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Mapping Meta-Territory

Author(s): R. Murray Thomas


Source: Educational Researcher, Vol. 13, No. 1 (Jan., 1984), pp. 16-18
Published by: American Educational Research Association
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1174623
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Mapping Meta-Territory
R. MURRAY THOMAS
University of California, Santa Barbara

In all fields of endeavor when a(metazoan); transcending (meta-the accepted designation for the do-
term is coined or adapted from psychosis); reversed (metathesis);main of philosophy concerned with
higher; between; with; over; andthe nature of being (ontology) and
another field, there is often a period
of confusion as consumers try to sort
so on. knowledge (epistemology).
out what meanings are intended by With the misinterpretation of An-
different authors and speakers. Such dronicus's intention there arose the
is the case with meta, as a growing Analyzing Greek Rootsassumption that the prefix meta
number of authors write about meta- when attached
Searching for meta's origins in to any word, would
classical Greek is not much aid in
analysis, metacognition, metatheory, elevate the original meaning of such
establishing a sound semantic basea word to a higher, more abstract
metaattention, metalearning, meta-
language, metacriticism, meta-on which to build "proper" philosophical level, just as Aristotle's
humor, and so on. The problem isneologisms, because few meaningsspeculations about being and God
particularly acute when the term, of terms coined today are faithful toseemed more ethereal than the
meta's original definitions. In ancientphysics of which he wrote. As a con-
used as a neologism in a given field,
times the prefix meta nearly always sequence, authors periodically
is not yet listed in standard dic-
tionaries or glossaries. meant either after or change (Liddellcreated new terms to convey a va-
For producers and consumers of & Scott, 1940, pp. 1108-1118). riety of supra meanings, such as
educational research, understanding However, looking back 2,000 metagnostics (transcending ordinary
what metas are all about becomes in- years is not worthless, because it knowledge), metaphenomenal (ex-
creasingly important as readers en- helps explain why meta has acquired isting beyond consciousness), meta-
counter a growing variety of metas the principal meanings it bears todaymathematical (beyond the scope of
in disciplines that can fall within the in education and allied fields. During traditional mathematics), and meta-
purview of education-the physical the first century B.C., Andronicus ofempiricism (the science of pure
sciences; social sciences; humanities; Rhodes put in order Aristotle'sreason). Although the fields of
and such "applied" fields as essays on natural sciences, politicalbiology, chemistry, and geology to-
engineering, law, medicine, architec- theory, psychology, physics, theol- day do contain terms that reflect the
ture, and vocational training. ogy, and other subjects. In planning original definition of meta as after or
A consumer of present-day schol-a sequence for the books, Andron-behind, the recent meta creations in
arly literature, seeking to generateicus placed Aristotle's writings about education and cognate disciplines are
a proper meaning for a meta term by"being" and "God" after the booksnot offspring of that original mean-
building from a common meaning, is on physics. He signified his place-ing. Instead, they seem in some
hardly helped by locating meta in ment of these topics by labeling the fashion born of the deviant lineage
general dictionaries. There meta isvolume with the Greek word for that Andronicus unwittingly set off.
described as a prefix which conveysafter (meta) and the word for physicsThus, as readers seek to understand
different intents in various contexts. (phusica), to produce after physics new meta terms, they find no help
It can mean trans-, or changed in (meta ta phusika) (Harriman 1959, p. in learning that the Greek meta
position or form (metamorphosis, 708). So metaphysics simply meantmeant after and change.
metastasis); post-, or after (meta- that the essays on "the nature of be- What help, then, can readers ex-
pneumonic, meaning a conditioning" directly followed those on the pect? I suggest that help might be of
following pneumonia); behind (meta- physical world. In subsequent cen- three kinds: (a) authors' identifying
carpus); beyond (metalinguistics);turies, readers of Aristotle came to the meanings they intend for their
alternating (metagenesis); later regard Andronicus's location-desig- meta terms, (b) someone's offering
nator as the name of the contents of a considered opinion about preferred
Aristotle's views about "being."uses for meta, and (c) someone's
R. Murray Thomas is Professor of
Hence, by bibliographic accident the compiling a glossary of ways meta
Education and Head of the Program appears in the literature of education
in International Education, Graduate term metaphysics became misap-
prehended as meaning "the science and allied fields.
School of Education, University of
California, Santa Barbara, California of that which transcends the
93106. His specializations are child physical" (Oxford English Dictio- Identifying Meaning
development, international education, Many authors use meta terms
nary, 1933, pp. M-376-377). The
and classroom methodology. word metaphysics has since become
without specifying what is intended,
16 Educational Researcher

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a condition most commonly found in ical-that is, speculative reasoning," related to them," then following
specialized journals. However, two and "metahistory or histori- with "metacognition refers, among
problems arise when a writer as- ography." other things, to the active monitor-
sumes that readers already under- A third way is to state briefly the ing and consequential regulation and
stand how he or she is using the aspect of life on which the word orchestration of these processes in
term. relation to the cognitive objects or
focuses or the aspects encompassed
First, the word may mean dif- by the word. Thus, metamemory is data on which they bear" (p. 232)
ferent things even to knowledgeable described as "knowledge about Finally, a seventh mode of defin-
memory" (Flavell, 1977, p. 207). The
readers, so the author is obligated to ing includes specifying the realm of
indicate which of these meanings is phrase can be more complex, as in life intended by the term and a com-
parison of the term with one or more
intended. Recently I asked an author a description of metapsychology as
other words to show their relation-
what he meant by metatheory in one "philosophical speculation on the
of his articles. Did he mean an origin, structure, and function of the ships. This approach is illustrated by
overarching, umbrella theory that mind, and on the relationship be- Uttal's (1981) comparing metaprin-
encompasses more specific sub- tween the mind and objective reali- ciples with general principles in his
theories, as some writers use the ty" (Morris, 1969, p. 825). volume on visual perception:
term? No, he said, not on this occa- If the author wishes to show that
sion. This time he meant a precur- a meta term can have several mean- The metaprinciple makes a state-
ings, he or she should indicate this
sor of "true theory," a set of prelim- ment that extends across many issues
inary speculations that would notasasShapiro (1981) did in writing and describes a global aspect of
about dramatic criticism, identifying perceptual processing. As its name
yet qualify as tightly knit theory.
"the metadramatic or metatheatrical suggests, a metaprinciple is a major
Second, readers not highly special- organizing conclusion that encom-
ized in the field may never have metaspect of plays" as being "the prop-
passes many of the less "general"
a particular meta term before. By osition that plays are in part at least principles themselves. Metaprinciples
about themselves, some aspect of
not defining the use of the term, the are the universals that emerge when
author reduces the size of the au- dramatic or theatrical art, or the one studies visual perception; they
dience that can comprehend his or responses of spectators" (p. 151). reflect the tenets of a global
her work. A fourth way of defining consists epistemology of visual knowledge ac-
of describing the process or actions quisition. On the other hand, the less
On the other hand, many writers comprehensive "general" principle
do recognize that their particular implied by the term. For example,
transcends the conclusions of an in-
meta may be unclear, so they insert
Hansford and Hattie (1982) wrote,
dividual experiment but is not intend-
a definition at the point the term is
"Meta-analysis enables us to reduce
ed to be quite so universal; it speaks
first used. Such definitions can take the findings of disparate studies to more to the process level of global
different forms, with some more a common or comparable value, and doctrine (p. 980).
this common value can then be
helpful than others. Following are
seven approaches to providing def- related to various independent An even more detailed example of
variables identified in the particular this comparative and contrastive ap-
initions, with the examples progress-
ing from the simplest to the most research area" (p. 123). proach to defining is demonstrated
complete. A fifth approach involves offeringby Glass (1976), who is credited with
an abstract phrase and an examplecoining-or certainly with populari-
The least detailed form hardly of the term in a life situation. Flavellzing-the word meta-analysis:
qualifies as a definition. It consists and Ross (1981) used this tactic
of the author's placing the term in when they wrote "Metacognitive Primary analysis is the original
a context from which the reader
knowledge means all the knowledge analysis of data in a research
might infer a meaning. The danger, and beliefs you have acquired and study..... Secondary analysis is the
however, is that the reader's in- stored in long-term memory that reanalysis of data for the purpose of
ference may be faulty-too broad, concern anything pertinent to social answering the original research ques-
too narrow, or oblique. An examplecognition.... Examples of meta- tion with better statistical techniques,
is Magnus's (1981) article about cognitive knowledge are the ac- or answering new questions with old
Heidegger's metahistory of philoso-quired beliefs that you are often a data.... The term (meta-analysis) is
phy, in which the author never de- a bit grand, but it is precise, and apt,
poor judge of character and that one and in the spirit of "meta-
fines metahistory and only impliesway to find out how another person
mathematics,""meta-psychology,"
his meaning through phrases suchfeels is to ask her" (p. 273).
and "meta-evaluation." Meta-analysis
as "Heidegger's perception of the
A sixth variety consists of offering refers to the analysis of analyses. I
history of philosophy" and "Heideg- use it to refer to the statistical
a general definition followed by a
ger's reading of the history of phi-
description of more specific sub- analysis of a large collection of
losophy divides into three unequal analysis results from individual
meanings or applications intended in
parts" (pp. 445-446). studies for the purpose of integrating
the special context that the author the findings. It connotes a rigorous
A second way of defining involves is treating. Such is the case with alternative to the casual, narrative
pairing the meta term with a Flavell's (1976) generally defining discussions of research studies which
synonym that the reader presumably metacognition as "one's knowledge typify our attempts to make sense of
understands, such as "metathesis concerning one's own cognitive pro- the rapidly expanding research liter-
(spoonerisms)" and "metaphys- cess and products or anything ature (p. 3).

January 1984 17

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In conclusion, then, an obvious im- derived. Because each of the uses who follow it. Even authors who find
plication suggested by this brief meta terms useful in their writing
reflects a quality of "rising above im-
review of definitions is that an mediate events to consider them can wonder if by now enough is
author might profitably choose one enough. In a chapter on children's
from afar," each apparently evolved
of the above alternatives that ap-
from the post-Andronicus semanticthinking skills, Brown and DeLoache
pears best suited to the kinds of
mistake rather than the original(1978, p. 26) freely employ the terms
readers who will be meeting the metacognition, metacognitive devel-
Greek meanings of after or change.
author's next use of a meta term. opment, metacognitive control, meta-
A Descriptive Glossary memory, and metamnemonic
A Considered Opinion knowledge. Then they suggest that
The opinion offered above is the
A second sort of aid can be fur- children's knowledge of visual-
result of only a limited inspection of
nished by someone reviewing profes- scanning behavior "would be an in-
professional literature. It would be
sional literature to identify what teresting area of inquiry, although
a useful service, I feel, for someone
variations of meta exist and then we hope it will not be dubbed
to compile a more formal descriptive
suggesting which uses might best be glossary of meta uses in education metascanning." But too often
"hope," as Shakespeare noted in
accepted and which discouraged. and allied areas. The initial purpose
Henry VI, proves to be "but sad
From my own limited survey of such would be to map meta territory in
literature, I would hazard the opin- some detail. The compilation taskdespair," for the territory of meta
could perhaps be a subsidiary
ion that in fields related to education, terms seems bound to continue ex-
the two most popular present-day pastime-a casual scholarly enter- panding for some time to come.
meanings for meta are: tainment-for someone reading References
(1) "Knowledge about" or "an widely in educational literature for
analysis of" the thing to which a major research project. And the Brown, A. L., & DeLoache, J. S. Skills,
meta is affixed, as illustrated in the job could be facilitated by use of the plans, and self-regulation. In R. Siegler
above examples of metacognition computer-search capacity of a good (Ed.), Children's thinking: What
and metamemory. library.
develops? Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence
Erlbaum, 1978.
(2) "The quality of being overarch- If such a glossary is prepared, I
Flavell, J. H. Metacognitive aspects of
ing" or "broadly inclusive," of hope it might include three features: problem solving. In L. B. Resnick
"encompassing multiple aspects of 1. For a given meta term, the (Ed.), The nature of intelligence.
instances of the phenomenon variety of its meanings can be listed Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum,
under consideration," as in Uttal's according to their frequency of use, 1976.
metaprinciple and Glass's meta- the most popular first and the least Flavell, J. H. Cognitive development.
analysis. popular last. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall,
1977.
Because these two usages now ap- 2. The date can be given for the
first appearance of each definition in Flavell, J. H., & Ross, L. Social cog-
pear widespread and increasing in
the sources the compiler has used. nitive development. Cambridge: Cam-
frequency, it seems desirable, even
bridge University Press, 1981.
necessary, to accept both and The intention here is to reflect possi-
Glass, G. V. Primary, secondary, and
recognize that they will be used in ble trends in the refinement or ex-
meta-analysis of research. Educational
creating yet more meta terms. At pansion of the meta term. Researcher, 1976, 5(10), 3-8.
the same time I think it desirable to 3. For terms that are related to Hansford, B. C., & Hattie, J. A. The
discourage further proliferation of each other, a description of this rela- relationship between self and achieve-
meta meanings beyond this pair (plus tionship can be presented. For exam- ment/performance measures. Review
the now-traditional meaning of ple, if metacognition is a general of Educational Research, 1982, 52(1),
123-142.
"transcendent" or "highly ab- term encompassing metaperception
stract," as in metapsychology and and metamemory as constituentHarriman, L.H. Metaphysics. In Ency-
elements, then the two latter terms clopedia Americana (Vol. 18). New
metaphysics). Accepting without York: Americana Corporation, 1959.
complaint other extensions of metas could be subsumed under the general
Liddell, H. G., & Scott, R. A Greek-
(e.g., substituting meta for pre in term in outline form (metacognition
English lexicon (9th ed.). Oxford:
pretheoretical) simply confounds becomes 1, with metaperception as Clarendon Press, 1940.
what is already a somewhat confus- 1.1 and metamemory as 1.2). Or elseMagnus, B. Heidegger's metahistory of
ing state. the relationships might be displayed philosophy revisited. Monist, 1981,
Because such recommendations as as Venn diagrams. 64(4), 445-446.
these cannot be mandated into prac- Such a descriptive glossary could Morris, W. (Ed.). American heritage
tice, the job of accepting and of then inform the profession more dictionary of the English language.
precisely about trends in meta usage Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1969.
discouraging meta uses falls into the
Oxford English Dictionary (Vol. 6). Ox-
hands of the natural guardians of and thereby set the foundation for a
ford: Clarendon Press, 1933.
professional terminology-editors, more sophisticated opinion than theShapiro, M. Role-playing, reflexivity,
reviewers, instructors of graduate one I have offered above.
and metadrama in recent Shake-
students, and compilers of prescrip- The glossary could bear occasional spearean criticism. Renaissance
tive glossaries and dictionaries. updating, for creating meta terms Drama, 1981, 12, 145-161.
In passing, we can consider from has become something of a fad. And Uttal, W.R. A taxonomy of visual pro-
what etymological lineage the like many fads, it is viewed with a cesses. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence
foregoing "acceptable" uses have measure of ambivalence by those Erlbaum, 1981.

18 Educational Researcher

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