COMPUTERS

A computer is a machine that manipulates data according to

a list of instructions.

The first devices that resemble modern computers date to

the mid-20th century (around 1940 - 1945), although the
computer concept and various machines similar to
computers existed earlier. Modern computers are based on
tiny integrated circuits and are millions to billions of times
more capable while occupying a fraction of the space.
Today, simple computers may be made small enough to fit
into a wristwatch and be powered from a watch battery.
Personal computers, in various forms, are icons of the
Information Age and are what most people think of as "a
computer"; however, the most common form of computer in
use today is the embedded computer. A computer can also
be defined as a set of input devices, output devices and
processing units. Input and output devices are integral parts
of the computer system which enables the user to interact
directly with the computer. Some of the input devices are
Keyboard, Mouse, Barcode reader, Scanner, Webcam, Digital
pen, Finger print scanner, Touch screen, Gaming devices,
Microphones, etc..
 INPUT DEVICE
Input devices are the devices we use to put information
INTO a computer.
An Input device is any piece of computer hardware
equipment used to provide data and control signals to
a computing system. Input and output devices make
up the hardware interface between a computer and the
user or external world.
Typical examples of input devices include keyboards and
mouse. However, there are others which provide many
more degrees of freedom. In general, any sensor
which monitors, scans for and accepts information
from the external world can be considered an input
device, whether or not the information is under the
direct control of a user.
Any machine that feeds data into a computer. For example,
a keyboard is an input device, whereas a display
monitor is an output device. Input devices other than
the keyboard are sometimes called alternate input
devices. Mice, trackballs, and light pens are all
alternate input device.
Input devices can be classified according to :
• The modality of input (e.g. mechanical motion, audio,
visual, etc.)
• whether the input is discrete (e.g. key presses) or
continuous (e.g. a mouse's position, though digitized
 into a discrete quantity, is high-resolution enough to be
thought of as continuous)
• the number of degrees of freedom involved (e.g. many
mice allow 2D positional input, but some devices allow
3D input, such as the Logitech Magellan Space Mouse)

• Whether the input is direct or indirect. With direct input,

the input space coincides with the display space, i.e.
pointing is done in the space where visual feedback or
the cursor appears. Touch screens and light pens
involve direct input. Examples involving indirect input
include the mouse and trackball.
• Whether the positional information is absolute (e.g. on a
touch screen) or relative (e.g. with a mouse that can be
lifted and repositioned)

1. KEYBOARD:
As the name implies, a keyboard is basically a board of keys.
Along with the mouse, the keyboard is one of the primary
input devices used with a computer. The keyboard's design
comes from the original typewriter keyboards, which
arranged letters and numbers in a way that prevented the
type-bars from getting jammed when typing quickly. This
keyboard layout is known as the QWERTY design, which
gets its name from the first six letters across in the upper-
left-hand corner of the keyboard.
Keyboard is a peripheral partially modelled after the
typewriter keyboard.
A keyboard typically has characters engraved or printed on
the keys; in most cases, each press of a key corresponds to
a single written symbol. However, to produce some symbols
requires pressing and holding several keys simultaneously
or in sequence; other keys do not produce any symbol, but
instead affect the operation of the computer or the keyboard
itself.
A majority of all keyboard keys produce letters, numbers or
signs (characters) that are appropriate for the operator's
language. Other keys can produce actions when pressed,
and other actions are available by the simultaneous pressing
of more than one action key.

TYPES OF Keyboard
1. Multimedia keyboards:

Multimedia keyboards offer special keys for accessing

music, web, and other often-used programs. They also
usually have other convenient controls, such as a mute
button, volume buttons or knob, and standby (sleep) button.
Multimedia keyboard has a standard keyboard layout with an
easy one-touch media control to play CD, DVD and MP3
media files. It integrates the web, e-mail, search and other
favourite applications with a one-touch Internet access key.

2. Gaming keyboards:

Some gaming keyboards offer extra function keys which can

be programmed with keystroke macros. For example,
ctrl+shift+y could be a keystroke that is frequently used in a
certain computer game. But it is a physically awkward (or,
at least, annoying) combination for the hands to reach for
repeatedly. It may be very useful to assign that keystroke
combination to one function key. Some keyboards (Such as
the Logitech G11 or G15) have a keypad full of "G keys" to
the left of the QWERTY keyboard for this purpose.

The development of these keyboards was spurred by

gaming, but the concept can also be very convenient in non-
gaming applications, such as office work. Any keystroke
combination that is awkward or annoying but frequently
needed can be replaced with a "G key". The meaning of the
"G key" press can automatically change depending on which
application has focus, thus extending the number of macros
available given a certain limited number of G keys.

3. Flexible Foldable Mini Keyboard

This revolutionary keyboard is water – resistant, flexible

dust and contaminant proof. The keyboard can be used in
industrial environments, hospitals, libraries, marine and
boating applications… infact anywhere where dust and
liquids are present. The silicon-based material is impervious
to almost anything! This washable, roll-able, foldable
keyboard has been called “the best thing to happen to typing
since the backspace key.”
Ideal for travel, school or industrial applications, it fits in
your briefcase, backpack or note book carrying case and
you don’t have to worry about any sharp edges! The soft
material allows a quick, reflexive typing action that is silent
and more comfortable than hard plastic surfaces.

4. Wireless Keyboard

Sometimes sitting close to your computer monitor at a desk

can be uncomfortable. Other times, there may be so many
tangled wires behind your computer that you are unable to
organize them. Regardless of which scenario you find
yourself in more often, a wireless keyboard can help.
A wireless keyboard is exactly the same as a normal
computer keyboard except for one major difference:
Wireless keyboards transfer typing data to the computer via
infrared beams. A beam of information is sent from the
keyboard, as you type, to a receiver, which is plugged into
the computer. This allows for a cordless experience, which
eliminates the potential for another tangled cord behind your
computer. It is also common for many consumers to
purchase a wireless mouse to compliment a wireless
keyboard.
Wireless technology also allows you to place your wireless
keyboard or mouse in a position that the corded-version may
not reach. However, the infrared keyboard receiver must be
placed in a location that is easily reachable by the infrared
beam. This distance may vary from model to model, so
check specifications before purchasing a wireless keyboard.
If the keyboard is not pointed in the general direction of the
receiver, or if the line-of-sight between the wireless
keyboard and receiver is blocked, then the signal will not be
transmitted to the computer. This can create a problem for
the user if someone is walking between the keyboard and
receiver or if the keyboard is not angled correctly.
If you are sure that the space between your wireless
keyboard and receiver will be relatively clutter free, a
wireless keyboard can make a great addition to your home
computer, freeing you up by providing more flexibility in the
way you operate your computer system.

5.Smaller keyboards

A standard keyboard is physically quite large, as each key

must remain large enough to be easily pressed by fingers.
Other types of keyboards have been proposed for small
portable equipment where a standard keyboard is too large.
One way to reduce the size of the keyboard is to reduce the
number of keys and use chording keyer, i.e. pressing several
keys simultaneously. For example, the GKOS keyboard has
been designed for small wireless devices. Other two-handed
alternatives more akin to a game controller, such as the
AlphaGrip, are also used as a way to input data and text.

Another way to reduce the size of a keyboard is to use

smaller buttons and pack them closer together. Such
keyboards, often called a "thumbboard" (thumbing) are used
in some personal digital assistants such as the Treo and
BlackBerry and some Ultra-Mobile PCs such as the OQO.
2. MOUSE:
The name mouse originated at the Stanford Research Institute,
derives from the resemblance of early models (which had a cord
attached to the rear part of the device,
In computing, a mouse (plural mouse devices or mouses) is a
pointing device that functions by detecting two-dimensional
motion relative to its supporting surface. Physically, a mouse
consists of a small case, held under one of the user's hands, with
one or more buttons. It sometimes features other elements, such
as "wheels", which allow the user to perform various system-
dependent operations, or extra buttons or features can add more
control or dimensional input. The mouse's motion typically
translates into the motion of a pointer on a display, which allows
for fine control of a Graphical User Interface.
The mouse first became a widely-used computer tool when Apple
Computer made it a standard part of the Apple Macintosh. Today,
the mouse is an integral part of the graphical user interface (GUI)
of any personal computer. The mouse apparently got its name by
being about the same size and color as a toy mouse.
A mouse consists of a metal or plastic housing or casing, a ball
that sticks out of the bottom of the casing and is rolled on a flat
surface, one or more buttons on the top of the casing, and a
cable that connects the mouse to the computer. As the ball is
moved over the surface in any direction, a sensor sends impulses
to the computer that causes a mouse-responsive program to
reposition a visible indicator (called a cursor) on the display
screen. The positioning is relative to some variable starting
place.

Laser mouse VS: Optical mouse

The difference between a regular optical mouse and a laser
mouse is the light used to track movement. optical mouse
uses an LED light in the optical engine, while a laser mouse
uses a laser to track movement. The more dots per inch
(dpi) a mouse can track the more sensitive and accurate it
is. A typical optical mouse tracks between 400dpi and
800dpi, while laser mouse track more than 2,000dpi.

Neither is really better; it all depends on your needs and

preferences. Unless you're a gamer or a graphic artist with a
need for precise movement, you'll probably find a 2,000dpi
laser mouse too sensitive. Many gaming mouse, however,
allow you to switch sensitivity levels so that you have
precision when you need it but can revert to 400dpi or
800dpi for regular mousing.

Besides their tracking speeds, laser mouse work on nearly

every surface, whereas optical mouse may experience
trouble tracking on black or shiny surfaces.

Optical Mouse
An optical mouse uses camera technology and digital
processing to compare and track the position of the mouse,
rather than a ball and rollers used on older mouse. This
technology, first introduced by Agilent technologies in 1999,
helps give users more precise performance without the
maintenance and cleaning needed on older mouse.
Inside each optical mouse is a small camera that takes
more than a thousand snapshot pictures every second. A
small LED (light-emitting diode) provides light underneath
the mouse, helping to highlight slight differences in the
surface underneath the mouse. Those differences are
reflected back into the camera, where digital processing is
used to compare the pictures and determine the speed and
direction of movement. This differs from older-technology
mouse, in which a round ball rolled against a mouse pad to
indicate movement.
Optical mouse have a number of benefits over older
technologies. One of the biggest benefits is that the
elimination of the mouse ball, which frequently required
cleaning to scrape accumulated grime of the ball or the
rollers inside. As there are no moving parts in optical mouse,
almost no maintenance or regular cleaning is required.
Another benefit is that digital processing often results in
smoother, more accurate performance than prior
technologies. Optical mouse typically don't require a mouse
pad and can be used on many surfaces, including those that
are not entirely flat.

Laser Mouse
A laser mouse is a type of computer mousing device that
uses a laser beam rather than a ball to track the movement
of the user's hand. Laser mouse are common because they
are perceived to have better tracking ability. In addition,
they are not as subject to gumming up and subsequent
distortion of the signal as conventional ball mouse. The lack
of moving parts also makes them far less subject to damage.
The optical mouse is also available in a wireless format,
making it an extremely versatile and flexible tool for users
who like to have free range of their cordless desks.
With the introduction of a graphical user interface in the late
1980s, computer companies saw the need for some sort of
device that could be used to interact with the computer,
which had transcended the boundaries of the traditional
text-based user interface. The mouse was introduced and
became a quick success — very few computer users work
without mouse now, although it is technically possible to
utilize keyboard shortcuts to bypass the mouse. Optical and
laser mouse were an excellent introduction to the
computing world, because it is not as subject to
interference.
In general, the laser mouse moves very smoothly and
accurately, although if the system memory is bogged down,
it will cause the cursor to lag, along with everything else. In
addition, the laser mouse can reflect from almost any
surface, meaning that a mouse pad is not necessary.

Wireless Mouse
The mouse is an extremely popular technology to interact
with your computer. While the majority of mouse are
connected directly to the computers peripheral input via a
cord and are powered by the computers main power,
wireless mouse are becoming extremely popular to give
computer user’s cordless accessibility to their mouse and to
interact with their computer.
Wireless Mouse Technology

Wireless mouse usually work via radio frequencies

commonly referred to as RF. RF wireless mouse require
two components to work properly as a radio transmitter.

Three Types Mice of Wireless

Today, there are three different mouse technologies,

MECHANICAL, OPTICAL and LASER.

MECHANICAL MOUSE uses a small rubber ball to calculate

distance and position. However these mouse are very rarely
manufactured anymore due to the fact that they get dirty
easily and are slow to process information.

OPTICAL MOUSE is the de facto standard for mouse today;

they use optical light to calculate distance and position.
They are extremely inexpensive, extremely reliable and
process information quickly.

A new technology that is out is LASER MOUSE. Instead of

optical light, they use laser light to precisely calculate
movement and position. They are extremely precise, reliable
and process information extremely quick. Most gamers use
Laser mouse because of their high performance. However
they are much more expensive than optical mouse.

3.BARCODE READER:
A barcode reader (or barcode scanner) is an electronic
device for reading printed barcodes. Like a flatbed scanner,
it consists of a light source, a lens and a photo conductor
translating optical impulses into electrical ones.
Additionally, nearly all barcode readers contain decoder
circuitry analyzing the barcode's image data provided by the
photo conductor and sending the barcode's content to the
scanner's output port
A bar code scanner scans a little label that has a bar code
on it. The information is then saved on the computer. Bar
code scanners are used in libraries a lot.
A barcode reader also called a price scanner or point-of-sale
(POS ) scanner is a hand-held or stationary input device used
to capture and read information contained in a bar code . A
barcode reader consists of a scanner , a decoder (either
built-in or external), and a cable used to connect the reader
with a computer. Because a barcode reader merely captures
and translates the barcode into numbers and/or letters, the
data must be sent to a computer so that a software
application can make sense of the data. Barcode scanners
can be connected to a computer through a serial port ,
keyboard port , or an interface device called a wedge . A
barcode reader works by directing a beam of light across
the bar code and measuring the amount of light that is
reflected back. (The dark bars on a barcode reflect less light
than the white spaces between them.) The scanner converts
the light energy into electrical energy, which is then
converted into data by the decoder and forwarded to a
computer.
4.SCANNERS
A scanner is a device that captures images from
photographic prints, posters, magazine pages, and similar
sources for computer editing and display. Scanners come in
hand-held, feed-in, and flatbed types and for scanning black-
and-white only, or color. Very high resolution scanners are
used for scanning for high-resolution printing, but lower
resolution scanners are adequate for capturing images for
computer display. Scanners usually come with software,
such as Adobe's Photoshop product.
Scanners usually attach to your personal computer with a
Small Computer System Interface (SCSI ).
Some major manufacturers of scanners include: Epson,
Hewlett-Packard, Microtek, and Relisys.
Common examples found in offices are variations of the
desktop (or flatbed) scanner where the document is placed
on a glass window for scanning. Hand-held scanners, where
the device is moved by hand, have evolved from text
scanning "wands" to 3D scanners used for industrial design,
reverse engineering, test and measurement, orthotics,
gaming and other applications. Mechanically driven
scanners that move the document are typically used for
large-format documents, where a flatbed design would be
impractical. A scanner is used to copy pictures or other
things and save them as files on the computer.

5.WEBCAMS
A webcam, or web camera, is the loosely used term for any
camera that generates images that can be accessed by and
displayed on the World Wide Web through a server. A
webcam is essentially just a camera that is connected to a
computer, either directly or wirelessly, and gathers a series
of images for remote display elsewhere. Webcam technology
is widely used by all sorts of people for all sorts of different
reasons.

In 1991, the first webcam was up and running at Cambridge

University's Computer Science Department, but since then,
webcams have crept into homes, businesses, public streets
and buildings. Webcams are often used for personal use in
the home by parents who want to give distant relatives
visual access to their children or want to monitor what goes
on in the home while they are at work. People might also
use webcams in the home to keep an eye on things while
they are out of town or even just to see what their pets do
all day. The uses of a webcam are limitless. Businesses
often use webcams for video conferencing, and webcam
technology is used by numerous other entities to give the
public access to a variety of information, from weather and
traffic to the feeding habits of the most recently acquired
zoo animal. Some schools and day care facilities use a
webcam to allow parents to see what their children do at
school.

The webcam basically works by capturing a series of digital

images that are transferred by the computer to a server and
then displayed to the hosting page. There are even sites that
allow users to upload and store their webcam images for
free, which many individuals choose for personal use. Some
webcams capture a still image only once every 30 seconds,
while others provide streaming video by capturing 30 images
per second. A webcam can be purchased at any computer
store and most major electronics retailers, as well as online.

6.DIGITAL PEN
A digital pen is a battery-operated writing instrument that
allows the user to digitally capture a handwritten note or
drawing. Typically, a digital pen comes with a Universal
Serial Bus (USB) cradle to let the user upload the
handwritten notes to a personal computer (PC). The pen
looks like a regular ball-point pen and can be used as such,
but requires special digital paper if the user wishes to
digitally capture what he has written. A page of digital
paper, which can be purchased in traditional pad or sticky-
note size, has small dots on it that allow the pen to "see"
what has been written.

Many digital pens come with handwriting recognition

software that allows the user to import their handwritten
notes into typed text. Some of the newer high-end digital
pens are wireless, taking advantage of Bluetooth
technology. These pens do not require a docking station, but
instead send the captured notes or drawings directly to the
user's PC or cell phone.
Typically, a digital pen can store up to 40 pages of saved
digital paper in its memory. Only pages that have been
checked will be saved. Most pens save the handwritten data
as an image file (GIF or JPEG, depending on the pen's
manufacturer) although some digital pens use a proprietary
file format. When the user wants to upload his saved notes
from the pen, he docks the pen in its USB cradle.

7.FINGER PRINT SCANNER

The fingerprint scanner is a form of biometrics which
enables us to use something we have (in this case our
finger) to help authenticate us to a computer or network.
Fingerprint scanners are starting to show up in many mom
and pop shops all over. They are cheap and easy to
configure. They are mainly used to ensure security in
business organizations. Along with finger print scanner,
retina scan analysis is also used for security in
organizations. Computerized fingerprint scanners have been
a mainstay of spy thrillers for decades, but up until recently,
they were pretty exotic technology in the real world. In the
past few years, however, scanners have started popping up
all over the place -- in police stations, high-security buildings
and even on PC keyboards.
Remembering passwords becomes inconvenient for most
people, especially businessmen who need to protect, as well
as access numerous high security systems, files, etc. With
the fingerprint scanner, a user doesn’t even have to know
what their password is and they can still access secure
systems.

8.TOUCH SCREEN
A touch screen is a display which can detect the presence
and location a touch within the display area. The term
generally refers to touch by a finger or hand. Some touch
screens can sense other passive objects, such as a stylus.
However, if the object sensed is active, as with a light pen,
the term touchscreen is generally not applicable. The rule of
thumb is this: if you can interact with the display using just
your finger, it is likely a touchscreen - even if you are using a
stylus or some other object. If it does not work with just the
finger, it is most likely not a touchscreen.
The touchscreen has two main attributes. First, it enables
you to interact with what is displayed directly on the screen,
where it is displayed, rather than indirectly with a mouse
(computing) or touchpad. Secondly, it lets one do so without
requiring any intermediate device, again, such as a stylus
that needs to be held in the hand. Such displays can be
attached to computers or, as terminals, to networks. They
also play a prominent role in the design of digital appliances
such as the personal digital assistant (PDA), satellite
navigation devices and mobile phone.
9.GAMING DEVICES
A gamepad, also called joy pad or control pad, is a type of
game controller held in the hand, where the digits
(especially thumbs) are used to provide input. Gamepads
generally feature a set of action buttons handled with the
right thumb and a direction controller handled with the left.
The direction controller has traditionally been a four-way
digital cross (D-pad), but most modern controllers
additionally (or as a substitute) feature an analog stick. The
analog stick was introduced with the Nintendo 64 controller.
Gamepads are the primary means of input on all modern
video game consoles except for the Wii (though the Wii
Remote can function alternately as a gamepad). Gamepads
are also available for personal computers, although a
keyboard and mouse combination tends to be utilized more
often for certain genres.
Some programmable joysticks that can be programmed to
act as a key on a keyboard have been made to circumvent
the problem lacking joystick support in some computer
games, notably the Belkin Nostromo Speed Pad n52.
10.MICROPHONES
A microphone, sometimes referred to as a mike or mic (both
pronounced /ˈmaɪk/), is an acoustic-to-electric transducer or
sensor that converts sound into an electrical signal which is
ultimately transmitted into the system. Microphones are
used in many applications such as telephones, tape
recorders, hearing aids, motion picture production, live and
recorded audio engineering, in radio and television
broadcasting and in computers for recording voice, VoIP,
and for non-acoustic purposes such as ultrasonic checking.

The most common design today uses a thin membrane

which vibrates in response to sound pressure. This
movement is subsequently translated into an electrical
signal. Most microphones in use today for audio use
electromagnetic generation (dynamic microphones),
capacitance change (condenser microphones) or
piezoelectric generation to produce the signal from
mechanical vibration.

Microphone covers are often made of soft open-cell

polyester or polyurethane foam because of the inexpensive,
disposable nature of the foam. Optional windscreens are
often available from the manufacturer and third parties. One
disadvantage of polyurethane foam microphone covers is
that they can deteriorate over time. Windscreens also tend
to collect dirt and moisture in their open cells and must be
cleaned to prevent high frequency loss, bad odour and
unhealthy conditions for the person using the microphone.
11.PADDLE
A paddle is a game controller with a round wheel and one or
more fire buttons, where the wheel is typically used to
control movement of the player object along one axis of the
video screen. A paddle controller rotates through a fixed arc
(usually about 330 degrees); it has a stop at each end and
rotating it further can break it.
A variation on the Paddle, the Atari driving controller appeared on
the Atari 2600. Designed specifically for the game Indy 500, it
was almost identical in operation and design to the regular
paddle controller. However, its wheel can be continuously
rotated in either direction, and it was missing the extra
paddle included on the previous model. Unlike a spinner,
friction prevented the wheel from gaining momentum.
HOW IT WRKS
The paddle wheel is usually mechanically coupled to a
potentiometer, so as to generate an output voltage
level varying with the wheel's angle relative to a fixed
reference position. A paddle is thus an absolute position
controller. That is, the sensor can be read and the result
directly indicates the position of the paddle knob. This is
in contrast to a quadrature encoder-based device or
"spinner".
12.JOYSITCK
The name "joystick" is thought to originate with early 20th
century French pilot Robert Esnault-Pelterie. A joystick is an input
device consisting of a stick that pivots on a base and
reports its angle or direction to the device it is controlling.
Joysticks are often used to control video games, and usually
have one or more push-buttons whose state can also be read
by the computer. A popular variation of the joystick used on
modern video game consoles is the analog stick.

Some joysticks have force feedback capability. These are thus

active devices, not just input devices. The computer can
return a signal to the joystick that causes it to resist the
movement with a returning force or make the joystick
vibrate.
Most joysticks are two-dimensional, having two axes of
movement (similar to a mouse), but three-dimensional
joysticks do exist. A joystick is generally configured so that
moving the stick left or right signals movement along the X
axis, and moving it forward (up) or back (down) signals
movement along the Y axis.
Additionally joysticks often have one or more fire buttons,
used to trigger some kind of action. These are simple on/off
switches.
Most interface cards for PCs have a joystick (game control) port.
Modern joysticks mostly use a USB interface for connection
to the PC.

Specialist joysticks, classed as an assistive technology pointing

device, are used to replace the computer mouse for people with
fairly severe physical disabilities. Rather than controlling
games these joysticks plug into the USB port and control the
mouse pointer. They are often useful to people with athetoid

conditions, such as cerebral palsy, who find them easier to

grasp than a standard mouse. Miniature joysticks are also
available for people with conditions involving muscular
weakness such as muscular dystrophy or motor neurone disease.’

INDUSTRIAL USES
In recent times, the employment of joysticks has become
common place in many industrial and manufacturing
applications, such as; cranes, assembly lines, forestry
equipment, mining trucks, and excavators. In fact, the use of
such joysticks is in such high demand, that it has virtually
replaced the traditional mechanical control lever in nearly
all modern hydraulic control systems.
Due to the abusive nature of such applications, the
industrial joystick tends to be more robust than the typical
video-game controller, and able to function over a high cycle
life. This led to the development and employment of Hall
Effect sensing to such applications in the 1980s as a means
of contactless sensing. The leading manufacturer of
Industrial Hall Effect Joysticks Is P- Q controls which was
one of the first companies to expand the use of Hall Effect
sensing to such applications in the 1980s, and in fact holds
exclusive patents for contactless sensing.
13.TRACK BALL
A trackball is a pointing device consisting of a ball housed in
a socket containing sensors to detect rotation of the ball
about two axes—like an upside-down mouse with an
exposed protruding ball. The user rolls the ball with the
thumb, fingers, or the palm of the hand to move a cursor.
Large tracker balls are common on CAD workstations for
easy precision. Before the advent of the touchpad, small
trackballs were common on portable computers, where
there may be no desk space on which to run a mouse. Some
small thumb balls clip onto the side of the keyboard and
have integral buttons with the same function as mouse
buttons. The trackball was invented by Tom Cranston and
Fred Longstaff as part of the Royal Canadian Navy's DATAR
system in 1952, eleven years before the mouse was
invented. This first trackball used a Canadian five-pin
bowling ball.
When mouse still used a mechanical design (with slotted
'chopper' wheels interrupting a beam of light to measure
rotation), trackballs had the advantage of being in contact
with the user's hand, which is generally cleaner than the
desk or mousepad and doesn't drag lint into the chopper
wheels. The late 1990s advent of scroll wheels, and the
replacement of mouse balls by direct optical tracking, put
trackballs at a disadvantage and forced them to retreat into
niches where their distinctive merits remained important.
Most trackballs now have direct optical tracking which
follows dots on the ball. Some mice, in place of a scroll
wheel, acquired a small trackball between the buttons,
useful in maps and other circumstances calling for scrolling
in two dimensions.
Computer gamers have been able to successfully use
trackballs in most modern computer games, including FPS,
RPG, and RTS genres, with any slight loss of speed
compensated for with an increase in precision. Many
trackball gamers are competent at "throwing" their cursor
rapidly across the screen, by spinning the trackball,
enabling (with practice) much faster motion than can be
achieved with a mouse and arm motion. However, many
gamers are deterred by the time it takes to 'get used to' the
different style of hand control that a trackball requires.
Trackballs have also been regarded as excellent
complements to analog joysticks, as pioneered by the
Assassin 3D 1996 trackball with joystick pass-through
capability.
Some computer users prefer a trackball over the more
common mouse for ergonomic reasons. There doesn't seem
to be conclusive evidence of one being better than the other
in terms of comfort. Users are encouraged to test different
devices, and to maintain proper posture and scheduled
breaks for comfort. Some disabled users find trackballs
easier since they only have to move their thumb relative to
their hand, instead of moving the whole hand, while others
incur unacceptable fatigue of the thumb.

14.MICR:
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition, or MICR
(pronounced my-ker or micker), a character
recognition technology adopted mainly by the
banking industry to facilitate the processing of
checks. The process was demonstrated to the
American Bankers Association in July 1956, and was
almost universally employed in the U.S. by 1963. It
employees a system of printed characters which can
be easily read by human beings as well as machine
readers. They are usually printed using a special ink
which contains a magnatisable material and this
printed material has 4 small gaps and 2 big gaps.
When a character is subsequently read, it is passed
beneath a reading head and the big and small gaps
send different impulses as the input. This method is
mainly used in the banking industry where most
cheques are processed under MICR code. The data
printed across the bottom of the cheque are
recorded in the MICR form which can be read by the
machine and acts as an input to the system to
generate other details.
MICR characters are printed in the form of either an
E-13B or CMC-7 Font. Each font series is made up of
a series of numbers and symbols specifically
designed for readability on check sorting machines
which read at extremely high rates of speed. The
symbols provide a beginning and ending point for
each group of numbers allowing the machine to
quickly determine what each series of number
signifies. If required the same information in the
document can also be read optically through OCR.
Over the years, MICR has been proven to be a secure
and high performance mechanism for processing
information. The numbers typically found on the
bottom of a cheque comprising of the cheque
number, sort number and account number are
usually printed in magnetic ink for use in MICR. The
magnetically charged printing allows each character
to be recognized based on the magnetic signal
created by each character’s unique shape. These
shapes create a unique magnetic “fingerprint” which
allows the reader-sorter machines to recognize each
character. Since MICR is a machine readable
process, it is imperative that each character is
accurately placed and is free of irregular marks or
voids. The uniformity of print is another key
component to readability.

15.OCR:
OCR (optical character recognition) is the
recognition of printed or written text characters by
a computer. This involves photo scanning of the text
character-by-character, analysis of the scanned-in
image, and then translation of the character image
into character codes, such as ASCII, commonly used
in data processing. Optical character recognition
(using optical techniques such as mirrors and
lenses) and digital character recognition (using
scanners and computer algorithms) were originally
considered separate fields. Because very few
applications survive that use true optical
techniques, the OCR term has now been broadened
to include digital image processing as well.
In OCR processing, the scanned-in image or bitmap
is analyzed for light and dark areas in order to
identify each alphabetic letter or numeric digit.
When a character is recognized, it is converted into
an ASCII code. Special circuit boards and computer
chips designed expressly for OCR are used to speed
up the recognition process. OCR is being used by
libraries to digitize and preserve their holdings. OCR
is also used to process checks and credit card slips
and sort the mail. Billions of magazines and letters
are sorted every day by OCR machines, considerably
speeding up mail delivery. It also employees a set of
printed characters with a standard form that can be
read by humans and machines. The machine reading
is done by light scanning techniques in which each
character is eliminated by a light source and the
reflected image of the character is analysed in
terms of the dark light pattern produced. OCR also
has the potential of reading hand – written
documents. But, the OSR’s can read the characters
that are written specifically using certain norms like
proper – spacing, paper – quality, ink specifications,
font type and the size of the characters. Large
volume building applications like credit card
organizations increasingly use OCR methods.

16.VOICE RECOGNITION:
The field of computer science that deals with
designing computer systems that can recognize
spoken words. Note that voice recognition implies
only that the computer can take dictation, not that
it understands what is being said. Comprehending
human languages falls under a different field of
computer science called natural language
processing.
A number of voice recognition systems are available
on the market. The most powerful can recognize
thousands of words. However, they generally require
an extended training session during which the
computer system becomes accustomed to a
particular voice and accent. Such systems are said
to be speaker dependent. Many systems also require
that the speaker speak slowly and distinctly and
separate each word with a short pause. These
systems are called discrete speech systems.
Recently, great strides have been made in
continuous speech systems -- voice recognition
systems that allow you to speak naturally. There are
now several continuous-speech systems available
for personal computers. Because of their limitations
and high cost, voice recognition systems have
traditionally been used only in a few specialized
situations. For example, such systems are useful in
instances when the user is unable to use a keyboard
to enter data because his or her hands are occupied
or disabled. Instead of typing commands, the user
can simply speak into a headset. Increasingly,
however, as the cost decreases and performance
improves, speech recognition systems are entering
the mainstream and are being used as an alternative
to keyboards.

17.CARD READER:
A card reader is a device that is capable of reading
the encoding on plastic cards. It is also known as a
device on a photocopier that reads a cards barcode,
enables the service and deducts credit as the card
is used. Known as an Input device on a card
terminal, it translates the information stored on the
magnetic stripe on the back of a card. It has a slot
for the memory card on which the pictures in a
digital camera are stored and quickly transfers the
pictures to your computer. It is a device typically
having a USB interface, for accessing the data on a
memory card such as a Compact Flash, secure
digital or Multimedia Card. It is also known as a
hardware device that reads and transmits payment
information stored in the magnetic stripe on a
credit, debit or stored-value card. It is a device that
inserts flash memory cards to transfer the data to
the computer. Much faster than the serial port!

Features:
• Read and write memory cards.
• Supports Memory Stick PRO, Memory Stick, SD
Memory Card, Multimedia Card and xD-Picture
Card.
• Supports, with your card adapter, Memory Stick
Duo™, Memory StickMicr, miniSD, microSD, RS-
MC, MMCplus, MMCmobile
• Plug-and-play, no drivers required.
• No batteries required, powered via
ExpressCard/34 slot.
• USB 2.0 High-Speed (up to 480 Mbps) compared
to up to 12 Mbps for USB 1.0 card readers and
even slower rates transferring directly from the
camera.