METHOD OF JOINTS

The method of joints is one of the simplest methods for determining the force
acting on the individual members of a truss because it only involves two force
equilibrium equations.

Since only two equations are involved, only two unknowns can be solved for at
a time. Therefore, you need to solve the joints in a certain order. That is, you need
to work from the sides towards the center of the truss.

When a force points toward the joint, the member is said to be in compression.
If the force points away from the joint, the member is said to be in tension. It is
often important to know whether a truss member is in tension or in compression
because some building materials have different strengths in compression versus
tension.

Principle

If a truss is in equilibrium, then each of its joints must also be in equilibrium.

Procedure for analysis

1. If possible, determine the support reactions

2. Draw the free body diagram for each joint. In general, assume all the force
member reactions are tension (this is not a rule, however, it is helpful in keeping
track of tension and compression members).

3. Write the equations of equilibrium for each joint, Fx 0 Fy 0

4. If possible, begin solving the equilibrium equations at a joint where only two
unknown reactions exist. Work your way from joint to joint, selecting the new joint
using the criterion of two unknown reactions. 5. Solve the joint equations of
equilibrium simultaneously.

Tips

The joints with external supports always connect with two truss members. Thus many
times, the analysis starts from analyzing the supports. Therefore very often the
analysis begins with finding the reaction forces applied at the supports.

Pay attention to symmetric systems and zero force members. Identification of these
special cases sometimes will make the whole analysis WAY EASIER!!

Zero Force Members

Truss analysis may be simplified by determining members with no loading or zero-

force.

These members may provide stability or be useful if the loading changes.

Zero-force members may be determined by inspection of the joints.

Case 1: If two members are connected at a joint and there is no external force
applied to the joint

Case 2: If three members are connected at a joint and there is no external force
applied to the joint and two of the members are collinear.

Example

Consider the following truss. Determine forces AB, BC, and AC.
First, determine the support reactions for the truss.

MA 0; 500 lb. (10 ft.) Cy(10 ft.) = 0

Cy = 500 lb.

Fy 0; Ay Cy = 0

Ay + 500 lb. = 0

Ay = -500 lb.

Fx 0; Ax + 500 lb. = 0

Ax = -500 lb.

The equations of equilibrium for Joint A:

Fx 0; FAC 500 lb. = 0

FAC = 500 lb. answer

Fy 0; FAB 500 lb. = 0

FAB = 500 lb. answer

The equations of equilibrium for Joint B:

Fx 0; FBC cos 45 + 500 lb. = 0

FBC = -707.1068 lb. answer

 METHOD OF SECTIONS

If only a few of the member forces are of interest, and those members
happen to be somewhere in the middle of the truss, it would be very inefficient to
use the method of joints to solve for them. In such cases, method of sections is
used.

In the method of joints, we are dealing with static equilibrium at a point. This
limits the static equilibrium equations to just the two force equations. A section has
finite size and this means you can also use moment equations to solve the problem.
This allows solving for up to three unknown forces at a time.

Since the method of sections allows solving for up to three unknown forces at
a time, you should choose sections that involve cutting through no more than three
members at a time.

Principle

If a truss is in equilibrium, then whichever section of the truss being considered

must also be in equilibrium.

The Method of Sections involves analytically cutting the truss into sections and
solving for static equilibrium for each section.

The sections are obtained by cutting through some of the members of the truss to
expose the force inside the members.

In the method of sections, a truss is divided into two parts by taking an imaginary
cut (shown here as a-a) through the truss.

Since truss members are subjected to only tensile or compressive forces along their
length, the internal forces at the cut member will also be either tensile or
compressive with the same magnitude. This result is based on the equilibrium
principle and Newtons third law.

:
Procedure for analysis

1. Decide how you need to cut the truss. This is based on: a) where you need to
determine forces, and, b) where the total number of unknowns does not exceed three
(in general).

2. Decide which side of the cut truss will be easier to work with (minimize the number
of reactions you have to find).

3. If required, determine the necessary support reactions by drawing the FBD of

the entire truss and applying the equations of equilibrium (E-of-E).

4. Draw the FBD of the selected part of the cut truss. We need to indicate the
unknown forces at the cut members. Initially we may assume all the members are in
tension, as we did when using the method of joints. Upon solving, if the answer is
positive, the member is in tension as per our assumption. If the answer is negative,
the member must be in compression. (Please note that you can also assume forces to
be either tension or compression by inspection as was done in the figures above.)

5. Apply the E-of-E to the selected cut section of the truss to solve for the unknown
member forces. Please note that in most cases it is possible to write one equation to
solve for one unknown directly.

Tips

About the sense of forces, you can always choose to draw an unknown force as
tension. Then if it comes out minus I know it is compression. This is common practice
but not the eleventh commandment.

Example

Find the members CD, Cd, and cd.

To find CD:

Md = 0; CD = - 3000

CD = 3000 lb (C) answer

To find cd:

MC = 0; -15cd -20(4500)+10(3000) = 0

15(cd) = 10(3000) 20(4500)

cd = 4000 as assumed

cd = 4000 lb (T) answer

To find Cd.

2
F = 0; Cd( ) + 4000 3000 = 0
13
2
Cd( ) = -1000
13

Cd = 50013

Cd = 1802.7756 lb (C) answer

Problem Solving

1. Determine the force in each member of the truss and state if the members
are in tension or compression. Set P1 = 700 lb and P2 = 400 lb.

2. Determine the force on each member of the truss and state if the members
are in tension or compression. Set = 30.

3. Determine the force in each member of the truss, and state if the members
are in tension or compression.
4. Determine the force in each member of the truss and state if the members
are in tension or compression.

5. Determine the force in each member of the truss and state if the members
are in tension or compression.

6. Determine the force in members GF, FB, and BC of the Fink truss and state
if the members are in tension or compression.
7. Determine the force in members FG,GC and CB of the truss used to support
the sign, and state if the members are in tension or compression.

8. Determine the force in members JI, JE, and DE of the truss and state if
the members are in tension or compression.
9. Determine the force in members CD and CM of the Baltimore bridge truss
and state if the members are in tension or compression. Also, indicate all
zero-force members.

10. Determine the force in members LK, LC, and BC of the truss, and state if
the members are in tension or compression.
 METHOD OF MEMBERS
FRAMES CONTAINING THREE-FORCE MEMBERS

A three-force member is in general a non-axial member that is not simply in

tension or compression. A member of this kind has shear forces perpendicular to
the member and subjected to bending loads. If forces are applied to more than
two positions on the member, it is three-force member. Any beam is a three-force
member according to the above definition.

Frames are pin-connected structures with some or all members are three-
force members. To analyze a frame, we can disconnect the three-force member
from the structure and draw the free-body diagram of the member. This approach
is called the method of members.

In this method, three equilibrium equations can be written

FH=0, FV=0, and MO=0

Below is a figure that shows the difference between axial and non-axial
(three-force) members.

Examples:

1. Members AB and BC shown in the figure are pinned together at point B, and are
pinned to the floor at points A and C. The structure supports a pulley at point B
with which, a person is hoisting a 2.0 kN load. Member BC has a weight of 1.6 kN,
which may be considered to act at its center, while AB is made of strong-light
material and has negligible weight. Determine the value of the external support
reactions at A and C.
AB is an axial member while BC is a three-force member. Thus,
Ax=RAcos37
Ay=RAsin37

Cy=3.54 kN answer

MC=0
Ax(1)+Ay(8)=4.0(4)+1.6(2)
RAcos37+(RAsin37)(8)=19.2
5.6132RA=19.2
RA=3.42 kN answer

FH=0
Cx=Ax
Cx=RAcos37
Cx=3.42cos37
Cx=2.73 kN answer

FV=0
Cy+Ay=4.0+1.6
Cy+RAsin37=5.6
Cy+3.42sin37=5.6
2. In the structure shown, all members are assumed to be solid rigid members.
The system is pinned to the wall at point A and supported by a roller at point E.
Calculate the force on member BD and the reactions at A and E.

MA=0
4RE=6(120)
RE=180 kN answer

FH=0
AH=RE
AH=180 kN answer

FV=0FV=0
AV=120 kN answer

MA=0
3(213FBD)=6(120)
FBD=432.67 kN answer
Problem Solving

1.The structure shown is pinned together at points A, B, and C and held in

equilibrium by the cable CD. A load of 12,000 lb is acting at the midpoint of
member AB, and a load of 8000 lb is applied at point C. Determine the reaction at
A, the internal force in member BC, and the tension on cable CD.

2. For the cabled structure as show below, member ABC which is assumed to be
rigid is pinned at A and held in equilibrium by cable CD. For this structure,
determine the reaction at A and the tension in the cable.
3. In the structure shown, members BCE, and CD are assumed to be solid rigid
members. Members AE and DE are cables. For this structure, determine the
reaction at B.

4.
5. The structure shown is hinged at A and C. Find the horizontal and vertical
components of the hinge force at B, C, and A.

5. Each member of the frame weighs 50 lb per ft. Compute the horizontal and
vertical components of the pin pressure at C, D, and F.
6. The frame is hinged to rigid supports at A and E. Find the components of the
hinge forces A and E and the forces in members BC and BD.

7. The frame is supported by a hinge at A and a roller at E. Compute the horizontal

and vertical components of the hinge forces at B and C as they act upon member
AC.

8. A three-hinged arch is composed of two trusses hinged together at D. Compute

the components of the reaction at A and find the forces acting in bars AB and AC.
9. The truss are joined to form a three-hinged arch. Determine the horizontal and
vertical components of the hinge force at B and then determine the type and
magnitude of force in bars BD and BE.

10. The billboard BC weighing 1000 lb is subjected to a wind pressure of 300 lb/ft.
Neglecting the weights of the support-members, determine the component of the
hinge forces at A and F.
 BELT FRICTION

Belt friction is a term describing the friction forces between a belt and a
surface, such as a belt wrapped around a bollard. When one end of the belt is being
pulled only part of this force is transmitted to the other end wrapped about a
surface. The friction force increases with the amount of wrap about a surface and
makes it so the tension in the belt can be different at both ends of the belt. Belt
friction can be modelled by the Belt friction equation.
In practice, the theoretical tension acting on the belt or rope calculated by
the belt friction equation can be compared to the maximum tension the belt can
support. This helps a designer of such a rig to know how many times the belt or
rope must be wrapped around the pulley to prevent it from slipping. Mountain
climbers and sailing crews demonstrate a standard knowledge of belt friction when
accomplishing basic tasks.
Belt friction is a physical property observed from the forces acting on a belt
wrapped around a pulley, when one end is being pulled.
In any system where a belt or a cable is wrapped around a pulley or some
other cylindrical surface, we have the potential for friction between the belt or
cable and the surface it is in contact with. In some cases, such as a rope over a
tree branch being used to lift an object, the friction forces represent a loss. In
other cases such as a belt driven system, these friction forces are put to use
transferring power from one pulley to another pulley.
A belt is passing over a pulley and hence the belt is in contact with the
surface of the pulley. If the surface of the pulley is perfectly smooth, the tension
in the belt on both sides* of the pulley will be same (i.e., the tension throughout
the belt will be constant). Also for the perfectly smooth surface, there will be no
frictional resistance and hence no driving torque** will be developed.
But if the surface of the pulley is rough, the tension in the belt will not be
constant. The tension will vary throughout the length of the belt which is in
contact with pulley. This variation in tension is due to frictional resistance. The
frictional resistance depends on the co-efficient of friction (i.e., value of )
between the belt and pulley surface. It will be shown in the next articles that

Where T1 = Tension in the belt on tight side,

T2 = Tension in the belt on slack side,
= Co-efficient of friction, and
= Angle of contact in radians.
Examples:

1. A flat belt is used to transmit the 30 ft lb torque developed by an electric

motor. The drum in contact with the belt has a diameter of 8 in and S 0.30.

60o
B

40o

Find: Determine the minimum allowable value of the tension in each part of the
belt if the belt is not to slip.

TA

T2 TA
60o
160
T1 TB

TB

T2

20o e s
40o
T1
70o
30o
T
e 0.38 / 9
T
M (T T )r T 2.311 T

8 in 1 ft
30 (T T )
2 12 in
TA TB 90
T T 90

2.311TB TB 90
TB 68.6 lbs answer

T 158.6 lbs answer

2. A rope ABCD is looped over two pipes as shown. Knowing that the coefficient
of static friction is 0.25, determine(a) the smallest value of the mass m for
which equilibrium is possible, (b) the corresponding tension in portion BC of the
rope.

Relevant equations
T1/T2=e s*
where T2 is the larger tension and is the angle between the tensions.

Isolating each pipe:

W1 = 50*9.81 = 490.5N
For pipe B, = (2)/3
For pipe C, = /3

For pipe B, T2 = 490.5N, so I have:

490.5/T = e 0.25((2)/3)
T = 290.6N answer

.
Then T2 = T instead:
290.6/W2 = e 0.25(/3)
W2 = 233.7N
m = 233.7/9.81 = 22.8kg answer
Problem Solving
1. A force of 400 lb is applied to the pulley shown in Fig. P-523. The pulley is
prevented from rotating by a force P applied to the end of the brake lever.
If the coefficient of friction at the brake surface is 0.20, determine the
value of P

2. The setup shown is used to measure the output of a small turbine. When the
flywheel is at rest, the reading of each spring scale is 14 lb. If a 105 lb-in.
couple must be applied to the flywheel to keep it rotating clockwise at a
constant speed. Determine the(a) the reading of each scale at that time, (b)
the coefficient of kinetic friction. Assume that the length of the belt does
not change.

3. A band brake is used to control the speed of a flywheel as shown. The

coefficient of friction are s=0.30 and k=0.25. Determine the magnitude of
the couple being applied to the flywheel, knowing that P=45N and that the
flywheel ids rotating counterclockwise at a constant speed.
4. A flat belt is used to transmit a couple from drum B to A. Knowing that the
coefficient of static friction is 0.40 and that the allowable belt tension is
450 N, determine the largest couple that can be exerted on drum A.

5. A flat belt is used to transmit a couple from pulley A to pulley B. The radius
of each pulley is 60 mm, and a force of magnitude P=900N is applied as
shown to the axle of pulley A. Knowing that the coefficient of static friction
is 0.35, determine(a) the largest couple that can be transmitted, (b) the
corresponding maximum value of the tension in the belt.

6. A cable is placed around three parallel pipes. Two of the pipes are fixed and
do not rotate; the third pipe is slowly rotated. Knowing that the coefficients
of frictions are s=0.25 and k=0.20, determine the largest weight W can be
raised (a) if only pipe A is rotated counterclockwise (b) if only pipe C is
rotated clockwise.
7. Determine the smallest force P applied to the handle of the band brake that
will prevent the drum from rotating when the 15 lb-ft moment is applied.
The coefficient of static is 0.25, and the weight of lever arm ABC can be
neglected.

8. A motor attached to pulley A drives the pulley clockwise with a 200 lb-in
torque. The flat belt then overcomes the resisting torque T at pulley B and
rotates the pulley B clockwise. Determine the minimum tension that can
exist in the belt without causing the belt to slip at pulley A. Also determine
the corresponding resisting torque T. The coefficient of static friction
between the pulleys is 0.3.
9. Pulley A is rotating under the action of a 6 N-m torque. This motion is
transmitted through a flat belt to drive pulley B, which is turned acted upon
by resisting torque T (the load on pulley B). The coefficient of static
friction between the belt and the pulleys is 0.45. Determine (a) the
maximum possible value of T(b) the maximum force in the belt(c) the
corresponding force required in the spring C.

10. If the coefficient of static friction between the fixed drums D and E and
the ropes is 0.35, determine the largest weight W that can be supported.
 CENTROID OF AREAS AND LINES

The centroid of an area is similar to the center of mass of a body.

Calculating the centroid involves only the geometrical shape of the area. The
center of gravity will equal the centroid if the body is homogenous i.e. constant
density.
Centroid indicates the center of the mass of a uniform solid, stick a pivot of
the centroid and the object will be in perfect balance.
When the area is revolved about the x-axis, the centroid is on that axis .
Which means that for solids generating by revolving the plane area about an axis ,
its centroid on the axis, thus giving one coordinate.
It is a point in a plane area such that the moment of area about any axis
through the point is zero. It lies on the axis of symmetry, if it exists. If there is
one axis of symmetry centroid lies on it. If there are 2 axes of symmetry for the
axes. Then centroid lies on the intersection of the axes of symmetry.
The centroid of an area can be determined by using three similar equations:

The centroid of the line:

Taking the simple case first, we aim to find the centroid for the area
defined by a function f(x), and the vertical lines x = a and x = b as indicated in the
following figure.
Examples:

1. Find the centroid of the plane uniform lamina shown in Fig. 5.11, w.r.t. the
axes shown.

Solution:

Shape Area x Ax y Ay

Triangle 1250 -25 -3125 66.7 8333

Semicircle 982 -110.6 -10861 25.0 2455

Rectangle 5000 -50 -25000 25.0 12500

7232 - 38986 23288

A y A x
y = x = A
A

y = 32.2 mm x = -53.9 mm answer

2. Determine the centroid of the lines that form the boundary of the shaded area in
Fig. P-718.

Solution:

Shape Area x Ax y Ay

1 144 6 864 6 864

2 -36 6 -216 2 -72

3 -36 8 -288 10 -360

A=72 A x =360 A y =432

A y A x
y = x = A
A

y = 6 in x = 5 in answer
Problem Solving

1. The centroid of the shaded area in Fig. P-720 is required to lie on the y-axis.
Determine the distance b that will fulfill this requirement.

2. Find the centroid of the area shown.

3. Locate the centroid of the shaded area in Fig. P-723.

4. Find the coordinates of the centroid of the shaded area shown in Fig. P-724.

5. Find the centroid of the area shown and locate it on the sketch.

6. Refer again to Fig. P-714. To what value should the 6-in. width of
the flange be changed so that the centroid of the area is 2.5 in. above the
base?
7. Locate the centroid of the line shown.
8. Find the centroid of the area shown and locate it on the sketch.

9. Locate centroid of Fig.5.12 shown w.r.t. axis x and y.

10. Locate the centroid of the shaded area in Fig. P-722 created by cutting a
semicircle of diameter r from a quarter circle of radius r.
 CENTROIDS OF COMPOSITE FIGURES

The centroid is the point that may be considered as the center of a one- or
two-dimensional figure, the sum of the displacements of all points in the figure
from such a point being zero. It is also defined as the point of perfect balance,
with the assumption that the region has uniform density and gravitational field. In
geometry, the centroid is the arithmetic average position of all points on the given
region.

Different methods are used in finding centroids. For any flat surface, the
centroid can be considered its center of gravity. For triangles, the centroid is the
intersecting point of its three medians. For rectangles, this point can be found by
the intersection of the line segments connecting opposite midpoints of the four
sides.

For more complex polygons, the concept of moment is used to find the
centroid. The moment of any object is the measurement of its inclination to rotate
about a given point of reference. It can be calculated as the mass (or area) of the
object multiplied by its distance from the point. The polygon is cut into triangles
and quadrilaterals so that the centroids of all cut shapes may be determined. To
get the coordinates of the centroid, the summation of the moments of each cut
shape should be equated to the area of the entire polygon multiplied by the
distance of the centroid from the point of reference.

The same approach is implemented to determine the centroid of curved

regions, but this time using integral calculus. The area is defined by limits, more
particularly by bounding curves with given algebraic equations. The equations form
the basis for calculating the moment of each incremental element of the curved
area, and divide the total moment with the total area.

Examples:

1.

Given: The part shown.

Find: The centroid of the part.

Solution:

a. This body can be divided into the following pieces: rectangle (a) + triangle (b) +
quarter circular (c) semicircular area (d). Note the negative sign on the hole!

b. Make up and fill the table using parts a, b, c, and d.

 Segment Area A x y xA yA
(cm2) (cm) (cm) (cm3) (cm3)
Rectangle 18 3 1.5 54 27
Triangle 4.5 7 1 31.5 4.5
Quarter Circle 9/4 -4(3)/3 4(3)/3 -9 9
Semi-Circle -/2 0 4(1)/3 0 -2/3
28.0 76.5 39.83

c. Use the table data results and the formulas to find the coordinates of the
centroid.

Area A xA yA
(cm2) (cm) (cm)
28.0 76.5 39.83

x A 76.5
x 2.73cm answer
A 28.0

y A 39.83
y 1.42cm answer
A 28.0

2. Locate the centroid of the figure.

The plate is divided into three segments. Here, the area of the small rectangle
(3) is considered negative since it must be subtracted from the larger one (2).
Moment Arms: The centroid of each segment is located as indicated. Note that
the x coordinates of (2) and (3) are negative.

Summations:

Segment Area A x y xA yA
(ft2) (ft) (ft) (ft3) (ft3)
1 4.5 1 1 4.5 4.5
2 9 -1.5 1.5 -13.5 13.5
3 -2 -2.5 2 5 -4
11.5 -4 14

xA 4
x 0.348 ft answer
A 11.5

y A 14
y 1.22 ft answer
A 11.5

Problem Solving

Determine the centroid of the composite figures:

1. 2.

3. 4.
5. 6.

7. 8.

9. 10.
 CENTROID OF VOLUME

Centroid of volume is the point at which the total volume of a body is assumed
to be concentrated. The volume is having three dimensions i.e., length, width and
thickness. Hence volume is measured in [length]3. The centroid of a volume is
obtained by dividing the given volume into a large number of small volumes. Similar
method was used for finding the centroid of an area in which case the given area was
divided into large number of small areas.

Theorems of GuldinusPappus

The theorems of GuldinusPappus are concerned with the relation of a surface

of revolution to its generating curve, and the relation of a volume of revolution to
its generating area. Theorem 1. Consider a coplanar generating curve and an axis of
revolution in the plane of this curve. The surface of revolution A developed by
rotating the generating curve about the axis of revolution equals the product of the
length of the generating L curve times the circumference of the circle formed by
the centroid of the generating curve yC in the process of generating a surface of
revolution.

Fig 1. Surface of revolution developed by rotating the generating curve about the
axis of revolution

The generating curve can touch but must not cross the axis of revolution. Proof. An
element dl of the generating curve is considered in Fig 1. For a single revolution of
the generating curve about the x-axis, the line segment dl traces an area

For the entire curve, this area, dA, becomes the surface of revolution, A, given as
 = =

where L is the length of the curve and is the centroidal

coordinate of the curve. The circumferential length of the
circle formed by having the centroid of the curve rotate
about the x-axis is , q.e.d. The surface of revolution is
equal to times the first moment of the generating curve
about the axis of revolution. If the generating curve is
composed of simple curves, Li, whose centroids are known, Fig. 2, the surface of
revolution developed by revolving the composed generating curve about the axis of
revolution x is

= (
=

Fig. 2. Composed generating curve

where is the centroidal coordinate to the ith line segment .

Fig. 3 Volume of revolution developed by rotating the generating plane surface

about the axis of revolution

Theorem 2.2. Consider a generating plane surface A and an axis of revolution

coplanar with the surface Fig.3. The volume of revolution V developed by rotating
the generating plane surface about the axis of revolution equals the product of the
area of the surface times the circumference of the circle formed by the centroid
of the surface in the process of generating the body of revolution

The axis of revolution can intersect the generating plane surface only as a
tangent at the boundary or have no intersection at all. Proof. The plane surface is
shown in Fig.3. The volume generated by rotating an element of this surface about
the x-axis is
=

The volume of the body of revolution formed from is then

= =

Thus, the volume equals the area of the generating surface times the
circumferential length of the circle of radius , q.e.d.

The volume equals times the first moment of the generating area
about the axis of revolution.

Centroids of Common 3D Shapes

Examples:

1.The outside diameter of a pulley is 0.8 m, and the cross section of its rim is as
shown. Knowing that the pulley is made of steel and that the density of steel is
determine the mass and weight of the rim. ( = 7.85 103 3 )

Apply the theorem of Pappus-Guldinus

to evaluate the volumes or revolution for
the rectangular rim section and the
inner cut-out section.

Multiply by density and acceleration

to get the mass and acceleration.
 = = (7.85 103 3 )(7.65
106 3 )(109 3 3 ) = 60.0
answer

= = (60.0 )(9.81 2 ) = 589

answer

2. Locate the center of gravity of the steel machine element. The diameter of
each hole is 1 in.

Form the machine element from a rectangular parallelepiped and a quarter cylinder
and then subtracting two 1-in. diameter cylinders.
Problem Solving

1. A wine cask has a radius at the top of 30 cm and a radius at the middle of 40
cm. The height of the cask is 1 m. What is the volume of the cask (in L),
assuming that the shape of the sides is parabolic?

2. An equilateral triangle, 2 units on each side, is rotated around a line parallel

to, and 2 units from, one side. Find the surface area and the volume of the
resulting solid.

3. A watermelon has an ellipsoidal shape with major axis 28 cm and minor axis 25
cm. Find its volume.

4. Determine the centroid of the solid generated by revolving the area bounded
by the curve y = x2 , y = 9, and x = 0, about the y-axis.

5. Determine the coordinates of the centroids of the solids generated by

revolving:
a. The first quadrant region bounded by the curve y = 4 x2 about the y axis.

6. The third quadrant region bounded by the curve y = x3 and y = x about y 1 = 0.

7. The region bounded by the curves y = 6x x2 and y = x2 2x about x 4 = 0.

8. Rotate the region bounded by and about the y-axis

9. Rotate the region bounded by , and the y-axis about the y-axis

10. Find the centroid of volume for a

hemisphere of radius R = 7 cm.
 MOMENT OF INERTIA FOR AREAS

Moment of Inertia is a measure of an objects resistance to changes to its

rotation. It is also defined as the capacity of a cross-section to resist bending. It
must be specified with respect to a chosen axis of rotation. It is usually quantified
in m4 or kgm2.

The centroid, or center of gravity, of any object is the point within that
object from which the force of gravity appears to act. An object will remain at rest
if it is balanced on any point along a vertical line passing through its center of gravity.

The centroid of a 2D surface is a point that corresponds to the center of

gravity of a very thin homogeneous plate of the same area and shape. If the area (or
section or body) has one line of symmetry, the centroid will lie somewhere along the
line of symmetry.

Perpendicular Axis Theorem

The moment of inertia (MI) of a plane area about an axis normal to the plane
is equal to the sum of the moments of inertia about any two mutually perpendicular
axes lying in the plane and passing through the given axis.

That means the Moment of Inertia Iz = Ix+Iy

Parallel Axis Theorem

The moment of area of an object about any axis parallel to the centroidal axis
is the sum of MI about its centroidal axis and the product of area with the square
of distance of from the reference axis.
Essentially, Jo= Jc + Ad2
A is the cross-sectional area. d is the perpendicular distance between the centroidal
axis and the parallel axis.
Radius of Gyration of an Area

The radius of gyration of an area A with respect to the x axis is defined

as the distance kx, where Ix = kx A. With similar definitions for the radii of
gyration of A with respect to the y axis and with respect to O, we have
 Area inertia properties for some common cross sections

Determination of the Moment of Inertia of an Area by Integration

The rectangular moments of inertia Ix and Iy of an area are defined as

These computations are reduced to single integrations by choosing dA to be a

thin strip parallel to one of the coordinate axes. The result is
Examples:

1. Determine the moment of inertia of the shaded area shown with respect to
each of the coordinate axes.

Moment of Inertia Ix
Moment of Inertia Iy

2. Determine the moment of inertia of the shaded area shown with respect to
each of the coordinate axes.
Moment of Inertia Ix

Moment of Inertia Iy
Problem Solving

1. Find the moment of inertia and the radius of gyration w.r.t. the origin (0,0) of a
system which has masses at the points given:

Mass 6 5 9 2

Point (3,0) (2,0) (1,0) (8,0)

2. For the first quadrant area bounded by the curve

Y = 1x2
Find:

a) The moment of inertia w.r.t the y axis. (Iy)

b) The mass of the area

c) Hence, find the radius of gyration

3.Find the moment of inertia and the radius of gyration for the area
y=x2+1 from x=1 to x=2, and y >1, when rotated around the x-axis. The mass per unit
area is 3 kg m2.

4. Determine the moments of inertia of the crosshatched

area about the x and y axes.

5. Determine the moments of inertia of the area bounded

by an ellipse about the x and y axes.

6. Determine the moment of inertia of the crosshatched area about the x axis.

7.Given the parabola 3x2 + 40y 4800 = 0. What is the area bounded by the parabola
and the X-axis?

A.6200unit2
B.8300unit2
C.5600unit2
D.6400unit2
8. What is the moment of inertia, about the X-axis, of the area bounded by the
parabola and the X-axis?

A. 15 045 000 unit4

B. 18 362 000 unit4
C. 11 100 000 unit4
D. 21 065 000 unit4

9. What is the radius of gyration, about the X-axis, of the area bounded by the
parabola and the X-axis?

A. 57.4 units
B. 63.5 units
C. 47.5 units
D. 75.6 units

10. A sphere is moving around in air. If the moment of inertia is 10 Kgm 2 and radius
of 1m. Calculate its mass. ( = 2 )
 POLAR MOMENT OF INERTIA

Polar moment of inertia is a quantity used to predict an object's ability to

resist torsion, in objects (or segments of objects) with an invariant circular cross
section and no significant warping or out-of-plane deformation. It is used to
calculate the angular displacement of an object subjected to a torque. It is
analogous to the area moment of inertia, which characterizes an object's ability to
resist bending and is required to calculate displacement.
The larger the polar moment of area, the less the beam will twist, when
subjected to a given torque.
Polar moment of area should not be confused with moment of inertia, which
characterizes an object's angular acceleration due to a torque.

Note: It has become common to use "Moment of Inertia" (MOI) to refer to either
or both of the planar second moment of area, I= 2 , where x is the distance
to some reference plane, or the polar second moment of area,I= 2 , where r
is the distance to some reference axis. In each case the integral is over all the
infinitesimal elements of area, dA, in some two-dimensional cross-section. "Moment
of Inertia" is, strictly, the second moment of mass with respect to distance from
an axis: I= 2 where r is the distance to some potential rotation axis, and the
integral is over all the infinitesimal elements of mass, dm, in a three-dimensional
space occupied by an object. The MOI, in this sense, is the analog of mass for
rotational problems.

For circular section with radius r:

2 4
Iz=0 0 2 = 2

Unit

The SI unit for polar moment of area, like the area moment of inertia, is metre to
the fourth power (m4).

Conversion from Area Moment of Inertia

By the perpendicular axis theorem, the following equation relates Iz to the area
moments of inertia about the other two mutually perpendicular axes:

Iz=Ix+Iy
Examples:

1. Determine the polar moment of inertia and the polar radius of gyration of
the shaded area shown with respect to point P.

x2+y2=r2
x= 2 2
dA=xdy= 2 2 dy

A= =2 2 2 dy
2

Let y=rsin ; dy=rcosd

/2
A=2/6 2 ()2 rcosd
/2 2 /2
=2/6 2 2 = 2r2[2 + ]/6
4


=2r2[ 22 ( 26 ) + ] =2r2( 3 +
3 3
)
4 8
=2.5274r2

dIx= y2dA= y2( 2 2 )

2 /2 1
Iy=3 /6 4 ( 2 4 2 2)

Ix= = 2/2 2 2 2 2
=3 4 [( 2 +
2 1
) 4 (2
sin 4 /2
)] /6
4 8
y=rsin ; dy=rcosd 2

1

=3 4 [ 22 2
4 ( 2 )] [ 6
+ 3

2 4
Ix=2 1


2
6 3
/2 ( )]
/6()2 2 ()2 4 2 8
2 93
=2 2 2 2 () =3 4 ( 4 + )
64

6
sin2=2sincos => sin2cos2d= 4
3 2 93
1 JP=Ix+Iy = ( 16) + 3 4 ( 4 + 64 )
sin2 2 3
4
=r4(3 + 16) = 1.15545r4
3

/2 1 4
Ix=2/6 4 (4 2 2) = 2 [ 2
4 /2 JP=1.15545r4 answer
] /6
8

4 2/3
= 2 [ 22 (2 6
)]
8
1.15545 4
4
= 2 [( 3
3
)] k2p= = 2.5274 2
16
1 1 3 kp=0.676r answer
dIy=3 3 = 3 2 2
1
Iy= =2/2 3 ( 2 2 )3/2
y=rsin ; dy=rcosd

2 /2
Iy=3 /6[( 2 ()2 )]3/2
2 /2
Iy=3 /6( 3 3 )
1
cos4=cos2(1-sin2)=cos2-4 2 2
 2. Show that the polar radius of gyration ko of the semiannular area shown is
approximately equal to the mean radius Rm=(R1+R2)/2 for small values of the
thickness t=R2-R1.

Jo=4 (R24-R14)

(24 14 ) 1 (22 12 )
ko2= =4 = ( )
(22 12 ) 2 22 12
2
1
=2 (22 + 12 )

1
Rm=2 (1 + 2 ) t=R2-R1
1 1
R1=Rm-2 R2=Rm+2

1 1 2 1 2
ko2=2 [( + 2 ) + ( 2 ) ]
1 1 1
=2 (
2
+ + 4 2 +
2
+ 4 2 )
1
Rm2+4 2
1
ko=
2 + 2
4
If t<<R1,R2
Then t<<Rm
ko2=Rm2
koRm

Problem Solving

1. A rectangle is 3 in. by 6 in. Determine the polar moment of inertia and the
radius of gyration with respect to a polar axis through one corner.

2. Determine the centroidal polar moment of inertia of a circular area by direct

integration. Using the result of part a, determine the moment of inertia of a
circular area with respect to a diameter.
3. A hollow square cross section consists of an 8 in. by 8 in. square from which is
subtracted a concentrically placed square 4 in. by 4 in. Find the polar moment of
inertia and the polar radius of gyration with respect to a z axis passing through
one of the outside corners.

4. Determine the moment of inertia and radius of gyration with respect to a polar
centroidal axis of the cross section of a hollow tube whose outside diameter is 6 in.
and inside diameter is 4 in.

5. Determine the polar moment of inertia of the given figure.

6. Determine the polar moment of inertia and the polar radius of gyration of the
shaded area shown with respect to point P.
7. Determine the polar moment of inertia and the polar radius of gyration of the
shaded area shown with respect to point O.

R a k

2a a

8. Determine the polar moment of inertia and the polar radius of gyration of the
shaded area shown with respect to point P.

2a 2a
y = c + k2x2
a

y = k 1x 2 a

9. Determine the polar moment of inertia of the figure below.

10. (a) Determine Iy and ky by letting dA be a vertical strip of width dx. (b) The
polar moment of inertia of a circular area with its center at
1
Jo R 4
the origin is 2 . Explain how you can use this
information to confirm your answer to (a).
 TRANSFER THEOREM FOR MOMENT OF INERTIA

The Transfer Theorem is also known as Parallel-Axis Theorem. When we

calculated the area and mass moments of inertia via integration, one of the
first things we had to do was to select a point or axis we were going to take
the moment of inertia about. We then measured all distances from that point
or axis, where the distances were the moment arms in our moment integrals.
If we pick a different point or axis to serve as the center all of these distances
will be different, which means that we will get a different moment of inertia.

The distances used in our moment integrals depend on the point or axis chosen.

For the instance on the right however, each of these distance vectors can
be broken down into a vector from the origin to the centroid, and then a vector
out from the centroid to all the points in the shape. Similarly, we can find the
overall moment of inertia by adding two sets of moment integrals. The first
moment integral will add up all the distance vectors from the origin to the
centroid (This will be like a point mass on a massless stick, so we get a mass
times distance squared term), the second will be the moment integral about the
centroid (which is what is listed in the tables). By adding these two terms
together we can find the moment of inertia about the given origin point.

The Parallel Axis Theorem states that a bodies moment of inertia about any
given axis is the moment of inertia about the centroid plus the mass of the body
times the distance between the point and the centroid squared
 This works for both mass and area moments of inertia as well as for both
rectangular and polar moments of inertia. Above the mass moment of inertia is
listed, but if we substitute in areas instead of masses we can use it for area
moments of inertia.

For rectangular area moments of inertia and for 3D mass moments of

inertia the distances in the equation will be the distance between the axis or
rotation and the centroid while for 2D polar moments of inertia we will measure
the distances from the point of rotation to the centroid.
For mass moments of inertia we will use the mass of the body and for
area moments of inertia we will use the area of the shape.

With these equations we can see that the moment of inertia of a body is
always lowest about its centroid (where d = 0), and that the further we move
away from the centroid the larger the moment of inertia will become.

The moment of inertia of an area about any axis is defined as the moment of
inertia of the area about the parallel centroidal axis plus a term equal to the area
multiplied by the square of the perpendicular distance d from the centroidal axis
to the axis in question.
Examples:

1. Find the moment of inertia of the dumbbell in Example 8-5 rotated about one
end of the dumbbell.

Parallel-axis theorem:

I = ICM + Mh2

ICM = 144 kg x m2

h = 1.20 m

M = 50.0 kg + 50.0 kg = 100.0 kg

I = ICM + Mh2 = 144 kg x m2 + (100.0 kg)(1.20 m) 2

= 288 kg x m2

2. A solid sphere with mass 60.0 kg and radius 0.150 m has a moment of
inertia for rotation through its central axis. What will be the
moment of inertia of the sphere, if the rotation axis is changed to pass through a
point on its surface?

If the rotation axis is changed from the center axis of the sphere to an axis that
connects to the surface of the sphere, then the distance between these points is
the radius of the sphere: d = 0.150 m. The mass and moment of inertia through the
sphere's center of mass are given. Using these, the moment of inertia for the
parallel axis can be calculated using the formula:

The moment of inertia for rotation around the axis at the surface of the sphere is
answer

Problem Solving

1. A long rod with mass has a moment of inertia, for rotation

around an axis near one end. The total length of the rod is 10.00 m. What is
the moment of inertia for rotation through the rod's center?
2. Determine the moment of inertia of the shaded area shown with respect to
each of the coordinate axes.

3. Determine the moment of inertia of the shaded area shown with respect to
each of the coordinate axes.

4. Determine the moments of inertia about the x and y centroidal axes.

5. Determine the moments of inertia and the radius of gyration of the shaded
area with respect to the x and y axes.
6. A childs swing at a rustic amusement park is made up of an old tire hanging
from a lightweight rope tied to a tree limb. The tire has a radius of 0.310 m
and a mass of 11.0 kg, and hangs from a rope 2.50 m long. If the ropetire
combination is swinging around the tree limb at 1.20 rad at the low point of
its motion, what is its kinetic energy?

7. Determine the moment of inertia.

8. Two I shaped sections are welded together. What is the moment of inertia
about Axis A-A of this composites sections?
9. A rod of mass M= 3 kg and length L= 1.2m pivots about an axis,
perpendicular to its length, which passes through one of its ends. What is
the moment of inertia of the rod?

10. A beam is made by connecting two 2" x 4" beams in a T pattern with the
cross section as shown below. Determine the location of the centroid of this
combined cross section and then find the rectangular area moment of inertia
about the x axis through the centroid point
 MOMENT OF INERTIA: COMPOSITE AREAS

Composite Area
- it is made by adding or subtracting series of simple shaped areas like
rectangles, triangles, and circles

Parallel Axis Theorem

- relates the moment of inertia of an area about an axis passing through the
areas centroid to the moment of inertia of the area about a corresponding
parallel axis.

= +
= +
where:
Ix and Iy = Moment of Inertia with respect to any x and y axis
(parallel to x and y axis)
dx and dy = perpendicular distances between x and y, and x and
y
and = Moment of Inertia with respect to centroidal x and
y axis

Radius of Gyration (K)

- it is a property of a shape and is used in the analysis of how some shapes
act in different conditions.
- it is the square root of the ratio of the moment of inertia to the area.

I
K = A
I
K = A
J I + I
K = A = A
where:
K = Radius of Gyration
I = Moment of Inertia
A = Cross-sectional Area

Step for analysis:

1. Divide the given area into simpler shaped parts.
2. Locate the centroid of each part and indicate the perpendicular distance
from each centroid to the centroid to the desired reference axis.
3. Determine the Moments of Inertia of each simpler shaped part about
the desired reference axis using the parallel-axis theorem.
4. The Moments of Inertia of the entire area about the reference axis is
determined by performing an algebraic summation of the individual
Moments of Inertia obtained. (NOTE: Moments of Inertia of a hole is
subtracted.)
 Moment of Inertia: Common Shapes
SHAPE MOMENT OF INERTIA RADIUS OF GYRATION

Rectangle
=

=

= +
=

Triangle
=

=

= +
=

Circle

= =

Semicircle =


= .

= = =

Quarter =


Circle = = .

=
= =

Ellipse
=

=

= =

Examples:

1. Solve the radius of gyration of the figure below.

1. We can divide the figure into smaller figures / pieces.

2. Solve for the area &

Figure Area or dy

6
I = = (6)(6) = = = =
2 2

1 1
= = (3)(6)
II 2 2 1 1
= = = (6) =
3 3

1 1 1 1
= = (9)(6) = = (6)
III 2 2 3 3
= =
3. Solve for Ix , I

SHAPE Ix

3 (6)(63 ) I = I + A 2
I = =
12 12 = 108 + (36)(32 )
I
I = I =

bh3 (3)(63 ) I = I + A 2
Ix = =
36 36 = 18 + (9)(22 )
II
Ix = Ix =

bh3 (9)(63 ) I = I + A 2
Ix = =
36 36 = 54 + (27)(22 )
III
Ix = Ix =

4. Solve for Kx

= + +
= 432 + 54 + 162
=

= + +
= 36 + 9 + 27
=

=

=
= .
2. Compute the radius gyration of the figure below.

Figure Area or dy

8
I = = (8)(8) = = = =
2 2

4
= = (4)(4) = +2= +2
II 2 2
= =

SHAPE Ix

3 (8)(83 ) I = I + A 2
I = =
12 12 = 341.333 + (64)(42 )
I
I = . I = .

3 (4)(43 ) I = I + A 2
I = =
12 12 = 21.3333 + (16)(42 )
II
I = . Ix = .

=
= (. ) (. )
=
=
= () ()
=

=

= .
Problem Solving

1. Compute for the moment of inertia of the composite area.

Compute for the radius of gyration of the composite area.

2. Calculate the centroid of the composite shape in reference to the bottom of

the shape and calculate the moment of inertia about the centroid z-axis.

3. Calculate the centroid of the composite shape in reference to the bottom of

the shape and calculate the moment of inertia about the centroid z-axis.

4. Calculate the centroid of the composite shape in reference to the bottom of

the shape and calculate the moment of inertia about the centroid z-axis.
 5. Find the moment of inertia of the area about the y-axis and the radius of
gyration Ky.

6. Find the moment of inertia of the area about the y-axis and the radius of
gyration Ky.

7. Determine the moment of inertia and radius of gyration with respect to an axis
which is parallel to the plate and passes through the centroid of the section.
 8. Determine the moment of inertia of the shaded area with respect to the x
axis.

9. Find the moment of inertia.

10. Find the moment of inertia about the indicated x-axis for the shaded area.