However, the engine. However, in addition to an engine size
sulfur emissions data are not used because they simply difference, there is also a fuel difference. The Ro-Ro
reflect the level of sulfur in the fuel, while the burns a heavier fuel than the tanker. The tanker burns
hydrocarbon data were not used in interests of space distillate fuel (MDO) which is in the range of number
and because they parallel the carbon monozdde data. two fuel oil (Popovich, 1968). The Ro-Ro burns a light
Furthermore, no hydrocarbon data were available for intermediate fuel oil (IFO) which is in the range of
the gas turbine to use for comparison. A tanker, number six fuel oil. The fuel tested at 115 centistokes
designated in the Lloyd's report as TK5, powered by a at 50~ and is above the 81-centistoke maximum for
750 kW diesel engine, was used to compare emissions number five and the 92-centistoke minimum for
with the LM2500 and the larger diese,1 engines. This number six. However, it is far enough from the 485-
tanker was selected because the fuel is essentially the centistoke viscosity of the heavy fuel oil (HFO) that
same as is used in the gas turbine, and because this Lloyd's Register distinguished between the two number
tanker was thoroughly documented and used in prior six residual fuels as light and heavy fuel oils
work (Tuttle, 1995). The emission rates have been (Banisoleiman, 1993). Impurities in crude petroleum,
converted to a standardized basis of 15% oxygen in the such as ash and sulfur, are concentrated by the
stack gas as used for the gas turbine data (Urbach, distillation process in the residual fuels after the
1998). distillate fuels, such as diesel, have been distilled. As
Stack emissions can be compared meaningfully can be seen in Figure 3, the heavier fuel does not result
between ships only if the data are corrected to a in higher carbon monoxide emissions in this case. In
common basis. This removes the imbalance ,mused by both of these engines the combustion is poor when low
the high levels of excess air used by gas turbines. loads are placed on the engines. In fact, TK5, burning
These ships can be compared to each other and to other the best fuel, actually has the highest emissions of any
data using the same basis. However, ship emissions of the engines reported (in these results) at low load
cannot be compared to industrial boiler emissions that conditions.
are corrected to 12% carbon dioxide. F'lease rtot that he
emissions from this tanker, TK5, are reported on the Tanker, TK5 versus Ro-Ro, R7
12% CO2 basis in the 1994 SNAME Proceedings dilutnon corrected to 15% 02
1600 1600
(Tuttle, 1995).
1400 1400
~'\\ CO, T K 5 NO, R7 ,~
1200 = ~ / _ .. / _ ~ --..! 12oo
3.1.1 Medium-Speed Diesel Engines.
1000 \_.\( ........ .... ,oo0
Figure 3 is a plot of the stack emissions from two
c~ 800
ships in the Lloyd's report: 1) the 750 kW tanker main
Of" 600
engine, tanker TK5, and 2) the 7700 kW main engine
400
on the Ro-Ro, (roll on - roll off), ship designm:ed as R7. t~O* 200 . C ........... 200
The data for both are from 4-stroke engines and were
~"=:=::L-=~-~4P~ -'----'~ - - 0
taken by Lloyd's Register (Carlton, 1990), but were 20 40 60 80 100

corrected to a standardized basis of 15% oxygen for Load, % of Max Continuous Rating

comparison purposes. Figure 3 shows that a~; the load

on the engine is increased, the oxides of nitrogen
emissions rate increases. The emission rate i,; given in Figure 3
parts per million in the exhaust gas after it has been Stack Emissions from Medium-speed Marine Diesel
corrected to 15% oxygen. One part per million is one Engines

Marine Diesel and Gas Turbine Emissions 501

 3.1.2 Marine Gas Turbines.
Emissions measured from a marine gas turbine are
compared to those of the tanker in Figure 4. The
marine gas turbine is the LM2500 used in most surface
combatants by the U.S. Navy. The emissions were
measured in a navy test facility rather than on board
ship (Urbach, 1997, 1998). The gas turbine exhaust is
cleaner, has substantially lower carbon monoxide
across the range of operation, and produces much less
nitric oxide. The NOx emissions are nearly an order of
magnitude less than those produced by the diesel
engine. The gas turbine emissions are extremely low
and appear to be low enough at low loads to meet the
most extreme emissions standards being proposed for
ships. In the vicinity of ports where emissions
standards are most extreme, most ships operate at low
hull speeds with low engine loading and therefore
would emit the very low emissions shown in Figure 4,
that are very close to shore-based standards for
turbines. To be consistent with other standards for
vehicles, the marine gas turbine should meet the same
standards as marine diesels. This is the case in both the
proposed U.S. EPA and IMO standards. Therefore,
compliance with regulations should pose no major
problem for gas turbines.
Medium Speed Diesel - L M 2 5 0 0 Emissions
dilution corrected to 15% 02
1'~176
I E\_
,oo / ..............................
,e2~176
-, ~ . . .
/ \ co, Diesel
~ooo/ ~ y
~" [ \ NO, Diesel
~800 -- / ..... --
oo l
~= / ~ \ CO, LM2500
o-'ool ::. .0,.M25oo
0 20 40 60
Load, % of Max Continuous Rating
Figure 4
Medium-Speed Diesel versus Marine Gas Turbine
(LM2500) Engine Stack Emissions
3.1.3 Slow-Speed Diesel Engines.
Slow-speed diesel engines are two-stroke engines,
and those represented here are large diesel engines.
They all burn a heavy fuel oil (HFO) that would be
classified as number six by the American rating system.
The emissions from a bulk carrier, designated as ship
B6 by Lloyd's, are compared first to a medium-speed
502
diesel in Figure 5. Figure 5 shows the emissions from
the tanker, TK5, along with the NOx and carbon
monoxide emissions from the bulk carrier. All of the
gaseous emissions have been corrected to a
standardized dilution basis of 15% oxygen in the stack
gas. Varying the amount of dilution changes the results
drastically and makes any comparison misleading.
Figure 5 shows that compared under equal conditions,
this large, slow-speed, two-stroke diesel engine emits
NOx at almost twice the level of the smaller, medium-
speed diesel engine. The carbon monoxide emitted
from the heavy fuel burning slow-speed engine,
however, is less than the distillate burning small engine,
approximately half. At the lowest loading of the
engines, this slow-speed diesel engine has very good
combustion and very low carbon monoxide emissions
in marked contrast to both of the medium-speed diesel
engines in Figure 3. These results imply that it is
possible to control the combustion in a diesel engine to
avoid the poor combustion and emissions at low loads.
The fuel quality did not appear to influence these
results. If low engine temperature is the cause, it can
often be controlled by any of several methods. This is
of extra significance since these engines run at low
loads whenever they are entering port where these
emissions are often already concentrated enough to
pollute the air.
1~ T a n k e r , T K 5 v e r s u s Bulk Carrier, B6
1,oo dilution corrected to 15% 0 2
~ooo 2000
. . . l~oo
O
CO, TK5 NO, B6
......... lOOO
.~ 1500
800
.... ooo ~000
Q. i .... \ -N~.-T~5-~ ................... 1000
'OO O
-0500 .... 500
o
0
80 100 20 40 60 80 100
Load, % of Max Continuous RaUng
Figure 5
Stack Emissions from Medium-Speed Marine Diesel
Engine and Slow-speed Bulk Carrier Engine
Emissions from another slow-speed diesel engine
in a container ship, designated as ship C2, have also
been compared to the tanker, TK5. It has remarkably
different emissions than the bulk carrier, although run
on a similar heavy fuel. Figure 6 shows this slow-
speed engine's emissions compared with the medium-
Marine Diesel and Gas Turbine Emissions
speed engine that ran on distillate fuel. The NO x from the container ship. A closer examination of
emissions are higher than the tanker (TKS) except at engines with emissions as different as these might give
high engine loading where they are about the same. insight as to how combustion affects NOx emissions in
The carbon monoxide emissions, however, are higher diesel engines.
than from the medium-speed engine. The tanker If it is possible to inject the fuel in such a way that
engine's combustion is poor at the; lowest loads, as more carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons are emitted
demonstrated by the high levels of CO. The container but substantially less NOx is emitted, a new method of
ship engine has its best combustion at the lowest loads, reducing NOx may be available. Few if any other
even though it burns heavy fuel oil. These variables are methods have been found that are able to reduce NOx
worth exploring in further research. from diesel engines as much as the difference seen
Although the slow-speed engines of C2 and B6 are between the two engines in Figure 7. The carbon
run on HFO and are substantially different in their monoxide and any unburned hydrocarbons could
combustion characteristics than the medium-speed theoretically be oxidized in the stack with the addition
engine of TK5, they have much lower CO emissions at of a catalytic converter if their levels reach
the low power loads. Figures 5 and 6 indicate that it objectionable heights. For perspective, however, it
may be possible to correct the poor combustion of the must be noted that the highest CO produced by any of
tanker's engine at low loads as well as to affect the the engines studied here is less than a half percent by
production of NOx by modifying the combustion volume under conditions similar to those used to report
process. boiler emissions and as were used to measure emissions
from uncontrolled gasoline engines (Tuttle, 1973 &
Tanker, TK5 versus Container, C2 1978).
dilution corrected to 15% 02

s 2000 2000
o Container, C2 versus Bulk Carrier, B6
o~ dilution corrected to 15% 0 2
1500 1500
~" 2000 2000
g ~ . . . . . . . . . . . NO, C2 ...... o
E
o. 1000 1000
o. I.l')
1500 1500
d ,,---..,,~
0
9. ~ 500 500
E NO, C2
O- 1000 1000
El.
d7 0 0 d
20 40 60 80 100 O
500 500
Load, % of Max ContinuousRating
d
oo, Be... "....
Z 0
20 40 60 80 100
Figure 6 Load, % of Max Continuous Rating
Stack Emissions from Medium-speed Diesel and
Slow-speed Diesel Engine of a Container Ship

Figure 7 compares the two slow-speed engines to Figure 7

each other and shows the distinct difference in Stack Emissions from Two Low-speed, Two-Stroke
emissions. The bulk carrier engine (B6) clearly Marine Diesel Engines on Heavy Fuel Oil
produces NOx at levels twice as high as the engine of
the container ship (C2) at high engine loads. NO x is Before they were modified to reduce emissions,
higher over most of the load range. The carbon most gasoline engines emitted CO of approximately
monoxide emitted from B6, on the other hand, is much eight percent at idle (Tuttle, 1973 & 1976), i.e., some
lower over the entire load range. The engine models are sixteen times higher than the worst case emissions from
not indicated in the Lloyd's report and net enough is these diesel engines. After gasoline engines were
known about the engine configurations or conditions to improved to run with leaner mixtures, the CO could be
look for explanations for the large differences in reduced to approximately the same level as the worst
emissions. The engines and fuels used at the time of case shown here, the engine of tanker TK5 at its lowest
the tests appear to be very similar. The poorer loads. However, in almost all conditions in all of the
combustion, as indicated by higher CO emissions, marine diesel engines shown in Figures 3 through 7, the
however, does correlate with the lower NO x emissions CO levels are at least sixteen times lower than the worst

Marine Diesel and Gas Turbine Emissions 503

 CO of the tanker engine, TK5, and of typical
automotive gasoline engine's CO after early
improvements.
Diesel engines have inherently low emissions of
CO and of unburned hydrocarbons. The NO x
emissions are high enough to merit consideration of
ways to reduce them. The levels of NO x from marine
diesel engines are approximately the same as from
gasoline engines, not a lot higher and not a lot lower.
No advanced diesel engine or end-of-pipe technology,
except SCR (Selective Catalytic Reduction) has been
developed that reduces this substantially, 90%
reduction, or even claims more than approximately
30% reduction (Tuttle, 1995). NOx emissions from
marine gas turbines, as can be seen in Figure 4, are
much lower than from either type of reciprocating
engine. Marine gas turbines may offer an easy, cost
effective solution for future ships that must operate in
restricted waters. This is a significant characteristic and
marine gas turbines are seeing an increase in use in the
high speed ferry and cruise ship industries. However,
the initial higher cost and lower efficiency must be
offset by the avoided cost of emissions controls
required on diesel engines if public opinion supports
3.2.2 Particulate Characteristics.
The breakdown of the specific total particulate rate
(TPR) for a standard diesel engine ring-pack
configuration is displayed in Figure 9 (Miller, 1996).
The specific TPR is lowest at medium load, and
approximately the same magnitude at low and high
loads for each engine speed. The insoluble fraction is
shown to increase as expected with the increase in load.
The fuel-derived SOF (F/O SOF) is affected by the
hydrocarbons emitted from the cylinder due to
incomplete combustion caused by over-fueling, over-
leaning, and under-mixing. Although the TPR levels at
low and high loads are nearly equivalent, the lube-oil
contribution to the SOF is significantly higher at low
load which is in line with the high level of oil
consumption. TPR and the lube-oil derived SOF are
both minimal at the medium-load condition indicating
the possible existence an optimized operating
condition.
b'~ 12
~o3 . . . . . . .

more environmentally friendly ship propulsion plants. 8 06 . . . . . . . . . . . . . j

0 ~ . . . . . . . . . . . .

'5 ---m . . . .
3.2 Particulate Matter 5Nrn 10 75Nm 15Nm 5Nrn 10 75 Nm 15Nm
2400 2400 2400 3200 3200 3200
The test bed used in this study was an experimental Engine Condition
Ricardo Hydra single cylinder, direct injection, (Load and RPM)

naturally aspirated diesel engine, developed by Cussons

Technology. Initially, there was hesitation to draw
Figure 8
conclusions for much larger, lower-RPM, multi-
Specific Lubricating Oil Consumption Trends
cylinder diesel engines. However, as will be seen in
section 3.2.3, comparison of the lube-oil consumption
(g/hr/cylinder) versus lube-oil-derived SOF results for
the single cylinder Ricardo Hydra diesei engine with 18 ................................................................................................................

the lube-oil consumption (g/hr/cylinder) versus lube-

42 0O9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . IkCtS~ . . . . . .
oil-derived SOF results for a much larger, lower-RPM, 1 0.06 ~F~O SO~

multi-cylinder diesel engine were very favorable. ~o~ 06

mUO SOF

Therefore, extrapolation of these results to larger, OA

'~ 02
lower-RPM, multi~cylinder diesel engines based on this # o
Low Med Hgh Low Med Hgh
test bed is reasonable. 24OO 2400 2400 3200 32OO 3200
Engine Condition

3.2.1 Lubricating-Oil Consumption.

The specific lube-oil consumption (consumption
rate per unit engine power output) characteristics for a
standard diesel engine ring pack configuration have
been measured. The general trends observed arc
increasing specific lube-oil consumption (SLOC) with
increases in speed at constant load, and decreasing
specific SLOC with increasing load at constant speed
(the opposite of the effects of engine load on the
development of NOx). Figure 8 displays these trends.
Figure 9
Total Particulate Rate Composition
3.2.3 L/O SOF Analysis.
The relationship between the specific lube-oil
consumption and the lube-oil derived SOF has been
shown to be nearly linear (Essig, 1990, Miller et al,
1997). As shown in Figure 10, survival rates (amount

504 Marine Diesel and Gas Turbine Emissions

of lube-oil consumed that contributes to the SOF) of The fuel-air ratio is lowest at low load and highest at
between 50 percent (Essig, 1990) and 64 percent high load. Lube-oi] consumption is highest at low load
(Miller, 1996) are visible. and lowest at high load. At low load, ring performance
The levels of SOF derived from the lube-oil have may have been poor leading to increased lube-oil
been shown to range from 33 to 99 percent of total consumption. Although there was substantial excess
SOF, indicating that the primary contributor to the SOF air, the exhaust temperatures may have been
is the lube-oil (Miller, 1996). insufficient resulting in minimal lube-oil oxidation.
Conversely, at high load, ring performance may have
lO
been improved leading to decreased lube-oil
9
0
consumption, and although the exhaust temperatures
-28 may have been sufficient for oxidation, the amount of
u 7
9= 6
5
+
~ i+b-6go?:~,,~} excess air was lower and oxidation of the lube-oil was
~4 minimal. It is therefore possible that an optimal
3
o~
0
2
combination of excess air, exhaust temperature (Miller
1 ,.4t-0+ et al, 1997), and piston ring performance exists around
0
5 9 the medium-load condition.
OC ( g l h r l c y l )

Figure 10
Lube-Oil Derived Soluble Organic Fraction vs.
Engine Oil Consumption
Figure 11 shows that the fraction of the engine
lube-oil consumption that contributes to the SOF
follows the same general trend as the TPR.
008
"~ 07
,~ 0 6
2 marine engines and boilers are among the lowest in
0,2
LOw Med }-Igh
2400 2400 2400
Engine Condition
Figure 11
Lubricating Oil Soluble Organic Fraction as a
Fraction of Engine Lube-Oil Consumption
The decrease between low and medium loads may
indicate that additional lube-oil is being oxidized due to
the increase in combustion temperatures resulting from
increased loading. The decrease may also indicate that
less lube-oil is being consumed due to improved ring
performance resulting from increased engine loading,
and oxidation of consumed lube-oil remains relatively
unchanged. However, these alone do not explain the
subsequent increase between medium and high load.
Lube-oil consumption is also a function of ring
performance (tends to improve with increased engine
loading at a given engine speed), and oxidation is also a
function of the excess air present in the exhaust gases.
4.0 CONCLUSIONS
4.1 Oxides of Nitrogen
Oxides of nitrogen, NOx, are produced from the
nitric oxide generated during the combustion process in
engines and boilers. The production of nitric oxide
depends on the combustion temperature. Hence, NO
is a function of engine loading. Fortunately ships do
not operate the engines at full power in port or while
entering or leaving port. Organic nitrogen, such as in
protein, theoretically contributes to the production of
nitric oxide during combustion. Fuels burned by
fixed nitrogen.
Organic sulfur, and possibly inorganic sulfur, in
Low Meal PIgh
3200 3200 3200 the fuel is the source of sulfur emissions. The large
diesel engines and boilers that burn high-sulfur fuel oil
may be shut down much of the time or running at low
power while in or near port. The small diesel engines
that power generators or small craft in port do not need
to burn high sulfur fuel oil. If the diesel engines
operating in port burn low sulfur distillate fuel, sulfur
emissions are very low. Small craft can easily bum
low-sulfur fuel. However, a ship must carry extra fuel,
if it is to switch to low-sulfur fuel in port. Switching
only the diesel generator would minimize the size of
this penalty - more fuel, less cargo.
After treatment of the exhaust has little to offer
except possibly in ports having severe emissions
problems. Collecting sulfur solves no problems. After
treatment devices place weight high in the ship and add
substantial expense. None may be adequately effective
(Tuttle, 1995) with the possible exception of SCR if
90% reduction of NO is confirmed. SCR still may not
be justifiable because of weight, cost, and the use of
toxic substances such as urea or ammonia. The

Marine Diesel and Gas Turbine Emissions 505

problem with catalytic converters is than NOx needs a
reducing environment, and diesel exhaust is an
oxidizing environment.
Most types of engines used on ships and small
craft, other than pleasure craft, have inherently low
emissions of most pollutants. Owing to the size, type,
and location of these sources, little would be gained by
reducing combustion generated emissions from ships
operating at sea and some harm might be done. Ships
emit the sulfur from residual fuels over a large enough
area that the results may be beneficial except in special
areas or ports (SOx Emission Control Areas).
Furthermore, the emission rates of carbon monoxide
and unburned hydrocarbons are inherently very low
from all of the diesel engines, gas turbine engines and
boilers in all applications. It is possible that regulating
either of those emissions from marine engines would
not reduce air pollution.
Engineers, who are air pollution specialists, can
explain that if emissions are low enough, efforts to
regulate and reduce them further may result in an
increase in the amount emitted overall. A certain
amount of pollution is created in every attempt to
regulate and reduce exhaust emissions (Patterson,
1972). Manufacturing of pollution control equipment,
travel, shipping, extra weight, lower efficiency, all
increase pollution. Therefore, only regulations that
result in substantial reductions are justified. Proposed
regulations call for emissions levels that are, for the
most part, already being met or exceeded (Tuttle,
1995).
In that regard, only three methods of reducing NOx
from marine diesel engines have been identified that
appear to offer substantial reduction in emissions with
minimal or no down side (Tuttle, 1995). The first
method is reduced load operation. Operating the
engine at reduced loads effectively reduces the amount
of NOx emitted. Although the mass per unit power,
meaningful mostly for comparison purposes, is not
reduced, the mass emitted per hour is reduced (Tuttle,
1995). This is inherent in current operation by ships
near or in port. The second recommended method is
turbo-charging with after-cooling. This improves
engine efficiency as well as reducing NOx emissions.
Retrofitting is not practical or necessary as many
marine diesels are already turbo-charged and after-
cooled. However, if ongoing research confirms turbo-
charging causes NOx reductions, it could be mandated
that new diesel engines be turbo-charged and after-
cooled. Thirdly, SCR using urea or ammonia is an
expensive method, but can reduce NO x by 90+%. In
addition, as demonstrated in this paper, it appears to be
possible to reduce NOx emissions in the combustion
process. The effect is indicated in these data, however,
506 Marine Diesel and Gas Turbine Emissions
the cause needs to be researched.
4.2 Particulate Emissions
4.2.1 Particulate Emission Regulation.
Currently, the International Maritime
Organization's draft protocol for the Prevention of Air
Pollution from Ships, MARPOL Annex VI, contains no
requirement for control of particulate emissions.
However, the U.S. EPA's advanced notice of proposed
rule making, dated May 22, 1998, does contain
particulate emission standards. Although it is unclear
what standard and compliance schedule will be
imposed by the U.S. EPA regulation, it is clear that the
particulate emission standards will be quite stringent for
marine diesel engines.
As mentioned previously, the higher cost and
lower efficiency of gas turbines must be offset by the
cost of emissions controls that may be required on
diesel engines and the cost of public opinion supporting
environmentally friendly propulsion plants. It appears
that the gas turbine may offer those characteristics. The
data in this paper indicates that marine gas turbines
could already meet the most stringent particulate
emission limits imposed by this proposed regulation.
Gas turbine particulate emissions are on the order of
0.14 g/kW-hr (Luck, 1998), and the proposed standard
is 0.20 g/kW-hr. This result could be very promising
for utilization of the gas turbine.
The particulate emission data in this paper for
diesel engines indicates a total particulate emission rate
(for the diesel engine studied) ranging from 0.79 g/kW-
hr to 1.63 g/kW-hr (Miller, 1996). This rate is four to
eight times the proposed standards. If these rates are at
all indicative of the particulate emission rates for much
larger, lower-RPM, multi-cylinder diesel engines,
methodologies to significantly reduce particulate
emissions, such as those described below, must be
further explored and incorporated.
4.2.2 Reduction of Particulate Emissions.
The lube-oil-derived soluble organic fraction
(SOF) of the particulate matter increases and decreases
with the corresponding change in engine lube-oil
consumption. Overall, an approximately linear
relationship exists between engine lube-oil
consumption and the amount of lube-oil derived soluble
organic fraction.
Significant reductions in particulate emissions
could be obtained by reducing the lube-oil
consumption. Analysis of the data collected
demonstrated that the SOF contributed between 20 and
90 percent of the total particulate. Of that,
approximately 64% (based on curve fit) of the SOF was
derived from the lube-oil consumed (Miller, 1996).
This indicates (for the results of this study) potential
reductions of between 13 and 58 percent of the total
particulate generation are achievable by controlling
engine lube-oil consumption.
The ratio of lube-oil SOF to lube-oil consumption
is lowest at the medium-load condition. The total
particulate rate (TPR) is also lowest at the medium load
condition. This indicates the possible existence of an
optimal operating condition for this particular diesel
engine. The combination of the exhaust temperature (at
least 300 ~ C), air-fuel ratio (approximately 50) at the
medium-load condition (Miller et al, 1997) and ring
performance, appears to provide an environment highly
suitable for the minimizing TPR, and specifically in the
oxidation of the consumed lubricant. Based on this
result, marine diesels could be analyzed to determine
their optimum operating condition to minimize
particulate matter emissions during in-port or special
area operation.
Behavior during transient engine operating
conditions can be predicted based on the steady-state
results of the particulate formation (specifically the
lube-oil-derived SOF). Load transients induce an
instantaneous increase in lube-oil consumption
(Jackson, 1996) corresponding to increases in
particulate. This is of particular interest as transient
operations are most prominent while operating in
coastal waters and maneuvering in port. Additional
testing should be conducted to investigate the effects of
transient engine operation to validate the conclusion
drawn by this study.
(This paper was written as a joint effort between
the environmental groups that are part of SNAME,
the Society of Naval Architects and Marine
Engineers, and ASNE, the American Society of
Naval Engineers. This is the first of what is planned
to be a long and fruitful joint effort between the
Environmental Panel, Panel #17, and the ASNE
Committee on Environmental Engineering.)
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Research Programme, Phase II Transient Emissions
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Environmental Health Hazard Assessment Air
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Carlton, J.S. et al. Marine Exhaust Emissions Research
Programme, Steady State Operation. London,
Lloyd's Register, 1990.42 p.
Marine Diesel and Gas Turbine Emissions
Carlton, J.S. et al. Marine Exhaust Emissions Research
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Carlton, J.S., et. al., Marine Exhaust Emissions
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Miller, T. C., Characterization of Lube Oil Derived
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508 Marine Diesel and Gas Turbine Emissions

 Discussion
C. Windelev, Member
I certainly did not know what to expect when I initially
agreed to discuss this paper. But the paper sounded interesting
and it was definitely a topic about which a lot of information
has been circulating--with an ever increasing interest in leg-
islative circles, both here in the U.S. and internationally.
As one of the leading diesel engine designers we have been
deeply involved in the dialogues both within the manufacturer's
associations and within the legislative authorities--with the dual
aim of rendering expert assistance as well as trying to ascer-
tain that the regulatory limits for emissions would be imple-
mented at a rate which would be feasible and commercially
digestible.
I have a comment first and then a question to the authors.
The area of emission from larger diesel engines for marine
use is still a fairly uncharted one, and I would like to com-
mend the authors for having managed to give a comprehen-
sive insight into the types and origin of emissions which we
will have to deal with. It is equally commendable to see how
the authors have been able to draw conclusions based on rea-
sonable extrapolations and comparative studies---even though
the actual hard data from operations has been characterized by
a number of unknowns, such as the actual condition of the
tests and the equipment. This includes the piston rings, the
condition of the injection equipment and lube oil feed rates.
As also pointed out by the authors several times through-
out their paper, "Additional testing should be conducted to in-
vestigate certain influences and effects of a number of para-
meters in service." Much more needs to be done about the
collection of data from plants in service. The problem here of
course is that it is very costly--and sometimes also very im-
practical to carry out verifiable testing on board a propulsion
plant on a large commercial seagoing vessel.
The question I have is related to the emission of particu-
late. It is stated that IMO's draft protocol contains no require-
ment for the control of particulate emissions. However, the
EPA's advanced notice of proposed rule-making does. This limit
is 0.20 g/kWh. This is 5 to 6 times lower than what a normal
diesel engine emits.
It is stated in the paper that lowering the amount of lubri-
cating oil dosed to the cylinder will reduce the emission of
particulate--as will operating the engine at an optimal range
during the period of low emission limits. This period is nor-
mally during proximity to the coastline, where the engine, at
least the propulsion engine, will be in the maneuvering or slow
mode. This is also the time where the highest specific dose of
lubricating oil will be required--for the transients.
My questions are these:
1. Have the authors, during their research and discussions
with industry people and maybe even legislators gotten an im-
pression of how serious and how real the upper limit of 0.20
g/kWh for particulate is?
2. Will the implementation of such a low limit not prohibit
the use of the large diesel engines in navigational waters?
Authors' Closure
The authors thank the discusser and questioners from the
floor for their interest and efforts in preparing and making com-
ments. Questions will be answered separately but with some
overlap. The written discussion will be addressed first.
There is always concern about how research results on a lab-
oratory scale engine or device will scale up to larger operating
engines or equipment. While some direction can be given to the
Marine Diesel and Gas Turbine Emissions
research by the laboratory results and by theoretical projec-
tions to the larger engines, empirical data from the operating
engines are needed to improve the scale up of data. Those par-
ticulates attributable to lube oil are likely to be lower in larger
engines because of the lower surface area per unit of volume.
On the other hand, particulate matter generated by incomplete
combustion of the fuel will be affected by atomization and mix-
ing of the fuel and air in the larger engines and may vary sub-
stantially from engine to engine. The larger engine injects a sub-
stantially larger stream of fuel and it may be more viscous, so
the potential is certainly there for particulate matter. The level
of particulate matter emissions as well as the significance of the
health effects are both in need of substantial research before
the problem can be well defined.
Regarding emissions that are either particulate or gaseous,
there are two schools of thought on how to define pollutants.
Recent environmentalists may include the emission of any mol-
ecule or particle in exhaust gases that can cause pollution as
being a pollutant. This seems to be true to any engine exhaust
emission even if it is discharged from a ship and the emissions
fall harmlessly to the sea and are neutralized or become nutri-
ents for algae that produce most of the pollutants as emissions
concentrated enough to be harmful in which case stack emis-
sions at sea would not be harmful and would not be classified
as pollutants. A ship in port may contribute to existing pollu-
tion or may, even as a single source, produce harmful levels
of sulfur emissions or particulate emissions. This case would
most likely be true in a port that is already polluted or has struc-
tures that are especially sensitive to damage by these emissions.
One question referred to European efforts and references.
This bibliography and that of the prior referenced paper show
many, but not all, of those papers and researches. Two re-
search efforts by Lloyd's Register, not referenced here, doc-
ument the minor impact of ship emissions in the crowded ship-
ping lanes near Dover and in the busy shipping port of
Vlissingen. This is not surprising. Ships are classified as mo-
bile sources and are relatively small and are very clean in terms
of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions. Their NO x
and particulate emissions are also low if the power plant is
steam or gas turbine. The NOx and SO2 and particulate emis-
sions are higher from diesel engines but are still modest when
the amount of fuel actually burned in port is considered. Ports
that are so polluted they cannot tolerate the modest impact
of ship exhaust emissions will not find relief by reducing
ship emissions and should find the source of the pollution
and reduce that. Ports that are exceptionally sensitive to ex-
haust emissions owing to statues or buildings that are dam-
aged will not find relief by reducing ship emissions by half
and should consider greater reliance on super clean tugs. How-
ever, passing emission standards that reduce ship emissions
at sea will not reduce air pollution, and passing emissions stan-
dards so high that ships already lneet them, will not reduce
air pollution. Furthermore, passing emissions standards so low
that ships are unable to meet them will not reduce pollution
either and no technology is in sight that can reduce emissions
substantially and many will reduce efficiency. Efficiency i~'.
more important than modest reductions in ship emissions in
port and is more important than any amount of reduction while
ships are at sea. Keep in mind that adding weight to a ship
reduces efficiency, in fuel burned per unit of shipping, and
this is true whether it is a heavy clean-up device that may have
to be mounted high in the ship or an extra few tons of low
sulfur fuel to be used in port.
One question mentioned recent development of diesel en-
gine technology that reduced NOx emissions by a half and that
509
is good for the long-term improvement of ship emissions. How-
ever, contrast the technology for marine diesels that may re-
duce NOx emissions by a third or a half to other emissions re-
duction technologies that are rated in nines, three nines, four
nines. Some end of pipe devices reduce emissions by 0.999 or
0.9999. By comparison, cutting exhaust emissions by 30%
seems pretty paltry and probably not worth the expense espe-
cially if efficiency is reduced. The most effective method of
reducing exhaust emissions identified thus far is to operate the
engines at reduced power. It is inherent in the operation of ships
that they operate at reduced power or zero power in port. A
510 Marine Diesel and Gas Turbine Emissions
90% reduction in power causes a 90% reduction in emissions,
that is one nine. An enormous amount of time and money is
being spent on what is, at best, a marginal environmental prob-
lem. The exhaust emissions from ships are inherently low and
ships dispose of the sulfur in fossil fuels in the most environ-
mentally friendly manner possible. It is a gift we could accept
and invest the same money in reducing large sources of emis-
sions and in the research phase of diesel engine emissions. Per-
haps, only those ports that cannot tolerate the modest contri-
bution from ship emissions should require ships to conform to
exhaust emissions regulations and bear the burden.