MOF Lectnotes

aero
2015
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
K.S.NAIDU
M.L.R.INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
2015
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS 2015
UNIT-I
Definition of Fluid
A fluid is a substance which deforms continuously when subjected to external
shearing forces.
Characteristics of Fluid
1. It has no definite shape of its own, but conforms to the shape of the containing
vessel.
2. Even a small amount of shear force exerted on a fluid will cause it to undergo
a deformation which continues as long as the force continues to be applied.
3. It is interesting to note that a solid suffers strain when subjected to shear
forces whereas a fluid suffers Rate of Strain i.e. it flows under similar
circumstances.
Concept of Continuum
The concept of continuum is a kind of idealization of the continuous description of
matter where the properties of the matter are considered as continuous functions
of space variables. Although any matter is composed of several molecules, the
concept of continuum assumes a continuous distribution of mass within the matter
or system with no empty space, instead of the actual conglomeration of separate
molecules.
Describing a fluid flow quantitatively makes it necessary to assume that flow
variables (pressure, velocity etc.) and fluid properties vary continuously from one
point to another. Mathematical descriptions of flow on this basis have proved to be reliable
and treatment of fluid medium as a continuum has firmly become established.
For example density at a point is normally defined as
Here is the volume of the fluid element and m is the mass
If is very large is affected by the inhomogeneities in the fluid medium.
Considering another extreme if is very small, random movement of atoms

(ormolecules) would change their number at different times. In the continuum
approximation point density is defined at the smallest magnitude of , before
statistical fluctuations become significant. This is called continuum limit and is
denoted by c.
Department of Aeronautical Engineering Page 2

One of the factors considered important in determining the validity of continuum

model is molecular density. It is the distance between the molecules which is
characterised by mean free path ( ). It is calculated by finding statistical average

distance the molecules travel between two successive collisions. If the mean free
path is very small as compared with some characteristic length in the flow domain
(i.e., the molecular density is very high) then the gas can be treated as a
continuous medium. If the mean free path is large in comparison to some
characteristic length, the gas cannot be considered continuous and it should be
analysed by the molecular theory.
A dimensionless parameter known as Knudsen number, K n = / L, where is the

mean free path and L is the characteristic length. It describes the degree of
departure from continuum.
Usually when K n> 0.01, the concept of continuum does not hold good.
Beyond this critical range of Knudsen number, the flows are known as
slip flow (0.01 < K n < 0.1),
transition flow (0.1 < K n < 10) and
free-molecule flow (Kn > 10).
However, for the flow regimes considered in this course, Kn is always less than 0.01
and it is usual to say that the fluid is a continuum.
Other factor which checks the validity of continuum is the elapsed time between
collisions. The time should be small enough so that the random statistical
description of molecular activity holds good.
In continuum approach, fluid properties such as density, viscosity, thermal

conductivity, temperature, etc. can be expressed as continuous functions of space
and time.
Ideal and Real Fluids

1. Ideal Fluid
An ideal fluid is one which has no viscosity no surface tensionand incompressible

2. Real Fluid
An Real fluid is one which has viscosity
surface tension
and compressible
Naturally available all fluids are real fluid.
Density:
m

V
[m] kg
[ ] (in SI units)
[V ] m3
Specific Weight:
g
kg m N
[ ] [ ][ g] 3 2 3 (in SI units)
m s m
liquid liquid g liquid

S
water water g water
Viscosity
Definition: Viscosity is the property of a fluid which determines its resistance to
shearing stresses.
Cause of Viscosity: It is due to cohesion and molecular momentum exchange
between fluid layers.
Newtons Law of Viscosity: It states that the shear stress (t) on a fluid element
layer is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain.

The constant of proportionality is called the co-efficient of viscosity.
When two layers of fluid, at a distance dy

apart, move one over the other at different

velocities, say u and u+du.
Velocity gradient = du/dy
According to Newtons law
du/dy
or
du/dy
Where
= constant of proportionality and is known as co-efficient of Dynamic
viscosity or only Viscosity
Units of Viscosity
S.I. Units: Pa.s or N.s/m2
C.G.S Unit of viscosity is Poise= dyne-sec/cm2
One Poise= 0.1 Pa.s
1/100 Poise is called centipoises.
Dynamic viscosity of water at 20 0C is approx= 1 cP
Kinematic Viscosity
It is the ratio between the dynamic viscosity and density of fluid and denoted by
Mathematically
Thermal diffusivity and molecular diffusivity have same dimension, therefore, by

analogy, the kinematic viscosity is also referred to as the momentum diffusivity
of the fluid, i.e. the ability of the fluid to transport momentum.
Classification of Fluids
1. Newtonian Fluids
These fluids follow Newtons viscosity equation.

For such fluids viscosity does not change with rate of deformation.
2. Non- Newtonian Fluids
These fluids does not follow Newtons viscosity equation.
Such fluids are relatively uncommon e.g. Printer ink, blood, mud, slurries, polymer
solutions.
CAPILLARITY
A general term for phenomena observed in liquids due to inter-molecular attraction

at the liquid boundary, e.g. the rise or depression of liquids in narrow tubes. We
use this term for capillary action.
Capillary rise and depression phenomenon depends upon the surface tension of the
liquid as well as the material of the tube.
Note: If adhesion is more than cohesion, the wetting tendency is more and the
angle of contact is smaller
COMPRESSIBILITY
All fluids compress if pressure increases resulting in an increase in density

Compressibility is the change in volume due to a change in pressure.A good
measure of compressibility is the bulk modulus.It is inversely proportional to
compressibility
1
dp
E (specific volume)
d
From previous expression we may write
( final initial ) ( p final pinitial )

initial E
For water at 15 psia and 68 degrees Farenheit,
E 320,000 psi
From above expression, increasing pressure by 1000 psi will compress the water by
only 1/320 (0.3%) of its original volume
In reality, no fluid is incompressible, but this is a good approximation for certain

fluids

COMPRESSIBILITY:

dp
E
d
HYDROSTATIC FORCES
HYDROSTATIC FORCES

Only when the pressure distribution is uniform over the entire area of
interest
What about the areas where the pressure is non-uniformly distributed.Find

the average pressure and where it acts
HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON PLANE SURFACES
To find the resultant force F R (magnitude) and its point of application (center
of pressure) for non-uniformly distributed pressure.
Atmospheric pressure Patm can be neglected when it acts on both sides of the
surface

What Is A Resultant Force And Centre Of Pressure ?
Engineering MechanicsResultant force:
A force that results from the combination of two or more forces
COP:A point where the entire forces (Resultant force) were concentrated at a
single point

Consider a flat plate completely submerged in a liquid.Plane of the top
surface intersects with horizontal surface with an angle , the line of

intersection will be the x axis.
HOW TO DETERMINE THE RESULTANT FORCE, F R
FR = (Po + gyc sin ) A = (Po + ghc)A
= PcA

The magnitude of the resultant force, FR acting on a plane surface of a
completely submerged plate in a homogeneous (constant density) fluid is =

the product of the pressure Pc at the centroid of the surface and the area A
of the surface.
Absolute pressure at any point of the fluid,
P = Po + gh, h = y sin
= Po + gy sin ,
FR = PdA = (Po + gy sin )dA = PoA + g sin ydA
**ydA is the first moment of area is related to the y coordinate of the

centroid (or centre) of the surface by , y c= 1/A ydA.
Hydrostatic Forces on Curved, Submerged Surfaces:
Pressure is always acting perpendicular to the solid surface since there is no

shear motion in static condition

P=Pcos( ) i+Psin( ) j
Integrate over the entire surface

dF=dFx i dFz j PdA

( Pcos( ) i+Psin( ) j)dA
dFx PdA cos( ) PdAx

dFz PdA sin( ) PdAz
dFx PdA cos( ) PdAx , dFZ PdAsin( ) PdAZ

Integrate over the entire surface:
Fx dFx PdAx ghdAx , Fz dFz PdAz ghdAz

Fz g hdAz g
where is the fluid volume enclosed
between the curved surface and the
free surface. The force is equal to the
weight of the total colume of fluid
directly above the curved surface.
The line action passes through the
center of gravity of the volume
of liquid being displaced.
MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE MANOMETRY:
Use liquid column in vertical or inclined tubes. Hg barometer is an example

of one type of manometer
Measure
3 common types of manometers including the U-tube manometer,

piezometer, inclined manometer Measurement of Pressure Manometry.
Piezometer is simple and accurate
Piezometer is only suitable if the pressure in the container is greater

than atmospheric pressure
Fluid in the container in which the pressure is measured must be a
liquid rather than gas

Simple U-tube manometer
PA+1h1-2h2=0
PA=2h2-1h1

Buoyancy
BUOYANCY = the ability to float in a fluid.
Examples of fluids = water, air
BUOYANT FORCE = the upward force that acts on a

submerged object.
It acts opposite of gravity
ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE
The buoyant force acting on a submerged object is equal to the

weight of the fluid the object displaces.
AN OBJECT FLOATS
CAUSES:
Weight is less than the buoyant force.
Object is less dense than the fluid
Object decreases its mass and becomes less dense than the
fluid.
Object increases its volume and becomes denser than the fluid
AN OBJECT SINKS
CAUSES:
1. Weight is greater than the buoyant force.
2. Object is denser than the fluid
3. Object increases its mass and becomes denser than the
fluid.
Object decreases its volume and becomes denser than the fluid

STATIC STABILITY
METACENTRE POINT:
Defined as the point that exists when the ship heels or lists to a side , this point occurs
when the line of bouyancy that acts upward intersect with the centre line.
HEELING ,
is the angle occures when in the ship when heels to one side due to external forces
(wind,waves)
LIST,
is the angle occures in the ship when heels to one side due to internal forces , list
portside or list strb side.
( ballast,cargo)
TRIM,
is the diffrence between the forward draft & the aft draft. trim could be by fore ( forward
draft larger than aft draft) 10 m fore - 8.0 m aft = 2.0 m by fore ( trim ), trim could be by
aft ( aft draft larger than fore draft)
10 m fore - 15 m aft = 5.0 m by aft ( trim )


UNIT-II
FLUID KINEMATICS
Streamline:
A streamline is defined as the line that is everywhere tangent to the local
velocity vector
Some points about streamlines
Close to a solid boundary, streamlines are parallel to that

boundary
The direction of the streamline is the direction of the fluid velocity
Fluid can not cross a streamline
Streamlines can not cross each other
Any particles starting on one streamline will stay on that same streamline
In unsteady flow streamlines can changeposition with time
In steady flow, the position of streamlines does not change.
Pathline:

A path line is the path or trajectory traced out by an identified fluid

particle.

dx
V (x , t)
dt
Streakline
A streakline consists of all fluid particles in a flow that have previously passed
through a common point. Such a line can be produced by continuously injecting
marked fluid (smoke in air, or dye in water) at a given location
For steady flow : The streamline, the pathline, and the streakline are the same.

CLASSIFICATION OF FLOWS:
Steady uniform flow

.Conditions do not change with position in the stream or with time.
E.g. flow of water in a pipe of constant diameter at constant velocity.
Steady non-uniform flow

.Conditions change from point to point in the stream but do not change with time.
E.g. Flow in a tapering pipe with constant velocity at the inlet.
Unsteady uniform flow

.At a given instant in time the conditions at every point are the same, but will change with
time.
E.g. A pipe of constant diameter connected to a pump pumping at a constant rate which is
then switched off.
Unsteady non-uniform flow

.Every condition of the flow may change from point to point and with time at every point.
E.g. Waves in a channel.
One dimensional flow:

Conditions vary only in the direction of flow not across the cross-section.
The flow may be unsteady with the parameters varying in time but not across
the cross-section.
E.g. Flow in a pipe.
But:
Since flow must be zero at the pipe wall yet non-zero in the centre there
is a difference of parameters across the cross-section.
Two-dimensional flow:
Conditions vary in the direction of flow and in one direction at right angles to
this. Flow patterns in two-dimensional flow can be shown by curved lines on a
plane.
Three-Dimensional Flow: All three velocity components are important and of

equal magnitude. Flow past a wing is complex 3D flow, and simplifying by
eliminating any of the three velocities would lead to severe errors.

EQUATION OF CONTINUITY:
Due to the conservation of mass;

(rate of mass accumulation) = (rate of mass in) (rate of mass out)
The continuity assumption
The continuity assumption considers fluids to be continuos. That is,

properties such as density, pressure, temperature, and velocity are taken
to be well-defined at infinitely small points, and are assumed to vary
continuously from one point to another. The discrete, molecular nature of
a fluid is ignored
density (r,t)
flow velocity u(r,t)
pressure p(r,t)
temperature T(r,t)
A1U1=A2U2=Q

UNIT-III
FLUID DYNAMICS
Fluid dynamics is a subdiscipline of fluid mechanics that deals with fluid flow,the natural
science of fluids (liquids andgases) in motion. It has several subdisciplines itself,
including aerodynamics (the study of air and other gases in motion) andhydrodynamics (the study
of liquids in motion). Fluid dynamics has a wide range of applications, including
calculating forces andmoments on aircraft ,determining the mass flow rate of petroleum through
pipelines, predicting weather patterns, understandingnebulae in interstellar space and
modelling fission weapon detonation. Some of its principles are even used in traffic engineering,
where traffic is treated as a continuous fluid, and crowd dynamics.
Fluid dynamics offers a systematic structurewhich underlies these practical disciplines

that embraces empirical and semi-empirical laws derived from flow measurement and used to
solve practical problems. The solution to a fluid dynamics problem typically involves
calculating various properties of the fluid, such as flow velocity, pressure, density,
and temperature, as functions of space and time.
Before the twentieth century, hydrodynamics was synonymous with fluid dynamics. This is still
reflected in names of some fluid dynamics topics, like magnetohydrodynamics and hydrodynamic
stability, both of which can also be applied to gases.
The foundational axioms of fluid dynamics are the conservation laws, specifically, conservation of
mass, conservation of linear momentum (also known as Newton's Second Law of Motion),
and conservation of energy (also known as First Law of Thermodynamics). These are based
on classical mechanics and are modified in quantum mechanics and general relativity. They are
expressed using the Reynolds Transport Theorem.
In addition to the above, fluids are assumed to obey the continuum assumption. Fluids are
composed of molecules that collide with one another and solid objects. However, the continuum
assumption considers fluids to be continuous, rather than discrete. Consequently, properties such as
density, pressure, temperature, and flow velocity are taken to be well-defined at infinitesimally small
points, and are assumed to vary continuously from one point to another. The fact that the fluid is
made up of discrete molecules is ignored.
For fluids which are sufficiently dense to be a continuum, do not contain ionized species, and have
flow velocities small in relation to the speed of light, the momentum equations for Newtonian

fluids are the NavierStokes equations, which is a non-linear set of differential

equations that describes the flow of a fluid whose stress depends linearly on flow velocity
gradients and pressure. The un simplified equations do not have a general closed-form
solution, so they are primarily of use in Computational Fluid Dynamics. The equations can be
simplified in a number of ways, all of which make them easier to solve. Some of them allow
appropriate fluid dynamics problems to be solved in closed form.
In addition to the mass, momentum, and energy conservation equations,

a thermodynamical equation of state giving the pressure as a function of other
thermodynamic variables for the fluid is required to completely specify the problem. An
example of this would be the perfect gas equation of state:
where is pressure, is the gas density, Ru is the gas constant, M is molar mass and T is
temperature
CONSERVATION LAWS
Three conservation laws are used to solve fluid dynamics problems, and may be written
in integral or differential form. Mathematical formulations of these conservation laws may be
interpreted by considering the concept of a control volume. A control volume is a specified
volume in space through which air can flow in and out. Integral formulations of the
conservation laws consider the change in mass, momentum, or energy within the control
volume. Differential formulations of the conservation laws apply Stokes' theorem to yield an
expression which may be interpreted as the integral form of the law applied to an
infinitesimal volume at a point within the flow.
Mass continuity (conservation of mass): The rate of change of fluid mass inside a control
volume must be equal to the net rate of fluid flow into the volume. Physically, this statement
requires that mass is neither created nor destroyed in the control volume, [2] and can be
translated into the integral form of the continuity equation:
Above, is the fluid density, u is the flow velocity vector, and t is time. The left-hand side of
the above expression contains a triple integral over the control volume, whereas the right -
hand side contains a surface integral over the surface of the control volume. The differential
form of the continuity equation is, by the divergence theorem:

Conservation of momentum: This equation applies Newton's second law of motion to the
control volume, requiring that any change in momentum of the air within a control volume be
due to the net flow of air into the volume and the action of external forces on the air within the
volume. In the integral formulation of this equation, body forces here are represented by fbody,
the body force per unit mass. Surface forces, such as viscous forces, are represented by ,
the net force due to stresses on the control volume surface.
The differential form of the momentum conservation equation is as follows. Here, both surface
and body forces are accounted for in one total force, F. For example, F may be expanded into
an expression for the frictional and gravitational forces acting on an internal flow.
In aerodynamics, air is assumed to be a Newtonian fluid, which posits a linear relationship

between the shear stress (due to internal friction forces) and the rate of strain of the fluid. The
equation above is a vector equation: in a three-dimensional flow, it can be expressed as three
scalar equations. The conservation of momentum equations for the compressible, viscous flow
case are called the NavierStokes equations.
Conservation of energy: Although energy can be converted from one form to another, the
total energy in a given closed system remains constant.
Above, h is enthalpy, k is the thermal conductivity of the fluid, T is temperature, and is

the viscous dissipation function. The viscous dissipation function governs the rate at which
mechanical energy of the flow is converted to heat. The second law of
thermodynamics requires that the dissipation term is always positive: viscosity cannot
create energy within the control volume.[3] The expression on the left side is a material
derivative.
Compressible vs incompressible flow
All fluids are compressible to some extent, that is, changes in pressure or temperature will
result in changes in density. However, in many situations the changes in pressure and
temperature are sufficiently small that the changes in density are negligible. In this case the
flow can be modelled as an incompressible flow. Otherwise the more generalcompressible
flow equations must be used.

Mathematically, incompressibility is expressed by saying that the density of a fluid

parcel does not change as it moves in the flow field, i.e.,
where D/Dt is the substantial derivative, which is the sum of local and convective derivatives.
This additional constraint simplifies the governing equations, especially in the case when the
fluid has a uniform density.
For flow of gases, to determine whether to use compressible or incompressible fluid
dynamics, the Mach number of the flow is to be evaluated. As a rough guide, compressible
effects can be ignored at Mach numbers below approximately 0.3. For liquids, whether the
incompressible assumption is valid depends on the fluid properties (specifically the critical
pressure and temperature of the fluid) and the flow conditions (how close to the critical
pressure the actual flow pressure becomes). Acoustic problems always require allowing
compressibility, since sound waves are compression waves involving changes in pressure and
density of the medium through which they propagate.
Inviscid vs Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids
Potential flow around a wing
Viscous problems are those in which fluid friction has significant effects on the fluid
motion.The Reynolds number, which is a ratio between inertial and viscous forces, can be
used to evaluate whether viscous or inviscid equations are appropriate to the problem.
Stokes flow is flow at very low Reynolds numbers, Re<<1, such that inertial forces can be
neglected compared to viscous forces.
On the contrary, high Reynolds numbers indicate that the inertial forces are more significant
than the viscous (friction) forces. Therefore, we may assume the flow to be an inviscid flow,
an approximation in which we neglect viscosity completely, compared to inertial terms.
This idea can work fairly well when the Reynolds number is high. However, certain problems
such as those involving solid boundaries, may require that the viscosity be included.
Viscosity often cannot be neglected near solid boundaries because the no-slip condition can

generate a thin region of large strain rate (known as Boundary layer) which enhances the
effect of even a small amount of viscosity, and thus generating vorticity. Therefore, to
calculate net forces on bodies (such as wings) we should use viscous flow equations. As
illustrated by d'Alembert's paradox, a body in an inviscid fluid will experience no drag force.
The standard equations of inviscid flow are the Euler equations. Another often used model,
especially in computational fluid dynamics, is to use the Euler equations away from the body
and the boundary layer equations, which incorporates viscosity, in a region close to the body.
The Euler equations can be integrated along a streamline to get Bernoulli's equation. When
the flow is everywhere irrotational and inviscid, Bernoulli's equation can be used throughout
the flow field. Such flows are called potential flows.
Sir Isaac Newton showed how stress and the rate of strain are very close to linearly related
for many familiar fluids, such as water and air. These Newtonian fluids are modelled by
a viscosity that is independent of strain rate, depending primarily on the specific fluid.
However, some of the other materials, such as emulsions and slurries and some visco-elastic
materials (e.g. blood, some polymers), have more complicated non-Newtonian stress-strain
behaviours. These materials include sticky liquids such as latex, honey, and lubricants which
are studied in the sub-discipline of rheology.
Steady vs unsteady flow
Hydrodynamics simulation of the RayleighTaylor instability
When all the time derivatives of a flow field vanish, the flow is considered to be a steady
flow. Steady-state flow refers to the condition where the fluid properties at a point in the
system do not change over time. Otherwise, flow is called unsteady (also called transient [5]).
Whether a particular flow is steady or unsteady, can depend on the chosen frame of reference.
For instance, laminar flow over a sphere is steady in the frame of reference that is stationary
with respect to the sphere. In a frame of reference that is stationary with respect to a
background flow, the flow is unsteady.
Turbulent flows are unsteady by definition. A turbulent flow can, however, be statistically
stationary. According to Pope

The random field U(x,t) is statistically stationary if all statistics are invariant under a shift in
time.
This roughly means that all statistical properties are constant in time. Often, the mean field is
the object of interest, and this is constant too in a statistically stationary flow.
Steady flows are often more tractable than otherwise similar unsteady flows. The governing
equations of a steady problem have one dimension fewer (time) than the governing equations
of the same problem without taking advantage of the steadiness of the flow field.
Laminar vs turbulent flow
Turbulence is flow characterized by recirculation, eddies, and apparent randomness. Flow in
which turbulence is not exhibited is called laminar. It should be noted, however, that the
presence of eddies or recirculation alone does not necessarily indicate turbulent flowthese
phenomena may be present in laminar flow as well. Mathematically, turbulent flow is often
represented via a Reynolds decomposition, in which the flow is broken down into the sum of
an average component and a perturbation component.
It is believed that turbulent flows can be described well through the use of the NavierStokes
equations. Direct numerical simulation (DNS), based on the NavierStokes equations, makes
it possible to simulate turbulent flows at moderate Reynolds numbers. Restrictions depend on
the power of the computer used and the efficiency of the solution algorithm. The results of
DNS have been found to agree well with experimental data for some flows.
Most flows of interest have Reynolds numbers much too high for DNS to be a viable
option,[8] given the state of computational power for the next few decades. Any flight vehicle
large enough to carry a human (L > 3 m), moving faster than 72 km/h (20 m/s) is well beyond
the limit of DNS simulation (Re = 4 million). Transport aircraft wings (such as on anAirbus
A300 or Boeing 747) have Reynolds numbers of 40 million (based on the wing chord). In
order to solve these real-life flow problems, turbulence models will be a necessity for the
foreseeable future. Reynolds-averaged NavierStokes equations (RANS) combined
with turbulence modelling provides a model of the effects of the turbulent flow. Such a
modelling mainly provides the additional momentum transfer by the Reynolds stresses,
although the turbulence also enhances the heat and mass transfer. Another promising
methodology is large eddy simulation (LES), especially in the guise of detached eddy
simulation (DES)which is a combination of RANS turbulence modelling and large eddy
simulation.
Subsonic vs transonic, supersonic and hypersonic flows
While many terrestrial flows (e.g. flow of water through a pipe) occur at low mach numbers,
many flows of practical interest (e.g. in aerodynamics) occur at high fractions of the Mach
Number M=1 or in excess of it (supersonic flows). New phenomena occur at these Mach
number regimes (e.g. shock waves for supersonic flow, transonic instability in a regime of

flows with M nearly equal to 1, non-equilibrium chemical behaviour due to ionization in

hypersonic flows) and it is necessary to treat each of these flow regimes separately.
The material derivative
Changes in properties of a moving fluid can be measured in two different ways. One can
measure a given property by either carrying out the measurement on a fixed point in
space as particles of the fluid pass by, or by following a parcel of fluid along
its streamline. The derivative of a field with respect to a fixed position in space is called
the Eulerianderivative while the derivative following a moving parcel is called
the advective or material ("Lagrangian") derivative.
The material derivative is defined as the operator:
where is the flow velocity. The first term on the right-hand side of the equation is the
ordinary Eulerian derivative (i.e. the derivative on a fixed reference frame, representing
changes at a point with respect to time) whereas the second term represents changes of
a quantity with respect to position (see advection). This "special" derivative is in fact
the ordinary derivative of a function of many variables along a path following the fluid
motion; it may be derived through application of the chain rule in which all
independent variables are checked for change along the path (i.e. the total derivative).
For example, the measurement of changes in wind velocity in the atmosphere can be
obtained with the help of an anemometer in a weather station or by observing the
movement of a weather balloon. The anemometer in the first case is measuring the
velocity of all the moving particles passing through a fixed point in space, whereas in
the second case the instrument is measuring changes in velocity as it moves with the flow.
Conservation laws
The NavierStokes equation is a special case of the (general) continuity equation. It, and
associated equations such as mass continuity, may be derived from conservation rinciples of:
Mass
Momentum
Energy.

This is done via the Reynolds transport theorem, an integral solution relation stating that the
sum of the changes of some intensive property (call it ) defined over a control
volume must be equal to what is lost (or gained) through the boundaries of the volume
plus what is created/consumed by sources and sinks inside the control volume. This is
expressed by the following integral equation:
where u is the flow velocity of the fluid and represents the sources and sinks in the fluid,
taking the sinks as positive. Recall that represents the control volume and its
bounding surface.
The divergence theorem may be applied to the surface integral, changing it into a volume
integral:
Applying Leibniz's rule to the integral on the left and then combining all of the integrals:
The integral must be zero for any control volume; this can only be true if the integrand itself
is zero, so that:
From this valuable relation (a very generic continuity equation), three important concepts
may be concisely written: conservation of mass, conservation of momentum, and
conservation of energy. Validity is retained if is a vector, in which case the vector-vector
product in the second term will be a dyad.
Conservation of momentum
The most elemental form of the NavierStokes equations is obtained when the conservation
relation is applied to momentum. Writing momentum as gives:
where is a dyad, a special case of tensor product, which results in a second rank tensor;
the divergence of a second rank tensor is again a vector (a first rank tensor). [2]Noting that
a body force (notated ) is a source or sink of momentum (per volume) and expanding the
derivatives completely:

Note that the gradient of a vector is a special case of the covariant derivative, the operation
results in second rank tensors;[2] except in Cartesian coordinates, it's important to understand
that this isn't simply an element by element gradient. Rearranging and recognizing
that :
The leftmost expression enclosed in parentheses is, by mass continuity (shown in a moment),
equal to zero. Noting that what remains on the right side of the equation is theconvective
derivative:
This appears to simply be an expression of Newton's second law (F = ma) in terms of body
forces instead of point forces. Each term in any case of the NavierStokes equations is a body
force. A shorter though less rigorous way to arrive at this result would be the application of
the chain rule to acceleration:
where . The reason why this is "less rigorous" is that we haven't shown that
the choice of
is correct; however it does make sense since with that choice of path the derivative is
"following" a fluid "particle", and in order for Newton's second law to work, forces must be
summed following a particle. For this reason the convective derivative is also known as the
particle derivative.
Conservation of mass
Mass may be considered also. Taking (no sources or sinks of mass) and putting in
density:

where is the mass density (mass per unit volume), and is the flow velocity. This
equation is called the mass continuity equation, or simply "the" continuity equation. This
equation generally accompanies the NavierStokes equation.
In the case of an incompressible fluid, is a constant and the equation reduces to:
which is in fact a statement of the conservation of volume.
General form of the equations of motion
The generic body force seen previously is made specific first by breaking it up
into two new terms, one to describe forces resulting from stresses and one for
"other" forces such as gravity. By examining the forces acting on a small cube in a
fluid, it may be shown that.
where is the Cauchy stress tensor, and accounts for other body forces present. This
equation is called the Cauchy momentum equation and describes the non-relativistic
momentum conservation of any continuum that conserves mass. is a rank two symmetric
tensor given by its covariant components. In orthogonal cohordinates in three dime nsions it is
represented as the 3x3 matrix:
where the are normal stresses and shear stresses. This matrix is split up into two terms:
where is the 3 x 3 identity matrix and is the deviatoric stress tensor. Note that the
mechanical pressure is equal to minus the mean normal stress:
The motivation for doing this is that pressure is typically a variable of interest, and also this
simplifies application to specific fluid families later on since the rightmost tensor in the

equation above must be zero for a fluid at rest. Note that is traceless. The NavierStokes
equation may now be written in the most general form:
This equation is still incomplete. For completion, one must make hypotheses on the forms
of and , that is, one needs a constitutive law for the stress tensor which can be obtained
for specific fluid families and on the pressure; additionally, if the flow is assumed
compressible an equation of state will be required, which will likely further require a
conservation of energy formulation.
Newtonian fluid
Compressible Newtonian fluid
The formulation for Newtonian fluids stems from an observation made by Newton that, for
most fluids,
In order to apply this to the NavierStokes equations, three assumptions were made by
Stokes:
The stress tensor is a linear function of the strain rates.

The fluid is isotropic.
For a fluid at rest, must be zero (so that hydrostatic pressure results).
Applying these assumptions will lead to:
That is, the deviatoric of the deformation rate tensor is identified to the deviatoric of the
stress tensor, up to a factor
is the Kronecker delta. and are proportionality constants associated with the
assumption that stress depends on strain linearly; is called the first coefficient
of viscosity(usually just called "viscosity") and is the second coefficient of viscosity
(related to bulk viscosity). The value of , which produces a viscous effect associated with
volume change, is very difficult to determine, not even its sign is known with absolute
certainty. Even in compressible flows, the term involving is often negligible; however it
can occasionally be important even in nearly incompressible flows and is a matter of
controversy. When taken nonzero, the most common approximation is - .
A straightforward substitution of into the momentum conservation equation will yield
the NavierStokes equations for a compressible Newtonian fluid:

The Euler equations first appeared in published form in Euler's article "Principes gnraux du
mouvement des fluides", published in Mmoires de l'Academie des Sciences de Berlin in
1757 (in this article Euler actually published only the general form of the continuity equation
and the momentum equation;[3] the energy balance equation would be obtained a century
later). They were among the first partial differential equations to be written down. At the time
Euler published his work, the system of equations consisted of the momentum and continuity
equations, and thus was underdetermined except in the case of an incompressible fluid. An
additional equation, which was later to be called theadiabatic condition, was supplied
by Pierre-Simon Laplace in 1816.
During the second half of the 19th century, it was found that the equation related to the
balance of energy must at all times be kept, while the adiabatic condition is a consequence of
the fundamental laws in the case of smooth solutions. With the discovery of the special
theory of relativity, the concepts of energy density, momentum density, and stress were
unified into the concept of the stressenergy tensor, and energy and momentum were likewise
unified into a single concept, the energymomentum vector.
Incompressible Euler equations with constant and uniform density
In convective form (i.e. the form with the convective operator made explicit in
the momentum equation), the incompressible Euler equations in case of density
constant in time and uniform in space are:
Incompressible Euler equations with constant and uniform density (convective or

Lagrangian form)
where:
u is the flow velocity vector, with components in a N-dimensional space u1, u2 ... uN,
denotes the material operator in time,

denotes the scalar product,
is the nabla operator, here used in the flow velocity divergence (first equation), and in
flow velocity and specific pressure gradients (second equation), and
is the convective operator,

w is the specific (with the sense of per unit mass) thermodynamic work, the
internal source term.
represents body accelerations (per unit mass) acting on the continuum, for
example gravity, inertial accelerations, electric field acceleration, and so on.
The first equation is the Euler momentum equation with uniform density (for this equation it
could also not be constant in time). By expanding the material derivative, the equation
become:
In fact for a flow with uniform density 0 the following identity holds:
where p is the mechanic pressure. The second equation is the incompressible constraint,
stating the flow velocity is a solenoidal field (the order of the equations is not casual, but
underlines the fact that the incompressible constraint is not a degenerate form of
the continuity equation, but rather of the energy equation, as it will become clear in the
following). Notably, the continuity equation would be required also in this incompressible
case as an additional third equation in case of density varying in time or varying in space. For
example with density uniform but varying in time, the continuity equation to be added to the
above set would correspond to:
So the case of constant and uniform density is the only one not requiring the continuity
equation as additional equation regardless of the presence or absence of the incompressible
constraint. In fact, the case of incompressible Euler equations with constant and uniform
density being analyzed is a toy model featuring only two simplified equations, so it is ideal
for didactical purposes even if with limited physical relevancy.
The equations above thus represent respectively conservation of mass (1 scalar equation)
and momentum (1 vector equation containing N scalar components, where N is the physical
dimension of the space of interest). In 3D for example N=3 and the r and u vectors are
explicitly ( x1, x2, x3 ) and ( u1, u2, u3 ). Flow velocity and pressure are the so-calledphysical
variables.
These equations may be expressed in subscript notation:

where the i and j subscripts label the N-dimensional space components. These equations may
be more succinctly expressed using Einstein notation:
where the i and j subscripts label the N-dimensional space components, and is
the Kroenecker delta. In 3D N=3 and the r and u vectors are explicitly ( x1, x2, x3 ) and ( u1, u2,
u3), and matched indices imply a sum over those indices
In convective form the incompressible Euler equations in case of density variable in space
are:[5]
Incompressible Euler equations (convective or Lagrangian form)
where the additional variables are:
is the fluid mass density,

p is the pressure, .
The first equation, which is the new one, is the incompressible continuity equation. In fact the
general continuity equation would be:
but here the last term is identically zero for the incompressibility constraint.

The incompressible Euler equations in the Froude limit are equivalent to a single
conservation equation with conserved quantity and associated flux respectively:
Here y has length N+2 and F has size N(N+2). [7] In general (not only in the Froude limit)
Euler equations are expressible as:
Conservation variables
The variables for the equations in conservation form are not yet optimised. In fact we could
define:
where:
j = u is the momentum density, a conservation variable.
Incompressible Euler equation(s) (conservation or Eulerian form)
where:
f = g is the force density, a conservation variable.

Euler equations (convective form)

where the additional variables here is:
e is the specific internal energy (internal energy per unit mass).

The equations above thus represent conservation of mass, momentum, and energy: the energy
equation expressed in the variable internal energy allows to understand the link with the
incompressible case, but it is not in the simplest form. Mass density, flow velocity and
pressure are the so-called convective variables (or physical variables, or lagrangian
variables), while mass density, momentum density and total energy density are the so -
called conserved variables (also called eulerian, or mathematical variables). If one
explicitates the material derivative the equations above are:
In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle states that for an inviscid flow of

a nonconducting fluid, an increase in the speed of the fluid occurs simultaneously with a
decrease in pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential energy.[1][2] The principle is named
after Daniel Bernoulli who published it in his book Hydrodynamica in 1738.
Bernoulli's principle can be applied to various types of fluid flow, resulting in what is loosely
denoted as Bernoulli's equation. In fact, there are different forms of the Bernoulli equation for
different types of flow. The simple form of Bernoulli's principle is valid for incompressible
flows (e.g. most liquid flows and gases moving at low Mach number). More advanced forms
may in some cases be applied to compressible flows at higher Mach numbers (see the
derivations of the Bernoulli equation).
Bernoulli's principle can be derived from the principle of conservation of energy. This states
that, in a steady flow, the sum of all forms of energy in a fluid along a streamline is the same
at all points on that streamline. This requires that the sum of kinetic energy, potential
energy and internal energy remains constant.[2] Thus an increase in the speed of the fluid
implying an increase in both its dynamic pressure and kinetic energy occurs with a
simultaneous decrease in (the sum of) its static pressure, potential energy and internal energy.
If the fluid is flowing out of a reservoir, the sum of all forms of energy is the same on all
streamlines because in a reservoir the energy per unit volume (the sum of pressure
and gravitational potential g h) is the same everywhere.
Bernoulli's principle can also be derived directly from Newton's 2nd law. If a small volume
of fluid is flowing horizontally from a region of high pressure to a region of low pressure,

then there is more pressure behind than in front. This gives a net force on the volume,
accelerating it along the streamline.
Fluid particles are subject only to pressure and their own weight. If a fluid is flowing
horizontally and along a section of a streamline, where the speed increases it can only be
because the fluid on that section has moved from a region of higher pressure to a region of
lower pressure; and if its speed decreases, it can only be because it has moved from a region
of lower pressure to a region of higher pressure. Consequently, within a fluid flowing
horizontally, the highest speed occurs where the pressure is lowest, and the lowest speed
occurs where the pressure is highest.
Incompressible flow equation
In most flows of liquids, and of gases at low Mach number, the density of a fluid parcel can
be considered to be constant, regardless of pressure variations in the flow. Therefore, the
fluid can be considered to be incompressible and these flows are called incompressible flow.
Bernoulli performed his experiments on liquids, so his equation in its original form is valid
only for incompressible flow. A common form of Bernoulli's equation, valid at
any arbitrary point along a streamline, is:
where:
is the fluid flow speed at a point on a streamline,
is the value of acceleration due to gravity,
is the elevation of the point above a reference plane, with the positive z-direction
pointing upward so in the direction opposite to the gravitational acceleration,
is the pressure at the chosen point, and
is the density of the fluid at all points in the fluid.
For conservative force fields, Bernoulli's equation can be generalized as:
where is the force potential at the point considered on the streamline. E.g. for the Earth's
gravity = gz.
The following two assumptions must be met for this Bernoulli equation to apply: [9]
the flow must be incompressible even though pressure varies, the density must
remain constant along a streamline;

friction by viscous forces has to be negligible. In long lines mechanical energy

dissipation as heat will occur. This loss can be estimated e.g. using DarcyWeisbach
equation.
By multiplying with the fluid density , equation (A) can be rewritten as:
or:
where:
is dynamic pressure,
is the piezometric head or hydraulic head (the sum of the elevation z and the pressure
head) and is the total pressure (the sum of the static pressure p and
dynamic pressure q).
The constant in the Bernoulli equation can be normalised. A common approach is in terms
of total head or energy head H:
The above equations suggest there is a flow speed at which pressure is zero, and at even
higher speeds the pressure is negative. Most often, gases and liquids are not capable of
negative absolute pressure, or even zero pressure, so clearly Bernoulli's equation ceases to be
valid before zero pressure is reached. In liquids when the pressure becomes too low
cavitation occurs. The above equations use a linear relationship between flow speed squared
and pressure. At higher flow speeds in gases, or for sound waves in liquid, the changes in
mass density become significant so that the assumption of constant density is invalid.
In many applications of Bernoulli's equation, the change in the g z term along the
streamline is so small compared with the other terms that it can be ignored. For example, in
the case of aircraft in flight, the change in height z along a streamline is so small
the g z term can be omitted. This allows the above equation to be presented in the following
simplified form:
where p0 is called 'total pressure', and q is 'dynamic pressure'.[13] Many authors refer to
the pressure p as static pressure to distinguish it from total pressure p0 and dynamic
pressure q. In Aerodynamics, L.J. Clancy writes: "To distinguish it from the total and
dynamic pressures, the actual pressure of the fluid, which is associated not with its motion

but with its state, is often referred to as the static pressure, but where the term pressure alone
is used it refers to this static pressure."
The simplified form of Bernoulli's equation can be summarized in the following memorable
word equation:
static pressure + dynamic pressure = total pressure
Every point in a steadily flowing fluid, regardless of the fluid speed at that point, has its own
unique static pressure p and dynamic pressure q. Their sum p + q is defined to be the total
pressure p0. The significance of Bernoulli's principle can now be summarized as total
pressure is constant along a streamline.
If the fluid flow is irrotational, the total pressure on every streamline is the same and
Bernoulli's principle can be summarized as total pressure is constant everywhere in the fluid
flow.[15] It is reasonable to assume that irrotational flow exists in any situation where a large
body of fluid is flowing past a solid body. Examples are aircraft in flight, and ships moving in
open bodies of water. However, it is important to remember that Bernoulli's principle does
not apply in the boundary layer or in fluid flow through long pipes.
If the fluid flow at some point along a stream line is brought to rest, this point is called a
stagnation point, and at this point the total pressure is equal to the stagnation pressure.
Bernoulli's equation is sometimes valid for the flow of gases: provided that there is no
transfer of kinetic or potential energy from the gas flow to the compression or expansion of
the gas. If both the gas pressure and volume change simultaneously, then work will be done
on or by the gas. In this case, Bernoulli's equation in its incompressible flow form cannot
be assumed to be valid. However if the gas process is entirely isobaric, or isochoric, then no
work is done on or by the gas, (so the simple energy balance is not upset). According to the
gas law, an isobaric or isochoric process is ordinarily the only way to ensure constant density
in a gas. Also the gas density will be proportional to the ratio of pressure and
absolute temperature, however this ratio will vary upon compression or expansion, no matter
what non-zero quantity of heat is added or removed. The only exception is if the net heat
transfer is zero, as in a complete thermodynamic cycle, or in an
individual isentropic (frictionless adiabatic) process, and even then this reversible process
must be reversed, to restore the gas to the original pressure and specific volume, and thus
density. Only then is the original, unmodified Bernoulli equation applicable. In this case the
equation can be used if the flow speed of the gas is sufficiently below the speed of sound,
such that the variation in density of the gas (due to this effect) along each streamlinecan be
ignored. Adiabatic flow at less than Mach 0.3 is generally considered to be slow enough.
Unsteady potential flow
The Bernoulli equation for unsteady potential flow is used in the theory of ocean surface
waves and acoustics.

For an irrotational flow, the flow velocity can be described as the gradient of a velocity
potential . In that case, and for a constant density , the momentum equations of theEuler
equations can be integrated to
which is a Bernoulli equation valid also for unsteadyor time dependentflows. Here
/t denotes the partial derivative of the velocity potential with respect to time t,
and v = | | is the flow speed. The function f(t) depends only on time and not on position in
the fluid. As a result, the Bernoulli equation at some moment t does not only apply along a
certain streamline, but in the whole fluid domain. This is also true for the special case of a
steady irrotational flow, in which case f is a constant.
Further f(t) can be made equal to zero by incorporating it into the velocity potential using the
transformation
resulting in
Note that the relation of the potential to the flow velocity is unaffected by this transformation:
= .
The Bernoulli equation for unsteady potential flow also appears to play a central role
in Luke's variational principle, a variational description of free-surface flows using
theLagrangian (not to be confused with Lagrangian coordinates).

Convective acceleration
An example of convection. Though the flow may be steady (time-independent), the fluid
decelerates as it moves down the diverging duct (assuming incompressible or subsonic
compressible flow), hence there is an acceleration happening over position.
A significant feature of Cauchy equation and consequently all other continuum equations
(including Euler and NavierStokes) is the presence of convective acceleration: the effect of
time-independent acceleration of a flow with respect to space. While individual fluid particles
indeed experience time-dependent acceleration, the convective acceleration of the flow field
is a spatial effect, one example being fluid speeding up in a nozzle.
THEVORTICAL FLOW
In fluid dynamics, a vortex is a region, in a fluid medium, in which the flow is
mostly rotating on an axis line, thevortical flow that occurs either on a straight-axis or a
curved-axis.[1][2] The plural of vortex is either vortices orvortexes.[3]([4]) Vortices form in
stirred fluids, such as liquid, gas, and plasma, thus the vortices evidenced in smoke rings,
the whirlpool of the wake of a boat and of a paddle, the winds surrounding a tropical
cyclone (hurricane), atornado, and a dust devil, and vortices in the wake of an aeroplane;
elsewhere, the vortex is a notable feature of theatmosphere of Jupiter.
Vortices are a major component of turbulent flow. In the absence of external forces, viscous
friction within the fluid tends to organize the flow into a collection of irrotational vortices,
possibly superimposed to larger-scale flows, including larger-scale vortices. In each vortex,
the fluid's flow velocity is greatest next to its axis, and decreases, in inverse proportion, to the
distance from the axis. The vorticity (the curl of the flow velocity) is very high in a core
region surrounding the axis, and nearly nil in the greater vortex; and the pressure drops with
proximity to the axis of the vortex.
Once formed, vortices can move, stretch, twist, and interact in complex ways. A moving
vortex carries with it some angular and linear momentum, energy, and mass.

In a stationary vortex, the streamlines and pathlines are closed. In a moving or evolving
vortex the streamlines and pathlines are stretched by the overall flow into loopy but open
curves.
Vorticity
The Crow Instability of a jet aeroplane's contrail visually demonstrates the vortex created in
the atmosphere (gas fluid medium) by the passage of the aircraft.
A key concept in the dynamics of vortices is the vorticity, a vector that describes
the local rotary motion at a point in the fluid, as would be perceived by an observer that
moves along with it. Conceptually, the vorticity could be observed by placing a tiny rough
ball at the point in question, free to move with the fluid, and observing how it rotates about its
center. The direction of the vorticity vector is defined to be the direction of the axis of
rotation of this imaginary ball (according to the right-hand rule) while its length is twice the
ball's angular velocity. Mathematically, the vorticity is defined as the curl (or rotational) of
the velocity field of the fluid, usually denoted by and expressed by the vector
analysis formula , where is the nabla operator and is the local flow velocity.
The local rotation measured by the vorticity must not be confused with the angular
velocity vector of that portion of the fluid with respect to the external environment or to any
fixed axis. In a vortex, in particular, may be opposite to the mean angular velocity vector
of the fluid relative to the vortex's axis.
Vortex types
In theory, the speed u of the particles (and, therefore, the vorticity) in a vortex may vary with
the distance r from the axis in many ways. There are two important special cases, however:
A rigid-body vortex
If the fluid rotates like a rigid body that is, if the angular rotational velocity is
uniform, so that u increases proportionally to the distancer from the axis a tiny ball
carried by the flow would also rotate about its center as if it were part of that rigid body.
In such a flow, the vorticity is the same everywhere: its direction is parallel to the rotation
axis, and its magnitude is equal to twice the uniform angular velocity of the fluid
around the center of rotation.

An irrotational vortex
If the particle speed u is inversely proportional to the distance r from the axis, then the
imaginary test ball would not rotate over itself; it would maintain the same orientation
while moving in a circle around the vortex axis. In this case the vorticity is zero at any
point not on that axis, and the flow is said to be irrotational.
Irrotational vortices
Pathlines of fluid particles around the axis (dashed line) of an ideal irrotational vortex.
In the absence of external forces, a vortex usually evolves fairly quickly toward the
irrotational flow pattern, where the flow velocity u is inversely proportional to the distance r.
For that reason, irrotational vortices are also called free vortices.

For an irrotational vortex, the circulation is zero along any closed contour that does not
enclose the vortex axis and has a fixed value, , for any contour that does enclose the axis
once.[6] The tangential component of the particle velocity is then . The
angular momentum per unit mass relative to the vortex axis is therefore
However, the ideal irrotational vortex flow is not physically realizable, since it would imply
that the particle speed (and hence the force needed to keep particles in their circular paths)
would grow without bound as one approaches the vortex axis. Indeed, in real vortices there is
always a core region surrounding the axis where the particle velocity stops increasing and
then decreases to zero as r goes to zero. Within that region, the flow is no longer irrotational:
the vorticity becomes non-zero, with direction roughly parallel to the vortex axis.
TheRankine vortex is a model that assumes a rigid-body rotational flow where r is less than a
fixed distance r0, and irrotational flow outside that core regions. The Lamb-Oseen
vortex model is an exact solution of the NavierStokes equations governing fluid flows and
assumes cylindrical symmetry, for which
In an irrotational vortex, fluid moves at different speed in adjacent streamlines, so there is

friction and therefore energy loss throughout the vortex, especially near the core.
Rotational vortices
The cloud vortex Saturn's hexagon is at the north pole of the planet Saturn.
A rotational vortex one which has non-zero vorticity away from the core can be
maintained indefinitely in that state only through the application of some extra force, that is
not generated by the fluid motion itself.

For example, if a water bucket is spun at constant angular speed w about its vertical axis, the
water will eventually rotate in rigid-body fashion. The particles will then move along circles,
with velocity u equal to wr.[6] In that case, the free surface of the water will assume
a parabolic shape.
In this situation, the rigid rotating enclosure provides an extra force, namely an extra
pressure gradient in the water, directed inwards, that prevents evolution of the rigid-body
flow to the irrotational state.
In engineering, applied mathematics, and physics, the Buckingham theorem is a
key theorem in dimensional analysis. It is a formalization of Rayleigh's method of
dimensional analysis. Loosely, the theorem states that if there is a physically meaningful
equation involving a certain number n of physical variables, then the original equation can be
rewritten in terms of a set of p = n k dimensionless parameters 1, 2, ..., p constructed
from the original variables. (Here k is the number of physical dimensions involved; it is
obtained as the rank of a particular matrix.)
The theorem can be seen as a scheme for nondimensionalization because it provides a method
for computing sets of dimensionless parameters from the given variables, even if the form of
the equation is still unknown.
More formally, the number of dimensionless terms that can be formed, p, is equal to
the nullity of the dimensional matrix, and k is the rank. For the purposes of the experimenter,
different systems that share the same description in terms of these dimensionless numbers are
equivalent.
In mathematical terms, if we have a physically meaningful equation such as
where the qi are the n physical variables, and they are expressed in terms of k independent
physical units, then the above equation can be restated as
where the i are dimensionless parameters constructed from the qi by p = n k dimensionless

equations the so-called Pi groups of the form
where the exponents ai are rational numbers (they can always be taken to be integers: just
raise it to a power to clear denominators).

The Buckingham theorem provides a method for computing sets of dimensionless

parameters from the given variables, even if the form of the equation is still unknown.
However, the choice of dimensionless parameters is not unique: Buckingham's theorem only
provides a way of generating sets of dimensionless parameters, and will not choose the most
'physically meaningful'.
Two systems for which these parameters coincide are called similar (as with similar triangles,
they differ only in scale); they are equivalent for the purposes of the equation, and the
experimentalist who wants to determine the form of the equation can choose the most
convenient one. To find out relation between the number of variables and fundamental
dimensions Buckingham's theorem is most important.
In fluid mechanics, the Reynolds number (Re) is a dimensionless quantity that is used to help
predict similar flow patterns in different fluid flow situations. The concept was introduced
by George Gabriel Stokes in 1851,[2] but the Reynolds number is named after Osborne
Reynolds (18421912), who popularized its use in 1883.
The Reynolds number is defined as the ratio of momentum forces to viscous forces and
consequently quantifies the relative importance of these two types of forces for given flow
conditions.[5] Reynolds numbers frequently arise when performing scaling of fluid dynamics
problems, and as such can be used to determine dynamic similitude between two different
cases of fluid flow. They are also used to characterize different flow regimes within a similar
fluid, such as laminar or turbulent flow:
laminar flow occurs at low Reynolds numbers, where viscous forces are dominant, and is
characterized by smooth, constant fluid motion;
turbulent flow occurs at high Reynolds numbers and is dominated by inertial forces,
which tend to produce chaotic eddies, vortices and other flow instabilities.
In practice, matching the Reynolds number is not on its own sufficient to guarantee
similitude. Fluid flow is generally chaotic, and very small changes to shape and surface
roughness can result in very different flows. Nevertheless, Reynolds numbers are a very
important guide and are widely used.
Reynolds number interpretation has been extended into the area of arbitrary complex
systems as well: financial flows, [6] nonlinear networks,[7] etc. In the latter case an artificial
viscosity is reduced to nonlinear mechanism of energy distribution in complex
network media. Reynolds number then represents a basic control parameter which expresses
a balance between injected and dissipated energy flows for open boundary system. It has
been shown [7] that Reynolds critical regime separates two types of phase space motion:
accelerator (attractor) and decelerator. High Reynolds number leads to a chaotic regime
transition only in frame of strange attractor model. The Reynolds number can be defined for
several different situations where a fluid is in relative motion to a surface. [n 1] These
definitions generally include the fluid properties of density and viscosity, plus a velocity and

a characteristic length or characteristic dimension. This dimension is a matter of convention

for example radius and diameter are equally valid to describe spheres or circles, but one is
chosen by convention. For aircraft or ships, the length or width can be used. For flow in a
pipe or a sphere moving in a fluid the internal diameter is generally used today. Other shapes
such as rectangular pipes or non-spherical objects have an equivalent diameter defined. For
fluids of variable density such as compressible gases or fluids of variable viscosity such
as non-Newtonian fluids, special rules apply. The velocity may also be a matter of convention
in some circumstances, notably stirred vessels. The Reynolds number is defined below for
each case.
[8]
where:
is the mean velocity of the object relative to the fluid (SI units: m/s)
is a characteristic linear dimension, (travelled length of the fluid; hydraulic
diameter when dealing with river systems) (m)
is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (Pas or Ns/m or kg/(ms))
is the kinematic viscosity ( ) (m/s)
is the density of the fluid (kg/m).
Note that multiplying the Reynolds number by yields , which is the ratio of the inertial forces
to the viscous forces.[9] It could also be considered the ratio of the total momentum transfer to
the molecular momentum transfer.
In continuum mechanics, the Froude number (Fr) is a dimensionless number defined as the
ratio of the flow inertia to the external field (the latter in many applications simply due
to gravity). Named after William Froude, the Froude number is based on the speedlength
ratio as defined by him, and is defined as:
where u0 is a characteristic flow velocity, g0 is in general a characteristic external field,

and l0 is a characteristic length. The Froude number has some analogy with the Mach
number. In theoretical fluid dynamics the Froude number is not frequently considered since
usually the equations are considered in the high Froude limit of negligible external field,
leading to homogeneous equations that preserve the mathematical aspects. For example
homogeneous Euler equations are conservation equations.
However, in naval architecture the Froude number is a very significant figure used to
determine the resistance of a partially submerged object moving through water, and permits

the comparison of similar objects of different sizes, because the wave pattern generated is
similar at the same Froude number only.
The Denny Ship Model Experiment tank in Dumbarton, Scotland, has a bust of Froude near
the front door
Cauchy momentum equation

In order to make the equations dimensionless, a characteristic length r 0, and a characteristic
velocity u0, need to be defined. These should be chosen such that the dimensionless variables
are all of order one. The following dimensionless variables are thus obtained:
Substitution of these inversed relations in the Euler momentum equations, and definition of
the Froude number:
and the Euler number:
the equations are finally expressed (with the material derivative and now omitting the
indexes):
Cauchy momentum equation (nondimensional convective form)
Cauchy-type equations in the high Froude limit Fr (corresponding to negligible external

field) are named free equations. On the other hand in the low Euler limit Eu 0
(corresponding to negligible stress) general Cauchy momentum equation becomes an
inhomogeneous Burgers equation (here we explicit the material derivative):
Burgers equation (nondimensional conservation form)

This is an inhomogeneous pure advection equation, as much as the Stokes equation is a

pure diffusion equation.
Euler momentum equation
Euler momentum equation is a Cauchy momentum equation with the Pascal law being the
stress constitutive relation:
in nondimensional Lagrangian form is:
Free Euler equations are conservative. The limit of high Froude numbers (low external field)
is thus notable and can be studied with perturbation theory.
Incompressible Navier-Stokes momentum equation:
Incompressible Navier-Stokes momentum equation is a Cauchy momentum equation with
the Pascal law and Stokes's law being the stress constitutive relations:
in nondimensional convective form it is
where Re is the Reynolds number. Free Navier-Stokes equations are dissipative (non
conservative).
PITOT TUBE
A pitot-static system is a system of pressure-sensitive instruments that is most often used in

aviation to determine an aircraft's airspeed, Mach number, altitude, and altitude trend. A
pitot-static system generally consists of a pitot tube, a static port, and the pitot-static
instruments.[1] This equipment is used to measure the forces acting on a vehicle as a function
of the temperature, density, pressure and viscosity of the fluid in which it is
operating.[2] Other instruments that might be connected are air data computers, flight data
recorders, altitude encoders, cabin pressurization controllers, and various airspeed switches.
Errors in pitot-static system readings can be extremely dangerous as the information obtained
from the pitot static system, such as altitude, is often critical to a successfu l flight. Several
commercial airline disasters have been traced to a failure of the pitot-static system.

Pitot-static pressure
Examples of pitot tube, static tube, and pitot-static tube.
Static ports fitted to an Airbus A330 passenger airliner.
The pitot-static system of instruments uses the principle of air pressure gradient. It works by
measuring pressures or pressure differences and using these values to assess the speed and
altitude.[1] These pressures can be measured either from the static port (static pressure) or the
pitot tube (pitot pressure). The static pressure is used in all measurements, while the pitot
pressure is used only to determine airspeed.
PITOT PRESSURE
The pitot pressure is obtained from the pitot tube. The pitot pressure is a measure of ram air
pressure (the air pressure created by vehicle motion or the air ramming into the tube), which,
under ideal conditions, is equal to stagnation pressure, also called total pressure. The pitot
tube is most often located on the wing or front section of an aircraft, facing forward, where its
opening is exposed to the relative wind.[1] By situating the pitot tube in such a location, the
ram air pressure is more accurately measured since it will be less distorted by the aircraft's
structure. When airspeed increases, the ram air pressure is increased, which can be translated
by the airspeed indicator.
STATIC PRESSURE
The static pressure is obtained through a static port. The static port is most often a flush-
mounted hole on the fuselage of an aircraft, and is located where it can access the air flow in
a relatively undisturbed area.[1] Some aircraft may have a single static port, while others may

have more than one. In situations where an aircraft has more than one static port, there is
usually one located on each side of the fuselage. With this positioning, an average pressure
can be taken, which allows for more accurate readings in specific flight situations. [1] An
alternative static port may be located inside the cabin of the aircraft as a backup for when the
external static port(s) are blocked. A pitot-static tube effectively integrates the static ports
into the pitot probe. It incorporates a second coaxial tube (or tubes) with pressure sampling
holes on the sides of the probe, outside the direct airflow, to measure the static pressure.
When aircraft climbs, static pressure will decrease.
MULTIPLE PRESSURE
Some pitot-static systems incorporate single probes that contain multiple pressure-
transmitting ports that allow for the sensing of air pressure, angle of attack, and angle of
sideslip data. Depending on the design, such air data probes may be referred to as 5-hole or 7-
hole air data probes. Differential pressure sensing techniques can be used to produce angle of
attack and angle of sideslip indications.
PITOT-STATIC INSTRUMENT
Airspeed indicator diagram showing pressure sources from both the pitot tube and static port
The pitot-static system obtains pressures for interpretation by the pitot-static instruments.
While the explanations below explain traditional, mechanical instruments, many modern
aircraft use an air data computer (ADC) to calculate airspeed, rate of climb, altitude
and Mach number. In some aircraft, two ADCs receive total and static pressure from
independent pitot tubes and static ports, and the aircraft's flight data computer compares the
information from both computers and checks one against the other. There are also "standby
instruments", which are back-up pneumatic instruments employed in the case of problems
with the primary instruments.
VENTURI METER
Venturi effect is the reduction in fluid pressure that results when a fluid flows through a
constricted section of pipe. The Venturi effect is named after Giovanni Battista
Venturi (17461822), an Italian physicist

Background
In fluid dynamics, a fluid's velocity must increase as it passes through a constriction in

accord with the principle of continuity, while its static pressure must decrease in accord with
the principle of conservation of mechanical energy. Thus any gain in kinetic energy a fluid
may accrue due to its increased velocity through a constriction is balanced by a drop in
pressure.
By measuring the change in pressure, the flow rate can be determined, as in various flow
measurement devices such as venturi meters, venturi nozzles and orifice plates.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PRESSURE AND FLOW SPEED
An equation for the drop in pressure due to the Venturi effect may be derived from a
combination of Bernoulli's principle and the continuity equation.
Referring to the diagram to the right, using Bernoulli's equation in the special case of
incompressible flows (such as the flow of water or other liquid, or low speed flow of gas), the
theoretical pressure drop at the constriction is given by:
where is the density of the fluid, is the (slower) fluid velocity where the pipe is
wider, is the (faster) fluid velocity where the pipe is narrower (as seen in the figure). This
assumes the flowing fluid (or other substance) is not significantly compressible - even though
pressure varies, the density is assumed to remain approximately constant.
CHOKED FLOW
The limiting case of the Venturi effect is when a fluid reaches the state of choked flow, where
the fluid velocity approaches the local speed of sound. In choked flow the mass flow rate will
not increase with a further decrease in the downstream pressure environment. However, mass
flow rate for a compressible fluid can increase with increased upstream pressure, which will
increase the density of the fluid through the constriction (though the velocity will remain
constant). This is the principle of operation of a de Laval nozzle. Increasing source
temperature will also increase the local sonic velocity, thus allowing for increased mass flow
rate.
EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS

Venturi tube demonstration apparatus built out of PVC pipe and operated with a vacuum
pump
A pair of venturi tubes on a light aircraft, used to provide airflow for air-driven gyroscopic
instruments
VENTURI TUBES
The simplest apparatus, as shown in the photograph and diagram, is a tubular setup known as
a Venturi tube or simply a venturi. Fluid flows through a length of pipe of varying diameter.
To avoid undue drag, a Venturi tube typically has an entry cone of 30 degrees and a n exit
cone of 5 degrees.
Venturi tubes are available in various sizes from 100 mm to 813 mm with flow coefficient
value of 0.984 for all diameter ratios.They are widely used due to low permanent pressure
loss. They are more accurate over wide flow ranges than orifice plates or flow nozzles.
However it is not used where the Reynolds number is less than 150,000.
Venturi tubes are used in processes where permanent pressure loss is not tolerable and where
maximum accuracy is needed in case of high viscous liquids.

ORIFICE PLATE
Venturi tubes are more expensive to construct than a simple orifice plate which uses the same
principle as a tubular scheme, but the orifice plate causes significantly more permanent
energy loss.[2]
Instrumentation and measurement
Venturis are used in industrial applications and in scientific laboratories for measuring the
flow rate of liquids.
Flow rate
A venturi can be used to measure the volumetric flow rate, .
Since
then
A venturi can also be used to mix a liquid with a gas. If a pump forces the liquid through a
tube connected to a system consisting of a venturi to increase the liquid speed (the diameter
decreases), a short piece of tube with a small hole in it, and last a venturi that decreases speed
(so the pipe gets wider again), the gas will be sucked in through the small hole because of
changes in pressure. At the end of the system, a mixture of liquid and gas will appear.
See aspirator and pressure head for discussion of this type of siphon.
Differential pressure
As fluid flows through a venturi, the expansion and compression of the fluids cause the
pressure inside the venturi to change. This principle can be used in metrology for gauges
calibrated for differential pressures. This type of pressure measurement may be more
convenient, for example, to measure fuel or combustion pressures in jet or rocket engines.
The first large-scale Venturi meters to measure liquid flows were developed by Clemens
Herschel who used them to measure small and large flows of water and wastewater beginning
at the end of the 19th century.
ORIFICE METER
An orifice plate is a device used for measuring flow rate, for reducing pressure or for
restricting flow (in the latter two cases it is often called arestriction plate). Either a
volumetric or mass flow rate may be determined, depending on the calculation associated
with the orifice plate. It uses the same principle as a Venturi nozzle, namely Bernoulli's

principle which states that there is a relationship between the pressure of the fluid and the
velocity of the fluid. When the velocity increases, the pressure decreases and vice versa.
Description
Orifice plate showing vena contracta
An orifice plate is a thin plate with a hole in it, which is usually placed in a pipe. When a
fluid (whether liquid or gaseous) passes through the orifice, its pressure builds up slightly
upstream of the orifice[1]:8586 but as the fluid is forced to converge to pass through the hole,
the velocity increases and the fluid pressure decreases. A little downstream of the orifice the
flow reaches its point of maximum convergence, the vena contracta (see drawing to the right)
where the velocity reaches its maximum and the pressure reaches its minimum. Beyond that,
the flow expands, the velocity falls and the pressure increases. By measuring the difference in
fluid pressure across tappings upstream and downstream of the plate, the flow rate can be
obtained from Bernoulli's equation using coefficients established from extensive research.
Application
Orifice plates are most commonly used to measure flow rates in pipes, when the fluid is
single-phase (rather than being a mixture of gases and liquids, or of liquids and solids) and
well-mixed, the flow is continuous rather than pulsating, the fluid occupies the entire pipe
(precluding silt or trapped gas), the flow profile is even and well-developed and the fluid and
flow rate meet certain other conditions. Under these circumstances and when the orifice plate
is constructed and installed according to appropriate standards, the flow rate can easily be
determined using published formulae based on substantial research and published in industry,
national and international standards.
Plates are commonly made with sharp-edged circular orifices and installed concentric with
the pipe and with pressure tappings at one of three standard pairs of distances upstream and
downstream of the plate; these types are covered by ISO 5167 and other major standards.
There are many other possibilities. The edges may be rounded or conical, the plate may have
an orifice the same size as the pipe except for a segment at top or bottom which is obstructed,
the orifice may be installed eccentric to the pipe, and the pressure tappings may be at other
positions. Variations on these possibilities are covered in various standards and handbooks.
Each combination gives rise to different coefficients of discharge which can be predicted so
long as various conditions are met, conditions which differ from one type to another.

Once the orifice plate is designed and installed, the flow rate can often be indicated with an
acceptably low uncertainty simply by taking the square root of the different ial pressure across
the orifice's pressure tappings and applying an appropriate constant. Even compressible flows
of gases that vary in pressure and temperature may be measured with acceptable uncertainty
by merely taking the square roots of the absolute pressure and/or temperature, depending on
the purpose of the measurement and the costs of ancillary instrumentation.
Orifice plates are also used to reduce pressure or restrict flow, in which case they are often
called restriction plates.
PRESSURE TAPPINGS
There are three standard positions for pressure tappings (also called taps), commonly named
as follows:
Corner taps placed immediately upstream and downstream of the plate; convenient when
the plate is provided with an orifice carrier incorporating tappings
D and D/2 taps or radius taps placed one pipe diameter upstream and half a pipe
diameter downstream of the plate; these can be installed by welding bosses to the pipe
Flange taps placed 25.4mm (1 inch) upstream and downstream of the plate, normally
within specialised pipe flanges.
These types are covered by ISO 5167 and other major standards. Other types include
2D and 8D taps or recovery taps placed 2.5 pipe diameters upstream and 8 diameters
downstream, at which point the measured differential is equal to the unrecoverable
pressure loss caused by the orifice
Vena contracta tappings placed one pipe diameter upstream and at a position 0.3 to 0.9
diameters downstream, depending on the orifice type and size relative to the pipe, in the
plane of minimum fluid pressure.
The measured differential pressure differs for each combination and so the coefficient of
discharge used in flow calculations depends partly on the tapping positions.
The simplest installations use single tappings upstream and downstream, but in some
circumstances these may be unreliable; they might be blocked by solids or gas-bubbles, or the
flow profile might be uneven so that the pressures at the tappings are higher or lower than the
average in those planes. In these situations multiple tappings can be used, arranged
circumferentially around the pipe and joined by a piezometer ring, or (in the case of corner
taps) annular slots running completely round the internal circumference of the orifice carrier .
Plate
Standards and handbooks are mainly concerned with sharp-edged thin plates. In these, the
leading edge is sharp and free of burrs and the cylindrical section of the orifice is short, either
because the entire plate is thin or because the downstream edge of the plate is bevelled.

Exceptions include the quarter-circle or quadrant-edge orifice, which has a fully rounded
leading edge and no cylindrical section, and the conical inlet or conical entrance plate which
has a bevelled leading edge and a very short cylindrical section. The orifices are normally
concentric with the pipe (the eccentric orifice is a specific exception) and circular (except in
the specific case of the segmental or chord orifice, in which the plate obstructs just
a segment of the pipe). Standards and handbooks stipulate that the upstream surface of the
plate is particularly flat and smooth. Sometimes a small drain or vent hole is drilled through
the plate where it meets the pipe, to allow condensate or gas bubbles to pass along the pipe.
Pipe
Standards and handbooks stipulate a well-developed flow profile; velocities will be lower at
the pipe wall than in the centre but not eccentric or jetting. Similarly the flow downstream of
the plate must be unobstructed, otherwise the downstream pressure will be affected. To
achieve this, the pipe must be acceptably circular, smooth and straight for stipulated
distances. Sometimes when it is impossible to provide enough straight pipe, flow conditioners
such as tube bundles or plates with multiple holes are inserted into the pipe to straighten and
develop the flow profile, but even these require a further length of straight pipe before the
orifice itself. Some standards and handbooks also provide for flows from or into large spaces
rather than pipes, stipulating that the region before or after the plate is free of obstruction and
abnormalities in the flow.
Computation
Flow rates through an orifice plate can be calculated without specifically calibrating the
individual flowmeter so long as the construction and installation of the device complies with
the stipulations of the relevant standard or handbook. The calculation takes account of the
fluid and fluid conditions, the pipe size, the orifice size and the measured differential
pressure; it also takes account of the coefficient of discharge of the orifice plate, which
depends upon the orifice type and the positions of the pressure tappings. With local pressure
tappings (corner, flange and D+D/2), sharp-edged orifices have coefficients around 0.6 to
0.63,[5] while the coefficients for conical entrance plates are in the range 0.73 to 0.734 and for
quarter-circle plates 0.77 to 0.85.[2] The co-efficients of sharp-edged orifices vary more with
fluids and flow rates than the coefficients of conical-entrance and quarter-circle plates,
especially at low flows and high viscosities.

UNIT-V
PIPE FLOW
Pipe flow, a branch of hydraulics and fluid mechanics, is a type of liquid flow within a
closed conduit (conduit in the sense of a means of containment). The other type of
flow within a conduit is open channel flow. These two types of flow are similar in
many ways, but differ in one important aspect. Pipe flow does not have a free
surface which is found in open-channel flow. Pipe flow, being confined within closed
conduit, does not exert direct atmospheric pressure, but does exert hydraulic
pressure on the conduit.
Not all flow within a closed conduit is considered pipe flow. Storm sewers are closed
conduits but usually maintain a free surface and therefore are considered open-
channel flow. The exception to this is when a storm sewer operates at full capacity,
and then can become pipe flow.
Energy in pipe flow is expressed as head and is defined by the Bernoulli equation. In
order to conceptualize head along the course of flow within a pipe, diagrams often
contain a hydraulic grade line. Pipe flow is subject to frictional losses as defined by
the Darcy-Weisbach formula.
REYNOLDS EXPERIMENT
The flow of real fluids can basically occur under two very different regimes namely laminar
and turbulent flow. The laminar flow is characterized by fluid particles moving in the form of
lamina sliding over each other, such that at any instant the velocity at all the points in
particular lamina is the same. The lamina near the flow boundary move at a slower rate as
compared to those near the center of the flow passage. This type of flow occurs in viscous
fluids , fluids moving at slow velocity and fluids flowing through narrow passages.
The turbulent flow is characterized by constant agitation and intermixing of fluid particles
such that their velocity changes from
point to point and even at the same point from time to time. This type of flow occurs in low
density fluids, flow through wide passage and in high velocity flows.

Reynolds conducted an experiment for observation and determination of these regimes of

flow. By introducing a fine filament of dye in to the flow of water through the glass tube ,at
its entrance he studied the different types of flow. At low velocities the dye filament appeared
as straight line through the length of the tube and parallel to its axis, characterizing laminar
flow. As the velocity is increased the dye filament becomes wavy throughout indicating
transition flow. On further increasing the velocity the filament breaks up and diffuses
completely in the water in the glass tube indicating the turbulent flow.
After conducting his experiment with pipes different diameters and with water at different
temperatures Reynolds concluded that the various parameters on which the regimes of flow
depend can be grouped together in a single non dimensional parameter called Reynolds
number. Reynolds number is defined as, the ratio of inertia force per unit volume and is given
by
Re=vD?/ =VD/v
Where
Re-Reynolds number
V -velocity of flow
D-characteristic length=diameter in case of pipe flow
?-mass density of fluid
-dynamic viscosity of fluid
v -kinematic viscosity of fluid
Reynolds observed that in case of flow through pipe for values of Re<2000 the flow is
laminar while offer Re>40000 it is turbulent and for 2000<Re<4000 it is transition flow.
Reynolds most famously studied the conditions in which the flow of fluid in
pipestransitioned from laminar flow to turbulent flow. From these experiments came
the dimensionless Reynolds number for dynamic similaritythe ratio
of inertial forces toviscous forces. Reynolds also proposed what is now known
as Reynolds-averagingof turbulent flows, where quantities such as velocity are
expressed as the sum of mean and fluctuating components. Such averaging allows
for 'bulk' description of turbulent flow, for example using the Reynolds-averaged
NavierStokes equations.
His publications in fluid dynamics began in the early 1870s. His final theoretical
model published in the mid-1890s is still the standard mathematical framework used
today. Examples of titles from his more groundbreaking reports:

Improvements in Apparatus for Obtaining Motive Power from Fluids and also for
Raising or Forcing Fluids. (1875)
An experimental investigation of the circumstances which determine whether the
motion of water in parallel channels shall be direct or sinuous and of the law of
resistance in parallel channels. (1883)
On the dynamical theory of incompressible viscous fluids and the determination of
the criterion. (1895)
Reynolds' contributions to fluid mechanics were not lost on ship designers ("naval
architects"). The ability to make a small scale model of a ship, and extract useful
predictive data with respect to a full size ship, depends directly on the
experimentalist applying Reynolds' turbulence principles to friction drag
computations, along with a proper application of William Froude's theories of gravity
wave energy and propagation. Reynolds himself had a number of papers concerni ng
ship design published in Transactions of the Institution of Naval Architects.
DarcyWeisbach equation is a phenomenological equation, which relates

the head loss orpressure loss due to friction along a given length of pipe to the
average velocity of the fluid flow for an incompressible fluid. The equation is named
after Henry Darcy and Julius Weisbach.
The DarcyWeisbach equation contains a dimensionless friction factor, known as the Darcy
friction factor. This is also called the DarcyWeisbach friction factor or Moody friction
factor. The Darcy friction factor is four times the Fanning friction factor, with which it should
not be confused.
Head loss form

Head loss can be calculated with
where
hf is the head loss due to friction (SI units: m);

L is the length of the pipe (m);
D is the hydraulic diameter of the pipe (for a pipe of circular section, this equals the
internal diameter of the pipe) (m);

u is the average flow velocity, experimentally measured as the volumetric flow

rate per unit cross-sectional wetted area(m/s);
g is the local acceleration due to gravity (m/s2);
fD is a dimensionless coefficient called the Darcy friction factor.[citation needed] It can
be found from a Moody diagram or more precisely by solving the Colebrook
equation. Do not confuse this with the Fanning Friction factor, f.
Pressure loss form

Given that the head loss hf expresses the pressure loss p as the height of a column
of fluid,
where is the density of the fluid, the DarcyWeisbach equation can also be written
in terms of pressure loss:[2]
where the pressure loss due to friction p (Pa) is a function of:
the ratio of the length to diameter of the pipe, L/D;

the density of the fluid, (kg/m3);
the mean flow velocity, u (m/s), as defined above;
Darcy Friction Factor, fD, a (dimensionless) coefficient of laminar, or turbulent
flow;
Since the pressure loss equation can be derived from the head loss equation by
multiplying each side by and g.
Darcy friction factor

The friction factor fD or flow coefficient is not a constant and depends on the
parameters of the pipe and the velocity of the fluid flow, but it is known to high
accuracy within certain flow regimes. It may be evaluated for given conditions by the
use of various empirical or theoretical relations, or it may be obtained from published
charts. These charts are often referred to asMoody diagrams, after L. F. Moody, and
hence the factor itself is sometimes called the Moody friction factor. It is also
sometimes called the Blasius friction factor, after the approximate formula he
proposed.

For laminar (slow) flows, it is a consequence of Poiseuille's

law that fD = 64/Re, where Re is the Reynolds numbercalculated substituting for the
characteristic length the hydraulic diameter of the pipe, which equals the inside
diameter for circular pipe geometries.
For turbulent flow, methods for finding the friction factor f include using a diagram
such as the Moody chart; or solving equations such as the ColebrookWhite
equation, or the Swamee Jain equation. While the diagram and Colebrook
White equation are iterative methods, the SwameeJain equation allows f to be
found directly for full flow in a circular pipe.
Confusion with the Fanning friction factor[edit]
The DarcyWeisbach friction factor, fD is 4 times larger than the Fanning friction
factor, f, so attention must be paid to note which one of these is meant in any "friction
factor" chart or equation being used. Of the two, the DarcyWeisbach factor, fDis
more commonly used by civil and mechanical engineers, and the Fanning factor, f,
by chemical engineers, but care should be taken to identify the correct factor
regardless of the source of the chart or formula.
Note that
Most charts or tables indicate the type of friction factor, or at least provide the
formula for the friction factor with laminar flow. If the formula for laminar flow is
f = 16/Re, it's the Fanning factor, f, and if the formula for laminar flow is fD = 64/Re,
it's the DarcyWeisbach factor, fD.
Which friction factor is plotted in a Moody diagram may be determined by inspection

if the publisher did not include the formula described above:
1. Observe the value of the friction factor for laminar flow at a Reynolds number
of 1000.
2. If the value of the friction factor is 0.064, then the Darcy friction factor is
plotted in the Moody diagram. Note that the nonzero digits in 0.064 are the
numerator in the formula for the laminar Darcy friction factor: fD = 64/Re.
3. If the value of the friction factor is 0.016, then the Fanning friction factor is
plotted in the Moody diagram. Note that the nonzero digits in 0.016 are the
numerator in the formula for the laminar Fanning friction factor: f = 16/Re.

The procedure above is similar for any available Reynolds number that is an integral
power of ten. It is not necessary to remember the value 1000 for this procedure
only that an integral power of ten is of interest for this purpose.
History
Historically this equation arose as a variant on the Prony equation; this variant was
developed by Henry Darcy of France, and further refined into the form used today
by Julius Weisbach of Saxony in 1845. Initially, data on the variation of f with velocity
was lacking, so the DarcyWeisbach equation was outperformed at first by the
empirical Prony equation in many cases. In later years it was eschewed in many
special-case situations in favor of a variety of empirical equations valid only for
certain flow regimes, notably the HazenWilliams equation or the Manning equation,
most of which were significantly easier to use in calculations. However, since the
advent of the calculator, ease of calculation is no longer a major issue, and so the
DarcyWeisbach equation's generality has made it the preferred one.
Derivation
The DarcyWeisbach equation is a phenomenological formula obtainable
by dimensional analysis.
Away from the ends of the pipe, the characteristics of the flow are independent of the
position along the pipe. The key quantities are then the pressure drop along the pipe
per unit length, p/L, and the volumetric flow rate. The flow rate can be converted to
a mean flow velocity u by dividing by the wetted area of the flow (which equals
the cross-sectional area of the pipe if the pipe is full of fluid).
Pressure has dimensions of energy per unit volume. Therefore, the pressure drop
between two points must be proportional to (1/2)u2, which has the same dimensions
as it resembles (see below) the expression for the kinetic energy per unit volume.
We also know that pressure must be proportional to the length of the pipe between
the two points L as the pressure drop per unit length is a constant. To turn the
relationship into a proportionality coefficient of dimensionless quantity we can divide
by the hydraulic diameter of the pipe, D, which is also constant along the pipe.
Therefore,

The proportionality coefficient is the dimensionless "Darcy friction factor" or "flow

coefficient". This dimensionless coefficient will be a combination of geometric factors
such as , the Reynolds number and (outside the laminar regime) the relative
roughness of the pipe (the ratio of the roughness height to the hydraulic diameter).
Note that (1/2)u2 is not the kinetic energy of the fluid per unit volume, for the
following reasons. Even in the case oflaminar flow, where all the flow lines are
parallel to the length of the pipe, the velocity of the fluid on the inner surface of the
pipe is zero due to viscosity, and the velocity in the center of the pipe must therefore
be larger than the average velocity obtained by dividing the volumetric flow rate by
the wet area. The average kinetic energy then involves the mean-square velocity,
which always exceeds the square of the mean velocity. In the case of turbulent flow,
the fluid acquires random velocity components in all directions, including
perpendicular to the length of the pipe, and thus turbulence contributes to the kinetic
energy per unit volume but not to the average lengthwise velocity of the fluid.
Practical applications
In hydraulic engineering applications, it is often desirable to express the head loss in
terms of volumetric flow rate in the pipe. For this, it is necessary to substitute the
following into the original head loss form of the DarcyWeisbach equation
where
u is, as above, the average flow velocity

Q is the volumetric flow rate (m3/s);
Aw is the cross-sectional wetted area (m2).
For the general case of an arbitrarily-full pipe, the value of Aw will not be immediately
known, being an implicit function of pipe slope, cross-sectional shape, flow rate and
other variables. If, however, the pipe is assumed to be full flowing and of circular
cross-section, as is common in practical scenarios, then
where D is the diameter of the pipe

Substituting these results into the original formulation yields the final equation
for head loss in terms of volumetric flow ratein a full-flowing circular pipe
where all symbols are defined as above. The implication of this equation is that for a
fixed volumetric flow rate head lossincreases linearly with the length of the pipe, L,
but decreases with the inverse fifth power of the diameter, D. Thus, by merely
doubling the diameter of a pipe of a given wall thickness, even though the amount of
material required per unit length doubles, the head loss decreases to 1/32, about
3%, of the smaller diameter pipe.
The NavierStokes equations /n v je sto ks/ , named afterClaude-

Louis Navier and George Gabriel Stokes, describe the motion ofviscous fluid
substances. These balance equations arise from applyingNewton's second law to
fluid motion, together with the assumption that thestress in the fluid is
the sum of a diffusing viscous term (proportional to thegradient of
velocity) and a pressure termhence describing viscous flow. The main
difference between them and the simpler Euler equations for inviscid flowis that
NavierStokes equations also in the Froude limit (no external field) are not
conservation equations, but rather a dissipative system, in the sense they
cannot be put into the quasilinear
homogeneous form:
NavierStokes equations are useful because they describe the physics of many
things of scientific and engineering interest. They may be used to modelthe
weather, ocean currents, water flow in a pipe and air flow around a wing. The
NavierStokes equations in their full and simplified forms help with the design of
aircraft and cars, the study of blood flow, the design of power stations, the analysis
of pollution, and many other things. Coupled withMaxwell's equations they can be
used to model and studymagnetohydrodynamics.
The NavierStokes equations are also of great interest in a purely mathematical

sense. Somewhat surprisingly, given their wide range of practical uses, it has not yet
been proven that in three dimensions solutions always exist (existence), or that if
they do exist, then they do not contain anysingularity (they are smooth). These are
called the Navier Stokes existence and smoothness problems.

The Clay Mathematics Institute has called this one of the seven most important open
problems in mathematics and has offered a US$1,000,000 prize for a solution or a
counter-example
The NavierStokes momentum equation can be derived as a particular form of

the Cauchy momentum equation. In aninertial frame of reference, the conservation
form of the equations of continuum motion is:
Cauchy momentum equation (conservation form)
where
is the density,
is the flow velocity,
is the del operator.
is the pressure
is the identity matrix
is the deviatoric stress tensor, which has order two,
represents body accelerations (per unit mass) acting on the continuum, for
example gravity, inertial accelerations,electric field acceleration, and so on.
The left side of the equation describes acceleration, and may be composed of time-
dependent, convective, and hydrostatic effects (also the effects of non-inertial
coordinates if present). The right side of the equation is in effect a summation of
body forces (such as gravity) and divergence of deviatoric stress.
In the Eulerian forms it is apparent that the assumption of no deviatoric stress brings
Cauchy equations to the Euler equations. All non-relativistic balance equations, such
as the NavierStokes equations, can be derived by beginning with the Cauchy
equations and specifying the stress tensor through a constitutive relation. By
expressing the shear tensor in terms of viscosity and fluid velocity, and assuming
constant density and viscosity, the Cauchy equations will lead to the NavierStokes
equations.

The incompressible case is simpler than the compressile one so for didactical
purpose it should be presented before. However, the compressible case is the most
general framework of NavierStokes equations so where not specified, Navier
Stokes equations are intended to be compressible NavierStokes equations.
Convective acceleration
An example of convection. Though the flow may be steady (time-independent), the fluid
decelerates as it moves down the diverging duct (assuming incompressible or subsonic
compressible flow), hence there is an acceleration happening over position.
A significant feature of Cauchy equation and consequently all other continuum

equations (including Euler and NavierStokes) is the presence of convective
acceleration: the effect of time-independent acceleration of a flow with respect to
space. While individual fluid particles indeed experience time-dependent
acceleration, the convective acceleration of the flow field is a spatial effect, one
example being fluid speeding up in a nozzle.
Incompressible flow
The incompressible momentum NavierStokes equation result from the following
assumptions on the Cauchy stress tensor
The stress is Galileian invariant: it does not depend directly on the flow velocity, but
only on spatial derivatives of the flow velocity. So the stress variable is the tensor
gradient .
The fluid is assumed to be isotropic, as with gases and simple liquids, and
consequently is an isotropic tensor; furthermore, since the deviatoric stress
tensor can be expressed in terms of the dynamic viscosity :

Stokes's stress constitutive equation (expression used for incompressible elastic

solids)
where I is the identity tensor, and
is the rate-of-strain tensor. So this decomposition can be explicited as: [3]
Stokes's stress constitutive equation (expression used for incompressible viscous

fluids)
Dynamic viscosity need not be constant in incompressible flows it can depend on

density and on pressure. Any equation expliciting one of these transport coefficient in
the conservative variables is called an equation of state
The divergence of the deviatoric stress is given by:
Incompressibility rules out density and pressure waves like sound or shock waves,
so this simplification is not useful if these phenomena are of interest. The
incompressible flow assumption typically holds well with all fluids at low Mach
numbers (say up to about Mach 0.3), such as for modelling air winds at normal
temperatures.[5] For incompressible (uniform density 0) flows the following identity
holds:
where w is the specific (with the sense of per unit mass) thermodynamic work, the
internal source term. Then the incompressible NavierStokes equations are best
visualised by dividing for the density:
Incompressible NavierStokes equations (convective form)

VELOCITY PROFILE (LAMINAR FLOW)
, ,
for the - direction, simplify Navier-Stokes equation
integrate twice to find velocity profile with boundary conditions:

, ,
From this equation, sub in your two boundary conditions to get 2 equations
Add and solve for B
Substitute and solve for A
Finally you get the velocity profile
in tensor notation:
Incompressible NavierStokes equations (convective form)
where:
= /0 is the kinematic viscosity

It is well worth observing the meaning of each term (compare to the Cauchy
momentum equation):
The higher-order
reduced term,
to the vector namely
laplacian termthe
shear
2 [6] stress
u. This divergence
laplacian term can , has simply
beinterpreted as
the difference between the velocity at a point and the mean velocity in a small
surrounding volume. This implies that for a Newtonian fluid viscosity operates as
a diffusion of momentum, in much the same way as the heat conduction. In fact
neglecting the convection term, incompressible NavierStokes equations lead to a
vector diffusion equation (namely Stokes equations), but in general the convection
term is present, so incompressible NavierStokes equations belong to the class
of convection-diffusion equations.
In the usual case of an external field being a conservative field:
by defining the hydraulic head:
one can finally condense the whole source in one term, arriving to the
incompressible Navier-Stokes equation with conservative external field:
The incompressible NavierStokes equations with conservative external field is

the fundamental equation of hydraulics. The domain for these equations is
commonly a 3 or less euclidean space, for which an orthogonal coordinate reference
frame is usually set to explicit the system of scalar partial derivative equations to be
solved. In 3D orthogonal coordinate systems are 3: Cartesian, cylindrical,
and spherical. Expressing the Navier-Stokes vector equation in Cartesian
coordinates is quite straightforward and not much influenced by the number of
dimensions of the euclidean space employed, and this is the case also for the first-
order terms (like the variation and convection ones) also in non-cartesian orthogonal
coordinate systems. But for the higher order terms (the two coming from the

divergence of the deviatoric stress that distinguish NavierStokes equations from

Euler equations) some tensor calculus is required for deducing an expression in non-
cartesian orthogonal coordinate systems.
The incompressible NavierStokes equation is composite, the sum of two orthogonal

equations,
where S and I are solenoidal and irrotational projection operators satisfying S +

I = 1 and and fI are the non-conservative and conservative parts of the body
force. This result follows from the Helmholtz Theorem (also known as the
fundamental theorem of vector calculus). The first equation is a pressureless
governing equation for the velocity, while the second equation for the pressure is a
functional of the velocity and is related to the pressure Poisson equation.
The explicit functional form of the projection operator in 3D is found from the
Helmholtz Theorem:
with a similar structure in 2D. Thus the governing equation is an integro-differential

equation similar to Coulomb and Biot-Savart law, not convenient for numerical
computation.
An equivalent weak or variational form of the equation, proved to produce the same
velocity solution as the NavierStokes equation,[7] is given by,
for divergence-free test functions w satisfying appropriate boundary conditions.

Here, the projections are accomplished by the orthogonality of the solenoidal and
irrotational function spaces. The discrete form of this is imminently suited to finite
element computation of divergence-free flow, as we shall see in the next section.
There we will be able to address the question, "How does one specify pressure-
driven (Poiseuille) problems with a pressureless governing equation?"
The absence of pressure forces from the governing velocity equation demonstrates
that the equation is not a dynamic one, but rather a kinematic equation where the

divergence-free condition serves the role of a conservation equation. This all would
seem to refute the frequent statements that the incompressible pressure enforces
the divergence-free condition.
DISCRETE VELOCITY
With partitioning of the problem domain and defining basis functions on the artitioned
domain, the discrete form of the governing equation is,
It is desirable to choose basis functions which reflect the essential feature of

incompressible flow the elements must be divergence-free. While the velocity is
the variable of interest, the existence of the stream function or vector potential is
necessary by the Helmholtz Theorem. Further, to determine fluid flow in the absence
of a pressure gradient, one can specify the difference of stream function values
across a 2D channel, or the line integral of the tangential component of the vector
potential around the channel in 3D, the flow being given by Stokes' Theorem.
Discussion will be restricted to 2D in the following.
We further restrict discussion to continuous Hermite finite elements which have at

least first-derivative degrees-of-freedom. With this, one can draw a large number of
candidate triangular and rectangular elements from the plate-bending literature.
These elements have derivatives as components of the gradient. In 2D, the gradient
and curl of a scalar are clearly orthogonal, given by the expressions,
Adopting continuous plate-bending elements, interchanging the derivative degrees-

of-freedom and changing the sign of the appropriate one gives many families of
stream function elements.
Taking the curl of the scalar stream function elements gives divergence-free velocity
elements. The requirement that the stream function elements be continuous assures
that the normal component of the velocity is continuous across element interfaces,
all that is necessary for vanishing divergence on these interfaces.
Boundary conditions are simple to apply. The stream function is constant on no-flow
surfaces, with no-slip velocity conditions on surfaces. Stream function differences
across open channels determine the flow. No boundary conditions are necessary on

open boundaries, though consistent values may be used with some problems. These
are all Dirichlet conditions.
The algebraic equations to be solved are simple to set up, but of course are non-
linear, requiring iteration of the linearized equations.
Similar considerations apply to three-dimensions, but extension from 2D is not

immediate because of the vector nature of the potential, and there exists no simple
relation between the gradient and the curl as was the case in 2D.
Pressure recovery
Recovering pressure from the velocity field is easy. The discrete weak equation for
the pressure gradient is,
where the test/weight functions are irrotational. Any conforming scalar finite element
may be used. However, the pressure gradient field may also be of interest. In this
case one can use scalar Hermite elements for the pressure. For the test/weight
functions gi one would choose the irrotational vector elements obtained from the
gradient of the pressure element.
FLOW BETWEEN PARALLEL PLATES

Consider steady, incompressible, laminar flow between two infinite parallel horizontal plates as
shown in the figure. The flow is in the x- direction, hence there is no velocity component in
either the y- or z- direction (i.e., v = 0 and w = 0). The steady-state continuity
equation becomes
[1]
From Eqn. 1, it can be concluded that the velocity u is a function of both y and z only. Since the
plates are infinitely wide, it can be argued that the velocity u should not be a function of z, i.e.,
it must be a function of y only, u = u(y).
Applying the Navier-Stokes equations, along with the assumptions that v = 0, w = 0 and u =
u(y), yields
---------------------[2]
-------------------------------[3]

---------------------[4]
Eqn. 4 indicates that the pressure is a function of x and y. Integrate Eqn. 3 to yield
p = -gy + g1(x)
Hence it can be concluded that is a function of x only. Now, integrate Eqn. 2 twice with
respect to y, and treat as a constant (with respect to y) to give:
Applying the no-slip conditions (i.e., the fluid is "stuck" to the plates, or u = 0 at y = h) to
determine the coefficients as follows:
Velocity Profile
Fully developed flow is when the viscous effects due to the shear stress between the fluid
particles and pipe wall create a fully developed velocity profile for a fluid as it travels
through the length of a straight pipe. The velocity of the fluid for a fully developed flow will
be at its fastest at the center line of the pipe (equation 1 laminar flow), and the velocity of the
fluid at the walls of the pipe will be at its slowest. Due to the change of velocity across the
velocity profile it is common to describe the fluid velocity as an average velocity

As mentioned earlier the viscous effects are caused by the shear stress between a
fluid and the wall of a pipe. This shear stress is always present despite how smooth the pipe
is. Also, the shear stress between the fluid particles moving past one another is a product o f
the wall shear stress and the distance from the wall. Refer to equation 2 to calculate the shear
stress between fluid particles for laminar flow.
Due to the shear stress on the fluid particles as the fluid moves past the pipe wall a pressure
drop will occur.
The viscous effects, pressure drop, and pipe length will affect the flow rate. To
calculate the average flow rate, taking these into account, equation 4 would be
used to calculate the flow rate for laminar flow

Entrance Length
When fluid first enters a pipe its flow is not fully developed. Instead the fluid has to travel a
certain distance undisturbed before it becomes fully developed. This is also true when a fluid
goes around a curve in the pipe system. The curve in the pipe will disrupt the velocity profile
of the fluid, and it will need to travel a certain distance in a straight pipe to have a fully
developed flow again. Refer to equation 1 to calculate the entrance length for laminar flow,
and equation 2 to calculate the entrance length for turbulent flow.
from the diagram that a boundary layer starts to form as the flow becomes developed. The
boundary layer represents where the viscous effects are produced along the pipe wall to
create the velocity profile. Also notice while the flow is developing there is a region where
there is no viscous effects; this is called the inviscid core

TURBULENT FLOW
Opposite of laminar, where considerable mixing occurs, velocities are high.
Laminar and Turbulent flows can be characterized and quantified using Reynolds Number
established by Osborne Reynolds and is given as
NOTE Reynolds number directly proportional to velocity & inversely

proportional to viscosity!
NR < 2000 laminar flow

NR > 4000 Turbulent flow
For 2000 < NR < 4000 transition region or critical region

flow can either be laminar of turbulent difficult to pin down exactly
More viscous fluid will tend to have laminar flow or lower Reynolds number
Reynolds numbers for some real-life examples

Blood flow in brain ~ 100
Blood flow in aorta ~ 1000
Typical pitch in major league baseball ~ 200000
Blue whale swimming ~ 300000000
Friction losses in Pipes

Vary with laminar or turbulent flow Energy equation can be given as
The head loss in pipes = hL can be expressed as
- Darcys equation for energy loss (GENERAL FORM)

Where
f friction factor
L length of pipe
D diameter of pipe
v velocity of flow

Similarly,
Another equation was developed to compute h under Laminar flow conditions only
called the Hagen-Poiseuille equation
If you equate Darcys equation and Hagen-Poiseuille equation then we can find the friction
factor f
Thus the friction factor is a function of Reynolds number
Friction losses for Turbulent Flow

For Laminar flow we got a nice equation to compute the friction factor dependent only on
Reynolds number!
In case of Turbulent flow friction factor computed based on inside roughness of the pipe
and Reynolds number!

Roughness is expressed as - Relative roughness = D/e
More rough pipe low D/e

Less rough pipe high D/e
Friction factor for Turbulent flow ~ Relative roughness &Reynolds number

Roughness values for various pipes

The Moody Diagram
Developed to provide the friction factor for turbulent flow forvarious values of Relative
roughness and Reynolds number!
Curves generated by experimental data

Key points about the Moody Diagram
1. In the laminar zone f decreases as Nr increases!

2. f = 64/Nr.
3. transition zone uncertainty not possible to predict
4. Beyond 4000, for a given Nr, as the relative roughness term D/e increases (less rough),
friction factor decreases
5. For given relative roughness, friction factor decreases with increasing Reynolds number
till the zone of complete turbulence
6. Within the zone of complete turbulence Reynolds number has no affect.
7. As relative roughness increases (less rough) the boundaryof the zone of complete
turbulence shifts (increases)
If you know the relative roughness, Reynolds number you can compute the friction
factor from the Moody Diagram

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aero

Here is the volume of the fluid element and m is the mass

If is very large is affected by the inhomogeneities in the fluid medium.

Considering another extreme if is very small, random movement of atoms

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One of the factors considered important in determining the validity of continuum

characterised by mean free path ( ). It is calculated by finding statistical average

A dimensionless parameter known as Knudsen number, K n = / L, where is the

In continuum approach, fluid properties such as density, viscosity, thermal

Ideal and Real Fluids

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liquid liquid g liquid

layer is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain.

When two layers of fluid, at a distance dy

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apart, move one over the other at different

According to Newtons law

Thermal diffusivity and molecular diffusivity have same dimension, therefore, by

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A general term for phenomena observed in liquids due to inter-molecular attraction

All fluids compress if pressure increases resulting in an increase in density

( final initial ) ( p final pinitial )

For water at 15 psia and 68 degrees Farenheit,

In reality, no fluid is incompressible, but this is a good approximation for certain

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What about the areas where the pressure is non-uniformly distributed.Find

HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON PLANE SURFACES

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What Is A Resultant Force And Centre Of Pressure ?

Engineering MechanicsResultant force:

A force that results from the combination of two or more forces

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Consider a flat plate completely submerged in a liquid.Plane of the top

surface intersects with horizontal surface with an angle , the line of

HOW TO DETERMINE THE RESULTANT FORCE, F R

FR = (Po + gyc sin ) A = (Po + ghc)A

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The magnitude of the resultant force, FR acting on a plane surface of a

completely submerged plate in a homogeneous (constant density) fluid is =

Absolute pressure at any point of the fluid,

FR = PdA = (Po + gy sin )dA = PoA + g sin ydA

**ydA is the first moment of area is related to the y coordinate of the

Hydrostatic Forces on Curved, Submerged Surfaces:

Pressure is always acting perpendicular to the solid surface since there is no

dFx PdA cos( ) PdAx

dFx PdA cos( ) PdAx , dFZ PdAsin( ) PdAZ

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MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE MANOMETRY:

Use liquid column in vertical or inclined tubes. Hg barometer is an example

3 common types of manometers including the U-tube manometer,

Piezometer is simple and accurate

Piezometer is only suitable if the pressure in the container is greater

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Simple U-tube manometer

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BUOYANCY = the ability to float in a fluid.

Examples of fluids = water, air

BUOYANT FORCE = the upward force that acts on a

It acts opposite of gravity

The buoyant force acting on a submerged object is equal to the

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