Social Cognitive Theory and

Related Concepts

Prof Bhisma Murti

Masters Program in Public Health,
Graduate School, Universitas Sebelas Maret
What is a theory?
A theory is an explanation of relationships among concepts or events
within a set of boundary conditions.

A theory simplifies and explains a complex real-world phenomenon.

A good theory not only describes the who, what, and where of a
phenomenon being investigated, but also explains the how, when,
and why it occurs (Whetten 1989).

Theories put phenomena into meaningful systems

Why are theories important in health
promotion?
The theories and models can be used in program planning to
understand and explain health behavior and to guide the
identification of strategies for health promotion and disease
prevention programs.
Core components of a theory
(Bacharach 1989)
Concept
An abstract idea; a general notion.
Something conceived in the mind
A concept (theoretical concept) is an abstract idea representing the
fundamental characteristics of what it represents.
Concept
Concept
 Concepts have progressive levels of
abstractionthat is, the degree to which
the concept does or does not have
something objective to refer to.

Table is an objective concept. We can point

to a table, and we have images of the
characteristics of all tables in our mind.
Concepts
An abstraction like personality is much
more difficult to visualize. Such abstract and
concepts are often called constructs. constructs
A construct is an image or abstract idea
specifically invented for a given research
and/or theory-building purpose.
Construct
Construct
Construct (theoretical constructs): A middle-range term in between
concept and variable that references constitutive components of a
concept, but the component parts are not directly observable.
Can be indirectly measured by operationalizing constructs into
variables
Construct
Construct example
Intelligence is an example of construct
It is an abstract idea that is invisible and is not directly measureable
However, as a construct intelligence can be measured indirectly by a
group of related events that area theoretically correlated with
intelligence as a construct, for example the way an individual speak,
content of things spoken, as well as the individual capacity to
memorize words
 Another example of construct
Anxiety is another example of construct, which is not
directly measureable

However, anxiety can be indirectly measured when it is

operationalized into variable so that it can be measured
in an individual by a group of related events, which
function as indicators of anxiety, such as tremble, cold
sweat, and restlessness
Conceptualization

Definition: the process through which we specify what we will mean

when we use particular terms in research.
Conceptualization produces specific, agreed-upon meaning for a
concept for the purposes of research.
Process of specifying clearly exactly what you mean by a term
This process of specifying exact meaning involves describing the
indicators well be using to measure our concept and the different
aspects of the concept, called dimensions.
Theoretical (or conceptual) definition
A theoretical (conceptual) definition is a proposed way of
thinking about potentially related events.
deductive consequences that are part of the theory.
Theoretical definitions contain built-in theories; they cannot
be simply reduced to describing a set of observations.
The definition may contain implicit inductions and
A theoretical definition of a term can change, over time,
based on the methods in the field that created it.
Construct validity
Construct validity refers to an integrative evaluation on the
degree of empirical evidence and theoretical reasons
supported for the adequacy and accuracy of measurement
(Messick, 1998).

Thus, construct validity rests in two realms: (1) theoretical;

and (2) empirical realms.
Construct validity
Construct validity is the
degree of theoretical and
empirical supports of a scale
in measuring a construct it is
intended to measure, in the
sense that it measures what
actually it is intended to
measure, and it does not
measure what actually it is
not intended to measure.
Various aspects of construct validity.
Source: Scalelive, 2017
Operationalization
Specifies precisely how a concept will be measured
the operations it will perform.
Process whereby researchers specify empirical
concepts that can be taken as indicators of the
attributes of a concept
Operationalization and measurement
of constructs
Three basic questions:

What do you measure?

How do you measure?
How well do you measure?
 Concept
Abstract thinking to distinguish it from other
elements
Construct
Theoretical definition of a concept; must be
observable or measurable albeit indirectly; linked
to other concepts
Variable
Any characteristic that varies (meaning that it
must have at least two values or attributes)
Operationalization
Specifically how the variable is observed or
measured
 Latent Variable and Indicators

Unobserved or
unmeasured, latent variables
are those which represent
abstract concepts or
theoretical constructs which
cannot be directly measured
Researchers define constructs both
conceptually and operationally
What is a model?

A model is a logical arrangement of constructs and

relationships based on theory or experience
A system or thing used as an example to follow or
imitate.
A three-dimensional representation of a person or
thing or of a proposed structure, typically on a smaller
scale than the original.
Propositions and Hypotheses
A proposition is a statement about observable
phenomena (concepts) that may be judged as true or
false.

When a proposition is formulated for empirical

testing, we call it a hypothesis.

As a declarative statement about the relationship

between two or more variables, a hypothesis is of a
tentative and conjectural nature.
Example
Operational definitions are not always good
Variables
Variable examples
Variables
Independent vs. Dependent
Example
Social Cognitive Theory

This theory describes a dynamic, ongoing process in which personal

factors (including attitude), environmental factors, and human
behavior all interact.

It is one of the most frequently used and robust health behavior

theories.
 Historically SCT evolved from research
on Social Learning Theory (SLT)
Social Learning Theory
SLT asserts that people learn not only Social Learning Theory was
from their own experiences, but by proposed by Neal Miller and
observing the actions of others and the John Dollard in 1941
benefits of those actions

Neal Miller
(1909-2002) John Dollard
(1900-1980)
Social Cognitive Theory Albert Bandura
Albert Bandura later added the
construct of self-efficacy to the
Social Learning Theory.

Social Cognitive Theory focuses

on how people learn from
individual experiences, the
actions of others, and their
interaction with their
environment.
Banduras Social Learning Theory posits that
people learn from one another, via
observation, imitation, and modeling.

The theory has often been called a bridge

between behaviorist and cognitive learning
theories because it encompasses attention,
memory, and motivation, which are cognitive
constructs.
Social Cognition
Banduras basic position is that

People's level of motivation,

affective states, and actions are
based more on what they believe
than on what is objectively the case.
Social Cognitive Theory
in Health Studies
SCT has been used successfully as the underlying
theory for behavior change in areas ranging from
dietary change to pain control (NCI, 2005).

It can be applied in different settings and populations.

SCT provides opportunities for social support through

instilling expectations, self-efficacy, and using
observational learning and other reinforcements to
achieve behavior change.
Constructs
Social Cognitive Theory integrates concepts and
processes from cognitive, behaviorist, and
emotional models of behavior change so it
includes many constructs (NCI, 2005)
 Reciprocal Determinism
The dynamic interaction of the
person, behavior, and the
environment in which the behavior
is performed.

Application:
Consider multiple ways to
promote behavior change,
including making adjustments to
the environment or influencing
personal attitudes (NCI, 2005).
 Social norms or mores are
the rules of behavior that are
considered acceptable in a
group or society.
People who do not follow
these norms may be
shunned or suffer some kind
of consequence.
Norms change according to
the environment or situation
and may change or be
modified over time.
Reciprocal Determinism:

Personal factors (traits),

environment, and
behavior, all interact and
influence each other
Attitude
Attitude is evaluation of a person, an idea, an object, or
an environment.

Typically, attitudes are positive or negative and

involve affective, behavioral, and cognitive components.

People can be conflicted or ambivalent toward an object

by simultaneously holding both positive and negative
attitudes toward the same object.
 Carl Jung's Definition of Attitude
Jung's definition of attitude is
a "readiness of the psyche to
act or react in a certain way".

Attitudes very often come in

pairs, one conscious and the
other unconscious.
Other attitude dualities:

Extraversion vs. introversion

Rational and irrational attitudes
ABC Model of Attitude
Cognitive dissonance
Cognitive dissonance takes place when one's actions and beliefs do
not fit together, usually resulting in a change of behavior or beliefs to
relieve the dissonance.

Leon Festinger proposed the cognitive-dissonance theory (1957),

which states that a powerful motive to maintain cognitive consistency
can give rise to irrational and sometimes maladaptive behavior.

According to Festinger, we hold many cognitions about the world and

ourselves; when they clash, a discrepancy is evoked, resulting in a
state of tension known as cognitive dissonance.
Cognitive-dissonance theory (1957)
Observational learning (modeling)
Behavioral acquisition that occurs
by watching the actions and
outcomes of others behavior.

Application:
Offer credible role models who
perform the targeted behavior
(NCI, 2005).
 Observational Learning
Bandura hypothesized a four-step pattern that combined a
cognitive and operant view of learning.

Attention notices something in the environment

Retention remembers what was noticed

Reproduction produces an action that is a copy of what

was noticed
consequence changes the probability the
Motivation behavior will be emitted again
Behavioral capability
Knowledge and skill to perform
a given behavior.

Application:
Promote mastery learning through
skills training (NCI, 2005).
 Environment
Factors that are physically
external to the person.
Application:
Provide opportunities and
social support (Baranowski,
Perry, & Parcel, 2002).
Social support is the
perception and actuality that
one is cared for, has assistance
available from other people,
and that one is part of a
supportive social network.
Situation
Persons perception of the
environment.

Application:
Correct misperceptions and
promote healthful norms
(Baranowski, Perry, &
Parcel, 2002)
Self-efficacy
Confidence in ones ability to
take action and overcome
barriers.

Application:
Approach behavior change in
small steps to ensure success;
be specific about the desired
change (NCI, 2005).
Sources of Efficacy

Persuasion:
The action or fact of persuading
someone or of being persuaded to
do or believe something.
 Knowledge gained through some
Vicarious means other than your own direct
Experience experience (e.g., such as reading a
book about an experience)
Expectations
The Two-Stage Expectancy
Anticipated outcomes Model of Motivation
of a behavior.

Application:
Model positive
outcomes of
healthful behavior
(NCI, 2005).
Motivation is the reason one has for Motivation
acting or behaving in a particular way.

It is the inner drive that energizes an Hunger is a

individual to do something. motivation to eat

Motivation is a theoretical
construct that gives the reason for
people's actions, desires, and needs.

For example: hunger is a motivation

that elicits a desire to eat
Expectancies
Expectancy Theory
The values that the person
places on a given outcome
and incentives.

Application:
Present outcomes of
change that have a
functional meaning
(Baranowski, Perry, &
Parcel, 2002).
 Responses to a persons behavior that increase
or decrease the likelihood of reoccurrence.
Application:
Reinforcements Promote self-initiated rewards and incentives
(NCI, 2005).
Emotional Coping Responses
Strategies or tactics that are used by a
person to deal with emotional stimuli.

Application:
Provide training and practice in
problem solving and stress
management skills (Baranowski, Perry,
& Parcel, 2002).
Emotion Focused Coping
Self-Control (Self-Regulation)
Personal regulation of goal-
directed behavior or performance.

Application:
Provide opportunities for
decision making, self-monitoring
goal setting, problem solving,
and self-reward (Baranowski,
Perry, & Parcel, 2002).
Self-Regulatory Learning