Design of A Small Hydro-Power Plant PDF

2
0
1
5
Designing a Small Hydro Power Plant

Capable Of Producing 10 MW of
Electricity at Webuye along River
Nzoia
Final Year Project

University of Nairobi
14/4/2015
Declaration
This work and material produced in this report is our original work and it has not been presented
or published elsewhere for academic purposes.
Chol Dhieu Gabriel

F18/34749/2010
Signed.
Paul Odhiambo
F18/29902/2009
Signed
John Odhach
F18/29942/2009
Signed
I
Dedication
We dedicate this project to our Almighty God who has been supporting us throughout the
duration of the project. We have also dedicated this work to our parent and sponsors.
II
Acknowledgement
We want to thank God almighty for His guidance and protection throughout this project.
We also want to appreciate our able supervisor Eng. Munyasi for his wise guidance. He has been
very supportive and essential in us achieving our objectives. We would also like to thank our
chairman, Prof.Ogola, for his support. He coordinated with the universitys transport department
to facilitate our travel to Webuye East County. We also want to thank Prof. Oduori for his
support and his introducing us to Eng. Sayi of KTDA power. We appreciate Eng. Sayi of KTDA
who provided us with a lot of information and reference material on the planning, design and
guidelines on small hydropower power plants. In addition to this, Eng. Sayi even went as far as
helping us locate hydrologist who came up with a practical flow duration curve. We would also
like to thank the Regional manager of WARMA and their entire staff for giving us volumes of
data on the River Nzoia. This data was very essential for the professional work that we
conducted. We would also like to give appreciation to Nzoia Water services Company
(NZOWASCO) for their invaluable advice regarding the River Nzoia. In addition to them, we
would also like to appreciate the Kenya Power staff at Webuye for providing us with the power
consumption data for the area and reliable future demand trends of the area. Also, we would like
to thanks the staff of the CDF offices in the constituency of Webuye for designating one of their
staff to guide us around the river. He was invaluable when we were conducting site evaluation.
He was also gracious enough to accompany us to Kakamega to the regional WRMA
headquarters. We would also like to thank Eng. Ndulu and Eng. Aduol for their constant support
especially in facilitating our transportation to Webuye. We would like to give our gratitude to
Mr. Mutai who drove us from Nairobi all the way to Webuye and also the many short trips
within Webuye safely. Last but not the least; we would like to thanks our parents, lecturers,
relatives, friends and sponsors for their tireless support throughout our studies at the university.
We owe our success in this project to all the above mentioned people.
III
Abstract
The objective of this project is to come up with the design of small hydropower plant
capable of generating 10 MW at river Nzoia passing through Webuye East constituency. The
entire Bungoma County is suffering from power shortage. This is because the power from the
national grid is not sufficient to cater for the demand of the area. In addition to this, the
additional power from the hydropower plant will attract investors to the area. The hydropower
plant will have an immediate effect on the industries already set up. These industries have been
suffering from regular power outages and high cost of grid electricity.
To achieve a good design, the station location has to be selected as well as parameters
like head and discharge from the river has to be determined before any design analysis starts. We
carried out research by using questionnaires to get feedback from the local around the site
regarding the project. They were very friendly and they gave us a lot of information regarding
the River and the ownership of land and their thoughts on the project if at all it is going to be
implemented. Their responses and readiness to give up their ancestral land especially those living
around the river, motive us to proceed with the project.
In the data collection we used a hand held global positioning and ranging system (GPRS)
to determine the gross head by taking some points upstream and downstream and getting the
differences as our gross head. At the same time in analysis, we calculated the head losses due to
bends and friction in penstock which affect the final power output. The head losses were
subtracted from the gross head to get the net head that was used to calculate the power output
from generator or the power to be injected to the grid. On the other hand the flow rate was
obtained from a flow duration curve (FDC). Current flow data is not sufficient the design of
small hydropower plant. Thus, we had to visit Water Resource and management Authority
(WRMA) at their regional office in Kakamega to obtain the data pertaining river Nzoia and more
particularly the point around Nabuyole falls. Our skills as Mechanical engineering were out of
place in the flow data analysis hence we needed to consultant a Hydrologist who later came up
with FDC. From the analyzed data (plotted FDC) we selected our design discharge to be Q = 21
m3/s which was used for all our calculations. Therefore, the net head (Hn= 54.5 M) and design
discharge are the two most important parameters used for design analysis and selection of
hydropower components.
IV
The next step was the design of civil structures e.g. weir, intake, settling basin, headrace,
head-tank (fore-bay), penstock, power house foundation and power house building. In addition to
this, the selection of electromechanical equipment i.e. turbine, generator, speed increaser, control
system was critical. The dimensions of the civil structures and electromechanical equipment
were calculated using empirical formulae and other formulae from reference materials. The
summary of dimensions and quantity of the hydropower components are tabulated under
summary section. The design analysis was done based on the economic viability and the site
configuration. The Francis turbine selected using the selection criteria discussed in chapter 2 of
electro mechanical equipment. The selection of this turbine was based on specific speed,
rotational speed, net head, power output and discharge from river. There are tables and charts
used for the selection of Francis turbine above other turbine types which is discussed in the
literature review. The generator type selected for this design was the synchronous type and the
rest of specifications of generator are in the conclusion part. The dimensions were calculated
using net head and design discharge discussed above.
The other important section was the cost of project. This is because it is the critical
determining factor in the planning of small hydropower plant. Hence, in the case of this project,
we got the cost estimate of civil structures and their work and the estimate cost
electromechanical equipment in the market. The cost also depend on other economic factors e.g.
the Dollar exchange rate affects the price of hydropower components thus make the cost of
project to go up or down. This is because most of the components are imported into the country
from specialized manufacturers. Therefore, the exact cost of this project can be determined
during the implementation though large deviations from the estimate are unlikely. The estimated
cost for this project is KSHS 212,524,000.00. This project can be funded by private
organizations, banks and the government Return on investment is very high since this plant is
most likely to generate revenue in the millions of shillings per day if the surplus electrical energy
is channeled into the national grid at the feed in tariff (FIT) rates. Though hydropower is a
renewable, green energy source it has some draw back which can be analyzed for sake of animal
life in the river and around the river. There is another environmental concern which is going to
affect people living around the plant i.e. the sound levels from the power house are at times very
high. This needs to be strictly controlled in order to reduce noise pollution to aquatics and people
living around the site during construction and operations
V
Lastly, the project is capable of producing more than 10 MW of electrical energy.
However, pursuing this will be out of our small hydropower bracket. If this project is
implemented then the community and country at large can benefit. This project will create
employment for the locals and skilled Kenyans. Therefore, during the implementation of the
project, we recommended that the other specialist in other fields to be involved. Therefore, in
conclusion, we recommended the implementation of this Project for it will greatly benefit the
Webuye residents, industries and the country as a whole in meeting the desired electrical energy
output.
VI
Notation
Nomenclature
a, Difference between inlet and outlet radius of runner (m)
A, Area (m2)
B, Width of channel (m)
b, Height of shroud
C, Absolute velocity (m / s)
d, Diameter m
D, Diameter m
E, Specific hydraulic energy (J/kg)
F, Force N
g, Acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
H, depth of water in channel (m)
HN, Net head (m)
HG Gross Head (m)
I, Second area moment of inertia (m4)
K, Constant
k, conduction factor
L, Length m
m, Mass (kg)
N Number of measurements m
n, Rotational speed rpm
p, Pressure Pa
P, Power W
Q, Flow rate (m3 /s)
r Radius m
Re, Reynolds number
V, velocity (m / s)
U Peripheral velocity (m/s)
W Relative velocity (m/s)
VII
Z Number of items m
WRMA: Water resource management authority
FDC: Flow duration curve
BEP: Best efficiency point
FIT: Feed in Tariff
VIII
Table of Contents
DECLARATION ....................................................................................................................... I
DEDICATION .......................................................................................................................... II
ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................IV
CHAPTER 1.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 1
1.1 Definition and classification of small hydropower ............................................................... 1
1.2 Objective of Project .............................................................................................................. 1
1.3 Reasons for the Project ......................................................................................................... 1
1.4 Advantages of a Small Hydro Power Plant: ......................................................................... 1
1.5 Disadvantages of a Small Hydro Power Plant ...................................................................... 2
1.6 Project Area .......................................................................................................................... 2
CHAPTER 2.0: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................ 3
2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 3
2.2 Site Configurations ............................................................................................................... 3
2.2.1 Schemes can also be defined as:- ................................................................................... 3
2.2.1.1 Run-of-river schemes .............................................................................. 3
2.4 Fundamentals of hydraulic engineering ................................................................................ 4
2.4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 4
2.4.2.1 Head losses due to friction ...................................................................... 4
2.4.2.2 Loss of head due to turbulence ............................................................... 4
2.4.2.3 Trash rack (or screen) losses ................................................................... 4
2.4.2.4 Loss of head by sudden contraction or expansion .................................. 4
2.4.2.5 Loss of head in bends .............................................................................. 5
2.4.2.6 Loss of head through valves ................................................................... 5
2.4.3 Transient flow ................................................................................................................ 5
2.5 HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES (CIVIL STRUCTURES) ................................................... 5
2.5.1 Intake Weir..................................................................................................................... 6
2.5.2 Side intake...................................................................................................................... 6
2.5.2.1 Location of Intake ................................................................................... 6
2.5.3 Settling Basin ................................................................................................................. 7
2.5.4 Headrace (channel) ........................................................................................................ 7
2.5.5 Head tank (fore-bay) ...................................................................................................... 7
2.5.5.1 Spillway at the head-tank ........................................................................ 7
2.5.6 Penstock ......................................................................................................................... 7
2.5.6.1 Penstock Material.................................................................................... 7
2.5.7 Tailrace .......................................................................................................................... 7
2.6 EVALUATING STREAMFLOW ........................................................................................ 7
2.6.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 7
2.6.2 Stream flow records ....................................................................................................... 8
2.6.3 Stream Flow Characteristics .......................................................................................... 8
2.6.4 Flow Duration Curves (FDC) ........................................................................................ 8
2.6.5 Evaluation of gross head ................................................................................................ 8
2.6.6 Estimation of net head ............................................................................... 8
2.6.7 SITE EVALUATION METHODOLOGIES ................................................................. 8
IX
2.6.7.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 8
2.8. ELECTROMECHANICAL EQUIPMENT ......................................................................... 9
2.8.1 Powerhouse .................................................................................................................... 9
2.8.2 Hydraulic turbines .......................................................................................................... 9
2.8.2.1 Types and configuration ......................................................................... 9
2.8.3 Specific speed .............................................................................................................. 10
2.8.4 Turbine selection criteria ............................................................................................. 10
2.8.4.1 Net head ................................................................................................ 11
2.8.4.2 Discharge .............................................................................................. 11
2.8.4.3 Cavitation .............................................................................................. 11
2.8.4.4 Rotational speed .................................................................................... 11
2.8.5 Runaway speed ............................................................................................................ 12
2.8.6 Turbine efficiency ........................................................................................................ 12
2.8.7 Speed increasers ........................................................................................................... 12
2.8.7 Generators .................................................................................................................... 12
2.8.7.1 Type of Generator ................................................................................. 12
2.8.7.2 Exciters ................................................................................................. 12
2.8.7.3 Speed Governors ................................................................................... 13
2.8.7.4 Switchgear equipment ........................................................................... 13
2.8.8 Automatic control ........................................................................................................ 13
2.8.8.1 Plant service transformer ...................................................................... 13
2.8.8.2 DC control power supply ...................................................................... 14
2.8.8.3 Headwater and tail-water recorders ...................................................... 14
2.9 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND ITS MITIGATION ................................................ 14
2.9.1 Burdens and impacts identification .............................................................................. 14
2.9.2 Impacts in the construction phase ................................................................................ 14
2.9.3 Water intakes, open canals, penstocks, tailraces.......................................................... 15
2.9.4 Impacts arising from the operation of the scheme ....................................................... 15
2.9.4.1 Sonic impacts ........................................................................................ 15
2.9.4.2 Landscape impact.................................................................................. 15
2.9. 5 Biological impacts ...................................................................................................... 16
2.9.5.1 In the reservoir ...................................................................................... 16
2.9.5.2 Trash-rack material ............................................................................... 16
2.9.6 Impacts from transmission lines .................................................................................. 16
2.9.6.1 Visual impact ........................................................................................ 16
2.9.6.2 Health impact ........................................................................................ 16
3.1 Design of electromechanical equipment ............................................................................. 17
3.1.1 Determination of power output .................................................................................... 17
3.2 Design of Francis turbines ............................................................................................ 18
3.2.1 Specific speed, NS ........................................................................................................ 19
3.2.2 Rotational speed, N ...................................................................................................... 19
3.2.3 Dimensions of Francis turbine ..................................................................................... 20
3.2.4 Cavitation design ......................................................................................................... 23
Knowing the specific speed, the required NPSH can be calculated as; .................................... 23
3.3 Design analysis of the draft tube ......................................................................................... 24
3.3.1 Inlet diameter Di........................................................................................................... 24
X
3.3.2 Exit diameter of draft tube, .......................................................................................... 25
3.3.3 Tail race water level, T ................................................................................................ 26
3.4 Generator Design ................................................................................................................ 26
3.4.1 Number of poles ........................................................................................................... 26
3.4.2 Speed of generator ....................................................................................................... 27
3.4.3 Exciter of generator...................................................................................................... 27
3.4.4Generator type ............................................................................................................... 27
3.4.5Generator output ........................................................................................................... 28
3.5 Power transmission facility (speed increaser)..................................................................... 28
3.6 Control facility of the turbine and generator....................................................................... 28
3.6.1 Speed governor ............................................................................................................ 28
3.7 DESIGN OF CIVIL STRUCTURES.................................................................................. 29
3.7.1 Penstock hydraulic calculations ................................................................................... 29
3.7.2 Determination of the penstock thickness, tp ................................................................. 29
3.7.3 Head loss in the penstock ............................................................................................. 31
3.7.3.1 Head loss due to entry and exit, hV ....................................................... 31
3.7.3.2 Head loss due to bend, hb ...................................................................... 31
3.7.3.3 Head loss due to friction, hf .................................................................. 31
3.7.4 Design of head race (open channel) ............................................................................. 32
3.7.5 Intake Weir (Dam) ....................................................................................................... 33
3.7.5.1 Weir height calculations ....................................................................... 33
3.7.6 Side intake.................................................................................................................... 33
3.7.7 Settling basin design .................................................................................................... 34
3.7.8 Head tank ..................................................................................................................... 34
3.7.8.1 Head tank capacity ................................................................................ 35
CHAPTER 4: PROJECT COST ESTIMATION .................................................................... 36
4.1 DIRECT COST ................................................................................................................... 36
4.1.1 Preliminaries (for civil structure work)........................................................................ 36
4.1.2 Intake weir ................................................................................................................... 36
4.1.3 Settling basin ................................................................................................................ 36
4.1.4 Fore-bay ....................................................................................................................... 36
4.1.5 Spillway ....................................................................................................................... 36
4.1.6 Penstock civil work ...................................................................................................... 36
4.1.7 Penstock pipes .............................................................................................................. 36
4.1.8 Canal ............................................................................................................................ 37
4.1.9 Power house ................................................................................................................. 37
4.1.10 Francis turbine ........................................................................................................... 37
4.1.11 Synchronous generator............................................................................................... 37
4.1.12 Transmission line ....................................................................................................... 37
4.1.13 Construction supervision ........................................................................................... 38
4.2 INDIRECT COST OF CONTRACTOR ............................................................................ 38
4.2.1 Engineering cost........................................................................................................... 38
4.2.2 Contingencies ............................................................................................................... 38
4.2.3 Administration ............................................................................................................. 38
CHAPTER 5.0: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .............. 39
5.1 DISCUSSION ..................................................................................................................... 39
XI
5.3 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................... 43
5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................................................... 44
REFERENCES: ....................................................................................................................... 45
APPENDICES ......................................................................................................................... 47
Flow duration curve ......................................................................................................................
Moody Chart .................................................................................................................................
Satellite image of webuye .............................................................................................................
Photos of Nabuyole Falls ..............................................................................................................
List of tables
Table 2.10: Typical efficiencies of small turbines ............................................................ 18
Table 2.6: Range of heads ................................................................................................. 18
XII
CHAPTER 1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Definition and classification of small hydropower
Small hydro power (SHP) may be classified according to different criteria, such as head,
powerhouse layout and installed capacity of SHP. SHP stations are classified in terms of their
capacity. SHP capacity may vary at different times and in different countries but it has no strict
definition. Generally, SHP is the scheme with installed capacity up to 10 MW
1.2 Objective of Project
To design a small hydro power plant capable of producing 10 MW of electricity under a water
head of 57 m along River Nzoia in Bungoma County. This involves the selection of the most
efficient and economical turbines as well as an optimum selection of other plant components
(e.g. civil works, water resource potential and electromechanical equipment).Putting into
consideration the environmental impact and its mitigation and economic analysis
1.3 Reasons for the Project
Before picking on this project we were motivated by the following factors:

1. The desire to harness the existing hydro potential in remote areas of our country.
2. The need to provide a clean and cheap source of energy for the rural areas to supplement
the expensive fossil fuel sources of energy currently in use.
3. The need to hasten the pace of rural electrification programs by providing additional
electrical energy.
1.4 Advantages of a Small Hydro Power Plant:
i. Its suitability for decentralized development, fully using local materials and appropriate
technology with the participation of the local people.
ii. Its mature technology and small investment risk.
iii. Its low operating costs, easy maintenance and reliable power supply.
iv. Little environmental impact during construction, with some positive impact on the
environment.
v. The obvious social benefit to a developing local economy and improvements in the
material and spiritual life of local residents.
1
vi. Increasing revenue for the local government and income for local people.
vii. Creating more jobs and reducing the migration of rural people into cities.
viii. Developing tourism in rural areas.
1.5 Disadvantages of a Small Hydro Power Plant
i. Relatively high initial capital cost which might make it expensive for individual
institutions to afford.
ii. Must be sited where there is a water fall for example Nabuyole falls which in most cases
is accompanied by poor accessibility.
iii. Because its installation involves some site work, it is bound to interfere with the river
flow and ecosystem. This may lead to objection by the local people who might be
affected by such interferences.
1.6 Project Area
Webuye is an industrial town in Bungoma East District, Bungoma county in the Western
Province of Kenya. Located on the main road to Uganda, the town is home to the Pan African
Paper Mills, the largest paper factory in the region, as well as a number of heavy-chemical and
sugar manufacturers. Webuye municipality covers 69 square kilometers.
Villages near Webuye include Lugulu, Milo, Maraka and Misikhu. Webuye is home to
Broderick Falls of the river Nzoia.
Naming
In the pre-independence times, Webuye was known as Broderick Falls, after the first white man
to visit the nearby Nabuyole falls on River Nzoia. Itwaslater renamed after a cobbler,Nabuyole,
who used to repair shoes for railway workers.[1]
Railways
The town is located on the main railway from Mombasa to Uganda. The area around the town is
inhabited by both the Bukusu and the Tachoni.
Statistics
Webuye has a tropical climate, and the land around it is used mainly for subsistence agriculture.
The Latitude is 0.6166667, Longitude 34.7666667, average annual Temperature of 24C /
75.2F.Elevation = 1523m
2
CHAPTER 2.0: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This chapter is going to give the over view of small hydropower and its components. It is going
to provide review of site configuration, stream flow, site evaluation, civil structures and design,
electromechanical selection and environmental impact and mitigation. This chapter is very
important because it give technical background of the design used in this project.
2.2 Site Configurations
The objective of a hydropower scheme is to convert the potential energy of a mass of water,
flowing in a stream with a certain fall to the turbine, into electric energy at the lower end of the
scheme, where the powerhouse is located. The power output from the scheme is proportional to
the flow and to the head.
Schemes are generally classified according to the Head:-
High head: 100-m and above
Medium head: 30 - 100 m
Low head: 2 - 30 m
These ranges are not rigid but are merely means of categorizing sites.
2.2.1 Schemes can also be defined as:-
2.2.1.1 Run-of-river schemes

Run-of-river schemes are where the turbine generates electricity as and when the water is
available and provided by the river. When the river dries up and the flow falls below some
predetermined amount or the minimum technical flow for the turbine, generation ceases.
For this design, the scheme is run-of-scheme with weir built across the river to divert water to
intake, settling basin, channel, fore bay and finally to penstock. The river Nzoia has enough
water and it has water fall.
2.3 Planning a small hydropower scheme at river Nzoia
The most important parameters in planning small hydropower plant are design flow rate and the net head.
The two parameters determine the power to be produced and the success of the project. River Nzoia has
water fall which give us the head available for production of electricity. The river itself is gauged by
water resource and management authority. Hence, all the data pertaining to the river Nzoia were provided
3
by WRMA and from the data we got design flow rate. We used handheld global positioning system
(GPS) to get gross head (57m) and coordinates of location of intake and the power house. The other part
of planning was Environmental impact assessment and mitigation measures and Economic
evaluation of the project and financing potential. After having all those data in place, the
planning went ahead to select the plant components with their dimensions and other
specifications. The detailed of design are dealt with under chapter three.
2.4 Fundamentals of hydraulic engineering
2.4.1 Introduction
Hydraulic engineering is based on the principles of fluid mechanics, although many empirical
relationships are applied to achieve practical engineering solutions. Until now there does not
exist, and probably never will, a general methodology for the mathematical analysis of the
movement of fluids. Based on the large amount of accumulated experience, certainly there are
particular solutions to specific problems. Experience that goes back as far as 2500 years ago,
when a massive irrigation system, that is still operative, was built in Sichuan, China, and to the
Roman Empires builders of the aqueducts.
2.4.2.1 Head losses due to friction
The head loss due to friction was calculated in penstock. The loss was related to length of
penstock, friction factor and velocity as the main parameter. Losses in penstock reduced the
power output.
2.4.2.2 Loss of head due to turbulence
Water flowing through a pipe system, with entrances, bends, sudden contraction and
enlargements of pipes, racks, valves and other accessories experiences, in addition to the friction
loss, a loss due to the inner viscosity. This loss also depends of the velocity and is expressed by
an experimental coefficient K multiplying the kinetic energy v2/2g.
2.4.2.3 Trash rack (or screen) losses
A screen or grill is always required at the entrance of a pressure pipe. The flow of water through
the rack also gives rise to a head loss. Though usually small.
2.4.2.4 Loss of head by sudden contraction or expansion

When the pipe has a sudden contraction there is a loss of head due to the increase in velocity of
the water flow and to the turbulence.
4
2.4.2.5 Loss of head in bends
Pipe flow in a bend experiences an increase in pressure along the outer wall, and a decrease of
pressure along the inner wall. This pressure unbalance causes a secondary current.
The head loss produced in these circumstances depends on the radius of the bend and on the
diameter of the pipe. Such losses were calculated and subtracted from gross head.
2.4.2.6 Loss of head through valves
Valves or gates are used in small hydro scheme to isolate a component from the rest, so they are
either entirely closed or entirely open. Flow regulation is assigned to the distributor vanes or to
the needle valves of the turbine.
The loss of head produced by the water flowing through an open valve depends on the type and
manufacture of the valve. As for this project such losses were considered.
2.4.3 Transient flow
In steady flows, where discharge is assumed to remain constant with time, the operating pressure
at any point along a penstock is equivalent to the head of water above that point. If a sudden
change of flow occurs, for instance when the plant operator, or the governor system, open or
close the gates too rapidly, the sudden change in the water velocity can cause dangerous high and
low pressures. This pressure wave is known as water hammer and its effects can be dramatic: the
penstock can burst from overpressure or collapse if the pressures are reduced below ambient.
2.5 HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES (CIVIL STRUCTURES)
A hydropower development includes a number of structures, the design of which will depend on
the type of scheme, local conditions, access to construction material and also local building
traditions in the region. The following structures are common in a hydro scheme:
Diversion structure
Dam or Weir
Spillway
Energy dissipation arrangement
Fish pass
Residual flow arrangement.
Water conveyance system
5
Intake
Canal/channel
Tunnels
Penstock
Power house
Design aspects and common solutions for these structures are presented below:
2.5.1 Intake Weir
The diversion weir or intake weir is a barrier built across the river used to divert water through
an opening in the riverside (the Intake opening) into a settling basin. For purpose of this project
wet masonry dam was adapted.
2.5.2 Side intake
The side intake is used to draw water from the river to the conveyance hence it is the type of
intake chosen for this design due to its simplicity. The full design is undertaken under design
analysis. Therefore, the height of the weir depends on the river slope.
2.5.2.1 Location of Intake
The location of the intake is selected considering the following conditions:
Extreme care must be taken in this selection for the development of small-scale hydropower as
the cost of the intake facilities significantly determines the development project economy.
(1) River Channel Alignment
For run-of-river types of hydropower plant, the appropriate section within the river channel to
construct the intake structure is where the channel is as straight as possible in order to ensure
steady and smooth flow of water to the intake and also to prevent scouring of the river banks
downstream of the intake site.
(2) Stability of Hillside Slope
The presence of a landslide or unsteady slope near an intake weir site causes concerns for
possible obstruction at the water intake by sediments from the landslide or erosion. Sufficient
consideration should, therefore, be given to the stability of nearby hillsides as part of the intake
location selection process.
6
2.5.3 Settling Basin
The settling basin is used to trap sand or suspended silt from the water before entering the
penstock. It may be built at the intake or at the fore-bay (head tank). For the purpose of this
design it is built at the intake
It must have a structure that is capable of settling and removing sediment with a minimum size
that could have an adverse effect on the turbine and also have a spillway to prevent inflow of
excess water into the headrace.
2.5.4 Headrace (channel)
Headrace is channel leading water to a fore-bay or turbine. The headrace follows the contour of
the hillside so as to preserve the elevation of the diverted water. Hence, rectangular type of
headrace was adapted with masonry type. The details design of the same is cover in chapter three
of this project.
2.5.5 Head tank (fore-bay)
Pond at the top of a penstock or pipeline; serves as final settling basin, provides submergence of
penstock inlet and accommodation of trash rack and overflow/spillway arrangement.
2.5.5.1 Spillway at the head-tank
Generally, the spillway will be installed at the head-tank in order to release excess water and
discharged it to the river safely when the turbine stopped it.
2.5.6 Penstock
A penstock is a close conduit or pressure pipe for supplying water under pressure to a turbine
from fore-bay or head-tank.
2.5.6.1 Penstock Material
The pipe materials chosen for this project is commercial steel for the penstock due to its strength
to withstand the harsh conditions.
2.5.7 Tailrace
It is the conveyance that return the water back in to the river after passing through the turbine.
2.6 EVALUATING STREAMFLOW
2.6.1 Introduction
7
All hydroelectric generation depends on falling water. This makes hydropower extremely site
dependent. Sufficient and dependable stream flow is required. Also the topographic conditions of
the site must allow for the gradual descent of the river in a river stretch be concentrated to one
point giving sufficient head for power generation.
2.6.2 Stream flow records
In Kenya, stream flow records can be obtained from Water Resource and Management Authority
(WRMA). WRMA has gauged river Nzoia and they take reading everyday throughout the years.
2.6.3 Stream Flow Characteristics
A program of stream gauging, at a particular site over a period of years, will provide a table of
discharges that can be organized into a usable form.
2.6.4 Flow Duration Curves (FDC)
Way of organizing discharge data is by plotting flow duration curve (FDC). An FDC shows for
a particular point on a river, the proportion of time during which the discharge there equals or
exceeds certain values. The flows over the years of river Nzoia were obtained from WRMA and
the FDC of those values was plotted. From FDC the design discharge was read from the curve.
The plotted curved is put at the appendix.
2.6.5 Evaluation of gross head
The gross head is the vertical distance that the water falls through in giving up its potential
energy. Hence, handheld Global positioning system was employed to get gross head of this
project at river Nzoia water fall.
2.6.6 Estimation of net head
Having established the gross head available, it is necessary to calculate the losses, from trash
racks, pipe friction, bends and valves. Hence, the losses for this project were calculated under
design analysis. The net head was obtained after subtracting those losses.
2.6.7 SITE EVALUATION METHODOLOGIES
2.6.7.1 Introduction
Adequate head and flow are necessary requirements for hydro generation. Consequently site
selection is conditioned by the existence of both requirements. The site evaluation was done to
get the exact place to install power house and where to construct things like intake weir, intake,
8
and channel, fore-bay settling basin, spillways, penstock, tailrace and powerhouse. The
topographic of the site was considered and geological area of the site dealt with to give easier for
construction.
2.8. ELECTROMECHANICAL EQUIPMENT
This chapter gives the main description of the electromechanical equipment, some preliminary
design rules and some selection criterion.
2.8.1 Powerhouse
The role of the powerhouse is to protect the electromechanical equipment that convert the
potential energy of water into electricity.
2.8.2 Hydraulic turbines
Hydraulic turbines transform the water potential energy to mechanical rotational energy.
Formulae are based on work undertaken by Siervo and Lugaresi11, Siervo and Leva12 13,
Lugaresi and Massa14 15, Austerre and Verdehan16, Giraud and Beslin17, Belhaj18, Gordon19
20, Schweiger and Gregori21 22 and others, which provide a series of formulae by analyzing the
characteristics of installed turbines. Based on the formulae given by the authors above Francis
turbine was chosen for this project. The details about Francis turbine are given below;
All the formulae of this chapter use SI units and refer to IEC standards (IEC 60193 and 60041).
2.8.2.1 Types and configuration
The potential energy in water is converted into mechanical energy in the turbine by:
The water pressure can apply a force on the face of the runner blades, which decreases as it
proceeds through the turbine. Turbines that operate in this way are called reaction turbines. The
turbine casing, with the runner fully immersed in water, must be strong enough to withstand the
operating pressure. Francis turbines belong to this category.
Francis turbines
Francis turbines are reaction turbines, with fixed runner blades and adjustable guide vanes, used
for medium heads. In this turbine water entry is radial but exits axially. Photograph 2.8 shows a
horizontal axis Francis turbine. They are usually used for head ranges from 25 to 350 m.
9
Photo 2.8: Horizontal axis Francis turbine
The draft tube of a reaction turbine aims to recover the kinetic energy still remaining in the water
leaving the runner. The kinetic energy is proportional to the square of the velocity. Hence, a draft
tube is required to reduce the turbine outlet velocity. An efficient draft tube would have a conical
section but the angle cannot be too large, otherwise flow separation will occur. The optimum
angle is 7 but to reduce the draft tube length, and therefore its cost, sometimes angles are
increased up to 15.
2.8.3 Specific speed
The specific speed constitutes a reliable criterion for the selection of the turbine, without any
doubt more precise than the conventional enveloping curves, just mentioned.
2.8.4 Turbine selection criteria
The type, geometry and dimensions of the turbine will be fundamentally conditioned by the
following criteria:
Net head
Range of discharges through the turbine
10
Specific speed
Rotational speed
Cavitation problems
Cost
2.8.4.1 Net head
The gross head is well defined, as the vertical distance between the upstream water surface level
at the intake and the downstream water level for reaction turbines or the nozzle axis level for
impulse turbines.
The net head is the ratio of the specific hydraulic energy of machine by the acceleration due to
gravity. This definition is particularly important, as the remaining kinetic energy in low head
schemes cannot be neglected.
The first criterion to take into account in the turbine's selection is the net head.
2.8.4.2 Discharge
A single value of the flow has no significance. It is necessary to know the flow regime,
commonly represented by the Flow Duration Curve (FDC) as explain earlier under stream flow
evaluation.
2.8.4.3 Cavitation
When the hydrodynamic pressure in a liquid flow falls below the vapor pressure of the liquid,
there is a formation of the vapor phase. This phenomenon induces the formation of small
individual bubbles that are carried out of the low-pressure region by the flow and collapse in
regions of higher pressure. The formation of these bubbles and their subsequent collapse gives
rise to what is called cavitation. The cavitation calculation is dealt with under design analysis.
2.8.4.4 Rotational speed
The rotational speed of a turbine was calculated to be 354 rpm but that speed was very low for
generator to do direct coupling hence the speed increaser was used to step off the speed of
generator
11
2.8.5 Runaway speed
Each runner profile is characterized by a maximum runaway speed. This is the speed, which the
unit can theoretically attain in case of load rejection when the hydraulic power is at its
maximum. Depending on the type of turbine, it can attain 2 or 3 times the nominal speed. Table
2.9 shows this ratio for miscellaneous turbines.
It must be remembered that the cost of both generator and eventual speed increaser may be
increased when the runaway speed is higher, since they must be designed to withstand it.
2.8.6 Turbine efficiency
The efficiency characterizes not only the ability of a turbine to exploit a site in an optimal
manner but also its hydrodynamic behavior.
Average efficiency means that the hydraulic design is not optimum and that some important
problems may occur e.g. cavitation, vibration, etc. that can strongly reduce the yearly production
and damage the turbine. The turbine efficiency was chosen from the best practice of Francis
turbine. But only manufacturers can provide the most reliable efficiency for the turbine.
2.8.7 Speed increasers
Due to low rotational speed of Francis turbine for this design, the speed increaser was adapted to
increase the speed of generator to the required speed without directly coupling the two. Hence,
belt speed increaser was selected.
2.8.7 Generators
2.8.7.1 Type of Generator
Synchronous generator was selected due to its advantages compare to asynchronous.

Independent exciter of rotor is provided for each unit Applicable for both independent and
existing power network.
2.8.7.2 Exciters
In case of synchronous generator, an exciter is necessary for supplying field current to generator
and keeping the output voltage constant even if the load fluctuates.
12
Synchronous generators
The synchronous generator is started before connecting it to the mains by the turbine rotation. By
gradually accelerating the turbine, the generator must be synchronized with the mains, regulating
the voltage, frequency, phase angle and rotating sense. When all these values are controlled
correctly, the generator can be switched to the grid. In the case of an isolated or off grid
operation, the voltage controller maintains a predefined constant voltage, independent of the
load. In case of the mains supply, the controller maintains the predefined power factor.
2.8.7.3 Speed Governors
It is adopted to keep the turbine speed constant because the speed fluctuates, changes in load,
water head and flow. The change of generator rotational speed results in the fluctuation of
frequency. The governor consists of speed detector, controller and operation. Hence Dummy
load type was adapted.
2.8.7.4 Switchgear equipment
In many countries the electricity supply regulations place a statutory obligation on the electric
utilities to maintain the safety and quality of electricity supply within defined limits. Kenya is not
exception in this obligation. According to this project the plant is going to operate in such a way
that the safety is first priority during operation. Thus, switchgear must be installed to control the
generators and to interface them with the grid or with an isolated load. Also metering equipment
must be installed at the point of supply to record measurements according to the requirements of
the electric utility.
2.8.8 Automatic control
Small hydro schemes are normally unattended and operated through an automatic control
system. Because not all power plants are alike, it is almost impossible to determine the extent of
automation that should be included in a given system.
2.8.8.1 Plant service transformer
Electrical consumption including lighting and station mechanical auxiliaries may require from 1
to 3 percent of the plant capacity; the higher percentage applies to micro hydro (less than 500
kW). The service transformer must be designed to take these intermittent loads into account. If
13
possible, two alternative supplies, with automatic changeover, should be used to ensure service
in an unattended plant.
2.8.8.2 DC control power supply
It is generally recommended that remotely controlled plants are equipped with an emergency 24
V DC back-up power supply from a battery in order to allow plant control for shutdown after a
grid failure and communication with the system at any time. The ampere-hour capacity must be
such that, on loss of charging current, full control is ensured for as long as it may be required to
take corrective action.
2.8.8.3 Headwater and tail-water recorders
In a hydro plant, provisions should be made to record both the headwater and tail-water. The
simplest way is to fix, securely in the stream, a board marked with meters and centimeters in the
style of a leveling staff, however someone must physically observe and record the
measurements. In powerhouses provided with automatic control the best solution is to use
transducers connected to the computer via the data acquisition equipment.
2.9 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND ITS MITIGATION
2.9.1 Burdens and impacts identification
Impacts of hydropower schemes are location and technology specific. A high mountain diversion
scheme situated in a highly sensitive area is more likely to generate an impact than an integral
low-head scheme in a valley.
2.9.2 Impacts in the construction phase
Schemes of the diversion type, multipurpose reservoir, inserted on an irrigation canal or built
into a water supply system produce very different impacts from one another, from both a
quantitative and qualitative viewpoint. Even the location of the powerhouse will be at the base
and shall not alter the ecological system.
14
2.9.3 Water intakes, open canals, penstocks, tailraces
The impacts produced by the construction of these structures are; noise affecting the life of
animals, danger of erosion due to the loss of vegetation through excavation work, turbidity of the
water and downstream sediment deposition, etc. To mitigate such impacts it is strongly
recommended that the excavation work should be undertaken in the low water season and the
disturbed ground restored faster. In view of its protective role against riverside erosion it is wise
to restore and reinforce the riverbank vegetation that may have been damaged during
construction of the hydraulic structures. The ground should be repopulated with indigenous
species, best adapted to the local conditions. Vehicle emissions, excavation dust, the high noise
level and other minor burdens contribute to damaging the environment when the scheme is
located in sensitive areas. To mitigate the above impacts the traffic operation must be carefully
planned to eliminate unnecessary movements and to keep all traffic to a minimum.
2.9.4 Impacts arising from the operation of the scheme
2.9.4.1 Sonic impacts
The allowable level of noise depends on the local population or isolated houses near to the
powerhouse. The noise comes mainly from the turbines and, when used, from the speed
increasers. Nowadays noise inside the powerhouse can be reduced, if necessary, to levels in the
order of 70 dB, almost imperceptible when outside.
2.9.4.2 Landscape impact
Each of the components that comprise a hydro scheme - powerhouse, weir, spillway, penstock,
intake, tailrace, and substation and transmission lines - has potential to create a change in the
visual impact of the site by introducing contrasting forms, lines, color or textures. The design,
location, and appearance of any one feature may well determine the level of public acceptance
for the entire scheme. Most of these components, even the largest, may be screened from view
using landscaping and vegetation. The powerhouse, with the intake, the penstock, and tailrace
and transmission lines must be skillfully inserted into the landscape.
15
2.9. 5 Biological impacts
2.9.5.1 In the reservoir
In integral low head schemes, peaking can result in unsatisfactory conditions for fish
downstream because the flow decreases when the generation is reduced. The lower flow can
result in stranding newly deposited fish eggs in spawning areas. The eggs apparently can survive
periods of de-watering greater than those occurring in normal peaking operation but small fish
can be stranded particularly is the level fall is rapid.
2.9.5.2 Trash-rack material
Almost all small hydropower schemes have a trash rack cleaning machine, which removes
material from water in order to avoid it entering plant waterways and damaging
electromechanical equipment or reducing hydraulic performance.
2.9.6 Impacts from transmission lines
2.9.6.1 Visual impact
Above ground transmission lines and transmission line corridors can have a negative impact on
the landscape. These impacts can be mitigated by adapting the line to the landscape, or in
extreme cases burying it.
2.9.6.2 Health impact
In addition to the visual intrusion, some people may dislike walking under transmission lines
because of the perceived risks of health effects from electromagnetic fields.
16
CHAPTER 3.0: DESIGN ANALYSIS
In this chapter we are going to carry out analysis on the small hydropower components. The
design analysis is based on net head and design flow obtained earlier on in previous chapter. The
analysis is done using some empirical formulae from reference materials cited under references.
Hence, the net head = 54.5 m and design discharge = 21m3/s
3.1 Design of electromechanical equipment
3.1.1 Determination of power output
P=g*Q*H* o * W
Where
P = power developed
g = gravitational acceleration
Q = design flow rate
H = head
o = overall efficiency
W= density of water
In our case;
Turbine efficiency, t= 0.94 (Francis turbine)
Transmission efficiency, m= 0.98 (Belt type)
Generator efficiency, g = 0.97 (synchronous generator)
Hence
o= t* m * g
o= 0.94 * 0.97 * 0.98

o= 0.89
Thus, power developed by generator is given by;
P=g*Q*H* o * W
P = 9.81 * 21 * 54.5 * 0.89 * 1000
P = 9,992,515 W
P = 9.992MW
P 10 MW
17
3.2 Design of Francis turbines
After the analysis, the Francis turbine was selected using net head, flow rate, rotational speed,
specific speed, power output and cost. The selection was arrived at using charts and tables as
shown below.
Turbine type Best efficiency
Kaplan single regulated 0.91
Kaplan double regulated 0.93
Francis 0.94
Pelton n nozzles 0.90
Pelton 1 nozzle 0.89
Turgo 0.85
Table 2.10: Typical efficiencies of small turbines
Turbine type Head range in metres
Kaplan and Propeller 2 < H < 40

n
Francis 25 < H < 350

n
Pelton 50 < H < 1'300

n
Crossflow 5 < H < 200

n
Turgo 50 < H < 250

n
Table 2.6: Range of heads
18
These calculations are based on Lugaresi and Massa equations.
3.2.1 Specific speed, NS
NS = 1.924 /
Since Hn= 50m
= 1.924 / (54.5)0.512 = 0.2484
For Francis turbine the range of specific speeds is:
0.0 NS 0.33
Hence the specific speed is within the range thus acceptable.
3.2.2 Rotational speed, N
N =NS* E3/4 / Q
But
Hn= 54.5 m
E = g * Hn= 9.81 * 54.5 = 534.6
Q = 21m3/s
19
Hence
N = 0.2484 * (534.6) 0.75 / 21
N = 6.026 t/s
Where t/s is turn per second. But N is always given in RPM.
Therefore in RPM is given below.
N = 6.026 RPS * 60 seconds / minute
N = 361.56 RPM
3.2.3 Dimensions of Francis turbine
Outlet diameter D3 is given by;
D3 = 84.5 * (0.31 + (2.488 * NS)) * Hn/ (60 * N)

Inlet diameter D1 is given by;
D1= (0.4 + 0.095/ Ns) * D3

The inlet diameter D2 is given by;
D2 = D3/ (0.96 + 0.3781 * Ns)

For NS<0.164; D1 = D2
Using the above equations the diameters of the runner of Francis turbine are:
D3 = 84.5 * (0.31 + (2.488 * 0.2484)) * 4./ (0 * .02)

D3 = 1.601 m
20
D1 = (0.4 + 0.095/0.2484) * 1.601
D1 = 1.253 m
D2 = 1.601 / (0.96 + 0.3781 * 0.2484)

D2 = 1.519 m
Hence, all these dimensions of diameters are given in figure of Francis turbine runner under
literature review above.
Ratio of width to diameter, (B/D)
n = B1 / D1; n = B2 / D2
Where the value of n varies from 0.1 to 0.45
Flow ratio, Kf
The flow ratio is the ration of the velocity of flow at the inlet to the theoretical jet velocity. Thus,
Flow ratio, Kf= Vf1 / (2gH)
The value of Kf varies from 0.15 to 0.30
Speed ratio Ku
The speed ratio is the ratio of peripheral speed at the inlet to the theoretical velocity. Thus,
Speed ratio, Ku = u / ( (2gH))
The value of Ku ranges from 0.6 to 0.9
Using above equations yield:
21
Width B1
B1 = 0.45 * 1.601 m
B1 = 0.7205 m
Flow velocity, Vf1
Vf1 = Kf (2gH)
Vf1 = 0.3 * (2 * 9.81 * 4.)
Vf1 = 9.81 m/s
Rim velocity (tangential), u1
u1 = * D1 * N / 60
u1 = * 1.01 * 31. / 60
u1 = 30.31 m/s
Velocity of whirl at inlet Vw1
L= Vw1 * u1 / (g * h)
Vw1 = L * (g * h) / u1
Since the best efficiency of the Francis turbine is L= 0.94
Therefore
Vw1 = 0.94 * 9.81 * 54.5 / 30.31
Vw1 = 16.58 m/s
Guide vane angle () and the runner vane angle ( )
Tan = Vf1 / Vw1 = 9.81 / 16.58
Tan-1(9.81 / 16.58)
= 30.
But
Tan = Vf1 / (Vw1 u1)
So,
Tan = 9.81 / (16.58 30.31)
Tan-1(9.81 / (16.58 30.31))
= -35.5
Width at outlet
n =B2 /D2 where n = 0.45
22
So
B2 = 0.45 * D2
B2 = 0.45 * 1.519
B2 = 0.6836 m
Hence u2 is given by;
u2 = * D2 * N/60
u2 = * 1.19* 31. / 60
u2 = 28.76 m/s
Velocity of whirl at outlet (Vw2)
Vw2 = g * H * h/ u2
Vw2 = 9.81 * 54.5 * 0.94 / 28.76
Vw2 = 17.47 m/s
Guide vane angle (2) and the runner vane angle at the outlet (2) = 90
Tan = Vf2 / u2
Tan-1 (9.81 /28.76)
= 18.8
3.2.4 Cavitation design
If the water pressure in the runner is lower than the vapor pressure, cavitation may occur. The
impact of gas cavities collapsing close to the wall surface causes cavitation erosion. In order to
avoid the water pressure to drop below the vapor pressure, the turbine can be submerged. The
required level of submergence, expressed as Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) depends on the
main dimensions and the speed number of the runner. The specific speed is a non-dimensional
expression for rotational speed at a given head at best efficiency point.
From previous calculation:
NS =0.2484
Knowing the specific speed, the required NPSH can be calculated as;
23
Where the parameters a and b are empirical constants, and, according to Brekke, dependent on
the speed number.
NS<0.55 gives a=1.12 and b=0.055
NS>0.55 gives a=1.12 and b=0.1 NS
Cm2 = Vf2 = flow velocity at outlet = 9.81 m/s
U2 = Vw2 = whirl velocity at outlet =17.47 m/s
NPSHrequired = 1.12 * (9.81)2 / (2 * 9.81) + 0.055 * (17.47)2 / (2 * 9.81)
NPSHrequired = 6.35
NPSH has to fulfill the following requirement to avoid cavitation
NPSHrequired < hatm hva Hs
hva from the steam table at a temperature of 24c = 0.03625 bar
1 atm = 1.01325 bar
hva= 0.03625 bar / 1.01325 bar * 1 atm
hva= 0.03578 atm = 0.3685 mWc
6.35 < (10.3 - 0.3685)
6.35 < 9.931 thus no cavitation occurs.
Where
hatm= atmospherically pressure, 1 atm = 10.3 mWc
hva= vapor pressure
Hs= submerging of the turbine. A negative value of Hs implies that the turbine is set below tail
Water level.
From the above calculation, the turbine is not subject to cavitation even without being
submerged. Thus submerging the turbine below the tailrace water level is not necessary to avoid
cavitation.
3.3 Design analysis of the draft tube
Conical Draft tube was selected for this design due to its advantages over other type.
Flare angle of 6
3.3.1 Inlet diameter Di
Di = 1.601 m
24
Vertical height of draft tube
y = 2.75 * Di
y = 2.75 * 1.601 m
y = 4.403 m
3.3.2 Exit diameter of draft tube,
Consider the triangle below.

Tan 6 = x / y but y = 4.403 m
Tan 6 = x / 4.403
x = 4.403 * tan 6
x = 0.4628 m
Total increment = 0.4628 m * 2
= 0.9256 m
D0 = 0.9256 m + 1.601 m
D0 = 2.5266 m
25
3.3.3 Tail race water level, T
T = 0.8 * Di
T = 0.8 * 1.601 m
T = 1.2808 m
3.4 Generator Design
3.4.1 Number of poles
Np= 120 * f / N
Where
Np= number of poles
F = frequency of supply i.e. 50 Hz in Kenya
N = rotational speed (RPM)
Np= 120 * 50 / 361.56
Np= 16.59 17 poles
Table of Standard Rotational Speed of Generator
Referring to the original turbine speed and the rated generator speed, either direct coupling or
indirect coupling with power transmission facility (gear or belt) is selected so that the suitable
ratio of speed between turbine and generator can be matched. The total cost of turbine,
transmitter and generator shall also be taken into consideration. For small hydropower plant, 4
8 poles are selected to save the cost. Hence, 17 poles are not economically. Therefore, the speed
26
increaser is used to raise the speed of turbine to the standard speed of generator without directly
coupling the two.
Since the speed of the turbine was calculated as 362 RPM, it is seen that this speed is low and
hence needs to be increased. The ideal speed can be achieved by increasing the rotational speed
of turbine by a factor of four.
3.4.2 Speed of generator
Ideal speed = 4.1 * 362

= 1484.2 RPM 148 RPM
Hence
Np= 120 * f / N
Np= 120 *50 / 1485
Np= 4.04 poles 4 poles
For small hydropower plants, 4 8 pole generators are selected to reduce the cost of the
generator. The size and cost of high speed generators is less in comparison to low speed
generators. Hence, 4 poles fall within acceptable limit and results to a cheaper generator.
The type of coupling to be used is the flexible coupling of belt drive to increase the speed of
turbine to acceptable speed of generator.
3.4.3 Exciter of generator
In the case of a synchronous generator, an exciter is necessary to supply the field current to the
generator and keep the output voltage constant even when the load fluctuates.
Type of exciters
i. Brush type
ii. Brushless type
For small hydropower plants the brushless type of exciter is recommended due to its low
maintenance costs. The best efficiency of this type of generator is 97%.
3.4.4Generator type
A synchronous generator with three phases is selected because it is economical and most
reliable.
27
3.4.5Generator output
The output of the generator is shown in KVA and calculated as follows;

Pg (KVA) = 9.81 * H * Q * o* / Pf
Where
Pg = required power output
H = net head
Q = design discharge (m3/s)
o=overall efficiency i.e. turbine efficiency, t*transmission efficiency, m * generator
efficiency, g
= density of water
Pf= power factor = 0.8
Hence
Pg (KVA) = 9.81 * 54.5 * 21 * 1000* 0.89/ 0.8
Pg (KVA) = 12,490 KVA
Pg (KVA) 12,00 KVA
3.5 Power transmission facility (speed increaser)
The speed increaser is always used to reduce the set-up cost especially when the turbine speed is
very low. Hence, the speed of the turbine is stepped up by a factor to a certain convenient value.
For this design a factor of 4.1 is adopted to increase the rotation speed. This saves on cost since
low speed generators are big and expensive.
In addition to this, in the case of small- hydropower plants, V- belts or flat belts coupling are
usually adopted to reduce overall costs since gear type transmissions are very expensive. The
efficiency of the belt type transmitter for this design is 98%.
3.6 Control facility of the turbine and generator.
3.6.1 Speed governor
The speed governor is adopted to keep the rotation speed of the turbine constant. The change in
the speed of rotation of the turbine is due to changes in load, water head and water flow rate.
28
For this design, a dummy load type governor is recommended since it is cheap. The capacity of
the dummy load is calculated as follows;
Pd= Pg * Pf * S.F
Where
Pd= capacity of the dummy load
Pg = rated output of the generator
Pf = rated power factor of the generator
S.F = safety factor according to the cooling method being employed (1.2 1.4)
Pd(KW) = 12.5 MVA * 0.8 * 1.4
Pd= 14 MW
3.7 DESIGN OF CIVIL STRUCTURES
3.7.1 Penstock hydraulic calculations
In our case;
Q = 21 m3/s
Net Head = 54.5 m
Penstock flow velocity = 4.5 m/s
This is from common practice that flow velocity in small hydropower plant penstocks range
from 2 m/s to 5 m/s.
Find internal diameter.
A= Q / V
A = 21/ 4.5 = 4.667 m2
But area of a circle
Or A = D2/4.2
Making D the subject
D = 2* (A / )
D = 2* (4.7 / ) = 2.437 m
Thus D 2.4 m
3.7.2 Determination of the penstock thickness, tp
tp = P * r /
29
P =Ph + Ps
Where
P = total pressure
Ph = pressure due to water hammer
Ps = static water pressure
= stress
P h = w * Cp * V
For water under ordinary conditions, Cp= 1120
So;
Ph= 1000 * 1120 * 4.5
Ph= 5.04 MPa
Static pressure, Ps
Ps = w* g * H
Ps = 1000 * 9.81 * 57
Ps = 0.5572 MPa
Factor of safety, n = 4
yp= 957MPa
But
P =Ph + Ps
P = 5.6 + 0.5572
P = 6.157 MPa
allowable = yp / n
= 957 * 106 / 4
allowable = 239.25 MPa
Hence
= P * r / allowable
= 6.157 * 106 * (2.4 / 2) / (239.25 * 106)
30
tp= 0.03088 m = 30.88 mm 31 mm
3.7.3 Head loss in the penstock
3.7.3.1 Head loss due to entry and exit, hV

hV= K * V2 / (2 * g)
But K = 0.2
hV= 0.2 * (4.5)2 / (2 * 9.81)
hV= 0.2064 m
But two valves lie at the entry and exit;
hVT= 2 * 0.2064 m
hVT 0.42 m
3.7.3.2 Head loss due to bend, hb
hb= C * V2 / (2 * g)
For a deflection angle of 45 C = 0.09
hb= 0.09 * 20.25 / (2 * 9.81)
hb= 0.093m
3.7.3.3 Head loss due to friction, hf
hf= f * (LP / DP) * (V2 / (2 * g))
N/B: For the purpose of accuracy we used the program from the website
www.lmnoeng.com/moody.php
This enabled us to get the value of f from the Moodys chart more accurately.
f = 0.009
hf= f * (LP / DP) * (V2 / (2 * g))
hf= 0.009 * (432.9 / 2.4) * (20.25 / (2 * 9.81))
hf 1.7 m
Total head losses in the, hT

hT = 1.676 m + 0.093 m + 0.42 m + 0.311 m
hT = 2.5 m
Hence, the gross head from the site was 57 m and the net head is found by subtracting the head
losses. The head losses were calculated from above.
Net head is 57 2.5 = 54.5 m.
31
From the design rule;
hL 0.0 Hgross
2.5 0.0 * 7 m
2.5 2.8 m
From the above rule the head loss comply with it hence the design is safe.
3.7.4 Design of head race (open channel)
Q = A * R2/3 * /n
Where
Q = design discharge of head race = 21 m3/s
A = area of the cross section = b * h
b = width of the channel
h = depth of the channel
R=A/P
P = wetted perimeter = b + 2h
SL= longitudinal slope of the head race 1/100
n = coefficient of roughness = 0.015
The most economical channel shape is rectangular.
For rectangular channel section;
The rectangular channel cross section is most economical when;
h = b / 2 and R = h / 2
Hence
A=b*h
But
h = b / 2 or b = 2 * h
Thus
A = 2h2
Therefore
Q = A * R2/3 * /n
21 = 2h2 * (h/2)2/3 * (1/1500)0.5/0.015
h = 2.1314 m
32
Hence
b=2*h
b = 2 * 2.1314 m
b = 4.2628 m
The length of the channel will be measured at the site to get accurate one.
3.7.5 Intake Weir (Dam)
3.7.5.1 Weir height calculations

Under normal conditions, the weir height should be planned to exceed the calculated value by
the following method to ensure the smooth removal of sediment from the upstream of the weir
and the settling basin.
3.7.6 Side intake
Weir height, D1, determined in relation to the bed elevation of the scour gate of the intake weir.
D1 = d1 + hi
Where;
d1 = height of the bed of the scour gate to the bed of the inlet (usually 0.5 1.0 m)
hi= water depth of the inlet ( usually determined to make the inflow velocity approximately (0.5
1.0 m/s)
Qd= A * V
But
Qd= 21 m3/s
V = 1 m/s
A = 21m3/s / 1 m/s = 21 m2
A = b * hi = 21 m2
We choose b = 5 m
Where
b = width of the side intake
hi= height of the side intake
hi= 21 / 5
hi= 4.2 m
33
3.7.7 Settling basin design
The settling sections function is to settle sediments / grain size of (0. 1 mm). The minimum
length (L) is calculated by the following formulae based on the relation between the settling
speed, , flow velocity, V, and the water depth, hs. The length of the settling basin, Ls, is usually
determined so as to incorporate a margin to double the calculated by the formulae below;
L (V / ) * hs
Ls = 2 * L
Where
L = minimum length of the settling basin (m)
Ls = length of the settling basin
hs= water depth of the settling basin (m)
= marginal settling speed for sediments to be settled (m/s). it is usually around0.1 m/s for a
target grain size of 0.5 to 1.0 mm.
V = mean flow velocity in the settling basin (m/s). It is usually around 0.3 m/s but up to 0.6 m/s
is tolerated in the case where the width of the settling basin is restricted.
V = Qd / (b * hs)
Where;
Qd= design discharge (m3/s)
b = width of the settling basin (m)
but
Qd= 21 m3/s ; V = 0.6 m/s
b * hs= 21 / 0.6 = 35 m2
We choose b = 7m and hs= 5 m.
L (V / ) * hs
L (0. / 0.1) * 5
Ls= 30 m * 2 = 60 m
3.7.8 Head tank
Function of the head tank;

Control the difference of discharge in the penstock and the head race because of the load
fluctuations.
Finally remove litter (sand, drift wood, etc.) in the flowing water.
34
3.7.8.1 Head tank capacity
Definition of the head tank capacity
The head tank capacity is defined as the water depth from hc to ho in the head tank of length L as
shown in the diagram.
Vsc= As *dsc= B * L *dsc
Where;
Vsc=head tank capacity
dsc=water depth from uniform flow depth of a head race when using maximum discharge (ho) to
critical depth from top of a dike for sand trap in a head tank (hc).
B = width of the head tank
L = length of the head tank
Determine the head tank capacity;
In the case where only the load is controlled
Vsc= 20 * Qd
Vsc= 20 * 21
Vsc= 420 m3/s
The head tank capacity should be secured only to absorb the pulsation from the head race that is
about 10 times to 20 times the design discharge (Qd).
Vsc= B * L *dsc= 420 m3/s
B = 2 * 4.3 = 8.6 m
L * dsc= 420 / 8.6 = 48.7 m2
dsc= ho / 2
Where;
ho= height of the head race = 2.1 m
Hence
dsc= 2.1 / 2 = 1.05 m
Therefore
L = 48.837 m2 / 1.05 m = 46.5 m
L = 46.5 m
The dimensions of the head tank were chosen as a matter of convenience.
35
CHAPTER 4: PROJECT COST ESTIMATION
This chapter is dealing mainly on the estimate cost of the project if the implementation is going
to take place.
4.1 DIRECT COST
4.1.1 Preliminaries (for civil structure work)
From cost analysis of projects of similar size, the preliminaries for civil works cost was
approximated to be KSHS 4,000,000.00
4.1.2 Intake weir
From cost analysis of projects of similar size, the intake weir construction cost was approximated
to be KSHS 5,500,000.00
4.1.3 Settling basin
From cost analysis of projects of similar size, the settling basin cost of length 60 metres was
4.1.4 Fore-bay
From cost analysis of projects of similar size, the fore-bay cost of length 46.5 metres was
4.1.5 Spillway
Length of spill way = 15 M

Cost per metre = KSHS 100,000.00
Total cost = 15 * 100,000.00 = 1,500,000.00
Kshs 1,500,000.00
4.1.6 Penstock civil work
From cost analysis of projects of similar size, the penstock civil works cost was approximated to
be KSHS 700,000.00
4.1.7 Penstock pipes
Internal Diameter (Di) = 2.4 M

Length of penstock (LP) = 432.9 M
Thickness (tp) = 31 mm = 0.031 M
36
Density of steel = 8000 kg / M3
Price of steel = Kshs 15 per kg
Volume of steel = * Lp * (((Di + 2 * tp)/2)2 (Di / 2)2) = * (((2.4 + 0.031 * 2)/2)2 (2.4 / 2)2)
* 432.9
Volume of steel = 102.5 M3
Mass = density * volume
= 8000 * 102.5
= 819,925 kg
Cost = (price / kg) * mass
=15 * 819,925
=KSHS 12,298,875.00
4.1.8 Canal
From cost analysis of projects of similar size, the low slope canal of length 503.5 M cost was
4.1.9 Power house
From cost analysis of projects of similar size, the power house construction cost was
Total civil works
The total cost of the civil works was the sum of the above mentioned nine components. The total
cost was thus KSHS 35,698,750.00
4.1.10 Francis turbine
This price was found directly from one of the turbine manufacturers called Saimpro hydraulics.
Turbine cost = KSHS 94,000,000.00. The exchange rate used was 1pound = kshs 147
4.1.11 Synchronous generator
The price was found from Siemens alternator manufacturer. Hydropower generator unit cost =
kshs 23,000,000.00
4.1.12 Transmission line
From cost analysis of projects of similar size, the transmission line of 1.5 kilometres was
37
4.1.13 Construction supervision
From cost analysis of projects of similar size, the construction supervision cost was
Total direct cost
The total direct cost of the above components was found to be Kshs 174,200,000.00
4.2 INDIRECT COST OF CONTRACTOR
4.2.1 Engineering cost
Approximately 5% of direct cost = 5% * Kshs 174,200,000.00

= KSHS 8,710,000.00
4.2.2 Contingencies

= KSHS 17,420,000.00
4.2.3 Administration

= KSHS 12,194,000.00
Total of indirect cost
The total indirect cost of the above elements was found to be Kshs 38,324,000.00
Total cost of project
The total cost of the project is the sum of direct and indirect costs. This produces a sum total of
KSHS 212,524,000.00
38
CHAPTER 5.0: Discussion, Conclusions and Recommendations
5.1 DISCUSSION
The object of this project was to carry out design of small hydropower at River Nzoia at
Webuye East constituency in Bungoma county western Kenya. River Nzoia has water fall near
the station of Nzoia Water Company the only water plant in Bungoma supplying clean water to
many areas in Bungoma County and beyond. The river itself has enough water to be used to
generate enough electricity for use in the area and the surplus can be injected in to the national
grid for sale. The area is very fertile as the local people around the river grow a lot of crops for
subsistence and for commercial purpose. Besides, the area has many industries working there
and it host pan Africa paper mill which was supplying books in the region. Webuye has market
and commercial centers and lodges and hotel around. The major challenge facing the local
population around that area is lack of enough power and hence, that is the purpose of this project
to address the challenge and provide the sustainable and most reliable power. Hydropower is the
most clean renewable source of energy compare to other source of power.
Being the current problem to be tackle, we therefore went to the site to assess the
potential site for installation of hydropower plant. We took the measurement of head at
difference point upstream where to locate the intake and downstream where to put powerhouse
which will house electromechanical equipment. Our aim was to get the location that will give us
the maximum head and to be economical too in term of construction cost. However, we got the
gross head as the difference of head upstream above sea level and downstream above sea level.
The measurement of the head and the coordinates of the location were found by using GPRS.
Also the river was having gauging station done by water resource management Authority which
takes reading on daily basis to yearly. Therefore, we got the data pertaining river Nzoia and we
have to take them for analysis in form of flow duration curve (FDC). This is a curve generated
by plotting the flow of the river recorded daily for duration of many years. After we got the FDC
we read the design flow rate from the curve and it became our design flow rate of the river. As
we know when the river level goes down to predetermine level, the flow of river will drop and
the design flow become less than what was meant to drive turbine hence, the turbine will not
work and the plant will be shut down with immediate effect. Thus, the choice of the flow rate of
39
the river plays a very critical role in the plan of the small hydropower to eliminate the shutdown
of the plant.
After getting flow rate and the net head (which was found after subtracting all the losses
along the components) then the actual plan went ahead and the power output was calculated
safely. The design was divided in to two major parts i.e. the design of civil structures (intake
weir, intake, settling basin, channel, head-tank /fore-bay, spillway, penstock, powerhouse
foundation and power house building) and electromechanical equipment (turbines and its
accessories, generator and its accessories, control system and transmission line). The
specifications of each after design are listed under summary section of chapter 5. The selection
of dimensions and other specifications was not accidental it was after analysis and due to
economical consideration. The turbine chosen was Francis turbine and again its specifications
are list in summary section. The turbine was chosen among the other variety of turbines using
certain criterion e.g. specific speed, rotation speed, net head, flow rate, power output and above
all the cost. After using all those criteria with the help of chart and table in the section of
electromechanical above the Francis turbine met almost all the criteria for selection and hence
for this project it is the recommended turbine. At the same time the speed of turbine was 362
RPM which was very low for generator; therefore we have to choose belt drive, speed increase to
top up the speed to the speed of generator in the market. To achieve that we had to choose a
factor of 4.1 to step up the speed of turbine to1485 RPM which is good enough for generator
speed. Again the cost of generator goes hand in hand with the high speed of generator. And at the
same time the number of poles for small hydropower of generator, are supposed to be within a
range of 4-8 poles. The number of poles of generator was calculated using the step up speed and
frequency of 50 Hz for case of Kenya and we got the number of poles that fall within that range
hence the design was safe. The generator type was synchronous type of three phase, the
specifications of generator are given above.
However, the site is economical viable for the generation of electricity of more than what
is given in this project if other points on the site where to be chosen for installation of power
house and the intake point. The cost of the project was estimated under the chapter of cost
estimate. But for contractor to get most reliable cost it will be in order to get the real cost at the
site especially the civil structures location. The project if implemented will generate enough
revenue to the local around the area and local authority that can be enough for their development
40
for things like more schools, roads, agricultures, etc. It can always generate revenue to the
central government. It can provide electricity for local around the plant and beyond can enjoy the
clean power for their daily up keep. It can attract investor who can invest in the area and provide
employment and cheap commodities to civil population around the area.
5.2 SUMMARY OF DESIGN
The following is the summary of the design analysis
no component Dimensions/ specifications. Number
1 Penstock( commercial steel) Internal diameter 2000 mm 1
Thickness 30.8 mm
Length 432.9 m
2 weir Height = 5.2m 1
3 Side intake Velocity = 1m/s 1
Width, b = 5m
Height, h = 4.2m
4 Settling basin Velocity, v = 0.6m/s 1
Width= 7m
Height = 5m
Length = 60 m
5 Channel: Length, L= 503.2m 1
Rectangular. Width, B = 4.2628 m
Masonry concrete. Depth, H = 2.1314 m
41
6 Head tank Head-tank capacity, Vs= 420 m3/s 1
Depth. Dsc= 1.05m
Length, L = 46.5m
Width, B= 8.6m
7 Turbine (Francis turbine) Shaft power= 9.6 MW 1
Rotational speed = 354 RPM
Specific speed = 0.2596
Runner outer diameter D3 = 1.6122 m
Runner Inner diameter D1 = 1.2 m
Design flow = 21m3/s
Guide vane inlet angle = 31
Guide vane outlet angle = 22
Runner inlet width B1 = 0.7 m
Runner outlet width B2 = 0.55557 m
Turbine efficiency, t = 94%
8 Draft tube Flare angle = 6 1
Inlet diameter, Di = 1.6122 m
Outlet diameter, D0 = 2.54417 m
Height = 4.43355 m
Tail race water level, T = 1.28976 m
9 Generator (synchronous) Phase = 3 1
Pole = 4
42
Rotational speed = 1400 RPM
Rated power = 11.5 MVA
Power output = 9.2 MW
Frequency = 50Hz
Generator efficiency, g = 97%
Brushless type exciter
Power factor Pf = 0.8
10 Speed increaser Belt type 1
Speed increaser efficiency = 98%
Ratio = 4.1
11 controllers Dummy load type 1
Dummy load capacity, Pd= 12.88 KW
Site configuration
Design discharge, Qd = 21 m3/s
Gross head, Hg = 57 m
Net head, Hn = 54.5 m
Total head loss Hl = 2.5 m
5.3 CONCLUSION
The objective of this project was to design for construction a small hydropower plant capable of
producing 10 MW along river Nzoia at Webuye. The site is capable of producing far more than
10 MW in our design criteria. The power consumption of Webuye (4.7 MW) is less than the
estimated output hence there is surplus power (5.3 MW) that can be injected in to the National
grid to generate income for the local authority in the area. The revenue can be utilized for the
43
benefit of the local community. The project when completed will be capable of generating a lot
of revenue. The summary of the design components of hydropower with their specifications are
listed in the table under the summary section of this chapter.
Also the scheme for this design will be run-of-river scheme as discuss above under literature
review because it is cheaper to install and the nature of the river is capable of providing water.
All the specifications are provided above including the cost estimate of project. Thus, the
objective of project was achieved.
5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS
The following are the recommendation we suggested:
1- The river is capable of producing more than10 MW hence we recommend the changing
of focus from small hydropower a medium hydropower plant.
2- This project needed more time for a more detailed report to be created. Hence, anything
left out in this project is due to time constraints.
3- This project is site specific hence we would encourage its fast implementation.
4- The local government or any other agency should look for funding to implement the
project since it is economically feasible. It will also improve the living standards of the
local people.
5- The further detailed design needed is on civil structures preferably by civil engineers and
surveyors as these structures are beyond the scope of this project.
6- There is need creating a power distribution network beyond the powerhouse and this need
further research on this project.
44
REFERENCES:
1. R. K. Rajput (2011), Fluid mechanics and Hydraulic Machines4th edition, 2010,2011pp

867-946, pp 1052-1171
2. Japan international corporation Agency, DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY UTILIZATION

MANAGEMENT BUREAU Manuals and Guidelines for Micro-hydropower
Development in Rural Electrification Volume I June 2009
3. CelsoPenche, (1998) European Small Hydropower Association (ESHA), Guide on How

to Develop a Small Hydropower Plant, ESHA 2004
4. Kenya Bureau of Standard, manual guide
5. H.C. Huang and C.E. Hita, Hydraulic Engineering Systems, Prentice Hall Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 1987.
6. British Hydrodynamic Research Association, Proceedings of the Symposium on the

Design and Operation of Siphon Spillways, London 197.
7. Allen R. Inversin, Micro-Hydropower Sourcebook, NRECA International Foundation,

Washington, D.C.
8. USBR, Design of Small Canal Structure, Denver Colorado, 1978a.
9. USBR, Hydraulic Design of Spillways and Energy Dissipaters, Washington DC, 194.
10. T. Moore, TLC for small hydro: good design means fewer headaches, HydroReview,
April 1988.
11. T.P. Tung y otros, Evaluation of Alternative Intake Configuration for Small Hydro,
Actas de HIDROENERGIA 93. Munich.
12. ASCE, Committee on Intakes, Guidelines for the Design of Intakes for Hydroelectric
Plants, 199.
13. G. Munet y J.M. Compas, PCH de recuperation denergie au barrage de Le Pouzin,

Actas de HIDROENERGIA 93, Munich.
45
14. G. Schmausser& G. Hartl, Rubber seals for steel hydraulic gates, Water Power & Dam
Construction September 1998.
15. H. Chaudry, Applied Hydraulic Transients, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1979.
16. J. Parmakian, Waterhammer Analyses, Dover Publications, Inc, New York, 193.
17. Electrobras (CentraisElctricasBrasileiras S.A.) Manual de MinicentraisHidreltricas.
18. M. Bouvard, Mobile barrages and intakes on sediment transporting rivers IAHR
Monograph, AA Balkema, 1984.
19. Sinniger& Hager, Constructions Hydrauliques, PPUR, Lausanne, 1989.
20. J.L.Gordon "A new approach to turbine speed", Water Power & Dam Construction,
August 1990
21. J.L.Gordon "Powerhouse concrete quantity estimates", Canadian Journal Of Civil

Engineering, June 1983
22. F. Schweiger& J. Gregory, "Developments in the design of water turbines", Water Power
& Dam Construction, May1989
23. Fonkenell. How to select your low head turbine,Hidroenergia 1991.
24. F. de Siervo& F. de Leva, "Modern trends in selecting and designing Francis turbines",
Water Power & Dam Construction, August 1976
25. A Lugaresi& A. Massa, "Designing Francis turbines: trends in the last decade", Water
Power & Dam Construction, November 1987
46
APPENDICES
Photos of Nabuyole Falls
47
48

Design of A Small Hydro-Power Plant PDF

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Design of A Small Hydro-Power Plant PDF

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

2

Designing a Small Hydro Power Plant

Final Year Project

Chol Dhieu Gabriel

1.2 Objective of Project

1.3 Reasons for the Project

Before picking on this project we were motivated by the following factors:

1.4 Advantages of a Small Hydro Power Plant:

1.5 Disadvantages of a Small Hydro Power Plant

1.6 Project Area

2.2 Site Configurations

2.2.1.1 Run-of-river schemes

2.4 Fundamentals of hydraulic engineering

2.4.2.4 Loss of head by sudden contraction or expansion

2.5 HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES (CIVIL STRUCTURES)

2.6 EVALUATING STREAMFLOW

2.8. ELECTROMECHANICAL EQUIPMENT

2.8.3 Specific speed

Range of discharges through the turbine

2.8.4.1 Net head

2.8.4.4 Rotational speed

2.8.6 Turbine efficiency

2.8.7 Speed increasers

2.8.7.1 Type of Generator

Synchronous generator was selected due to its advantages compare to asynchronous.

2.8.7.3 Speed Governors

2.8.7.4 Switchgear equipment

2.8.8 Automatic control

2.8.8.1 Plant service transformer

2.8.8.2 DC control power supply

2.8.8.3 Headwater and tail-water recorders

2.9 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND ITS MITIGATION

2.9.1 Burdens and impacts identification

2.9.2 Impacts in the construction phase

2.9.4 Impacts arising from the operation of the scheme

2.9.4.1 Sonic impacts

2.9.4.2 Landscape impact

2.9.5.1 In the reservoir

2.9.5.2 Trash-rack material

2.9.6 Impacts from transmission lines

2.9.6.1 Visual impact

2.9.6.2 Health impact

Hence, the net head = 54.5 m and design discharge = 21m3/s

3.1 Design of electromechanical equipment

3.1.1 Determination of power output

o= 0.94 * 0.97 * 0.98

Turbine type Best efficiency

Kaplan single regulated 0.91

Kaplan double regulated 0.93

Pelton n nozzles 0.90

Pelton 1 nozzle 0.89

Table 2.10: Typical efficiencies of small turbines

Turbine type Head range in metres

Kaplan and Propeller 2 < H < 40

Francis 25 < H < 350

Pelton 50 < H < 1'300

Crossflow 5 < H < 200

Turgo 50 < H < 250

Table 2.6: Range of heads

Outlet diameter D3 is given by;

D3 = 84.5 * (0.31 + (2.488 * NS)) * Hn/ (60 * N)

D1= (0.4 + 0.095/ Ns) * D3

D2 = D3/ (0.96 + 0.3781 * Ns)