Electronic Circuit I

http://www.unaab.edu.
ng
Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta
COURSE CODE: ELE 307

COURSE TITLE: Electronic Circuit I
NUMBER OF UNITS: 3 Units
COURSE DURATION: Three hours per week
COURSE DETAILS:
COURSE DETAILS:
Course Coordinator: Dr. A. O. Fakolujo

Email:
Office Location: Elect./Elect. Engineering Building
Other Lecturers: None
COURSE CONTENT:
Review of two port network theory applied to transistor circuit. Transistor

characteristics (bipolar and FET). Analysis of single and multistage transistor
amplifier, frequency response analysis. Power amplifier: Class A,B, C and push-pull
amplifier. Feedback amplifiers. Oscillators. Introduction to operational amplifiers.
Stabilized power supply. Use of electronic device in voltage regulation. Review of
elementary digital concept. Switching properties of electronic device.
COURSE REQUIREMENTS:
This is a compulsory course for all 200 level students in the College of Engineering.
In view of this, students are expected to participate in all the course activities and have
minimum of 75% attendance to be able to write the final examination.
READING LIST:
1. M.Razeghi - Fundamentals of Solid State Engineering. 2nd edition
2. Botslestad and Nashelesky . Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory Botslestad

and Nashelesky
3. Theraja, B.L. and Theraja, A.K. A textbook of Electrical Technology. S.

Chard & Company Ltd, Ram Nagar, New Delhi 110055 (2005).
http://www.unaab.edu.ng
4. Basavaraj, B. and Shi Vashankar, H.N. Basic Electronics. 2nd Edition.

Gajendra Printin Press, Delhi (2004).
5. Jimmie, J.C. Electronic devices and Circuits.2nd edition. Schaums Outline

Series. Mc Graw-Hill (2002).
E
LECTURE NOTES
1.0 Review of 2-port network theory applied to transistor circuits.
2.0 Transistor Characteristics
2.1 The Transistor

There are two basic types of transistors. They are :
1. The bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
2. The field-effect transistor (FET)
2.1.1 The bipolar transistor
This is used in two broad areas of electronics namely :

a. As linear amplifiers to boost an electrical signal
b. As an electronic switch.
The bipolar transistor can be viewed as two P-N junctions connected back to back. There are
two types of bipolar transistors as shown in figure 2-1
NPN PNP
C N P N E C P N P E
B B
Figure 2-1
The transistor has three terminals: C -Collector, B- Base, E -Emitter

C C
B B
Its symbols are: E E
NPN PNP
Figure 2-2
The PNP transistor works the same way as NPN only in opposite current flow and voltage bias. .
However let us consider the explanation using NPN. Some students feel that they can remember
whether the arrow of the device symbol in pointing in or out by matching the letters of the
transistor type with the appropriate letters of the phrases pointing in or not pointing in. For
instance, there is a match between the letters npn and the italic letters of not pointing in and the
letters pnp with pointing in.
2.1.2 Transistor biasing
It is essential to apply voltages of correct polarity across the two junctions of transistor for it
to work properly. For normal operation; emitter-base junction is always forward biased
and collector-base junction is always reverse biased.
Figure 2-3
The transistor is connected in two electrical circuits. One is using the CE junction and the VCC
voltage source. The second one is using the BE junction and a VBB voltage source as shown in
the following figure.
RC VCC
C
RB B N
P
VBB N
E
Figure 2-4
The CE junction may viewed as two diodes back to back:
Figure 2-5
If BE circuit is not activated, the CE resistance is very high and current is very low.
In BE circuit the BE junction is in forward bias and electrons flow from E to B. Because the
base is very thin, more electrons flow through the BE junction than can be absorbed by the
base. The base is filled by free electrons, which are pulled by the positive potential of the C
(collector) terminal. Thats the reason why we get current through the collector and why we
cant implement a transistor with two separate diodes.
The current through the emitter (IE) is divided into two currents - the base current (IB) and the
collector current (IC).
IE = IC + IB (2.1)
The collector current, however, is comprised of two componentsthe majority and minority
carriers. The minority-current component is called the leakage current and is given the symbol ICO (IC
current with emitter terminal Open). The collector current, therefore, is determined in total by Eq.
(2.2).
IC = ICmajority+ ICOminority (2.2)
Because of the thin layer of the base, IB is much smaller than the IC. The ratio between IC
and IB is fixed and is one of the transistor parameters - .
IC
=
IB (2.3)
2.1.3 Transistor Amplifying Action

Typical values of voltage amplification for the common-base configuration vary from 50 to 300. The
current amplification (IC / IE) is always less than 1 for the common-base configuration. This latter
characteristic should be obvious since IC = IE and is always less than 1.
The basic amplifying action was produced by transferring a current I from a low to a high-resistance
circuit. The combination of the two terms in italics results in the label transistor; that is,
Transfer+ resistor > transistor
2.1.4 Transistor Circuit Configuration
There are basically three types of configurations for operating a transistor:

1. Common base (CB)
2. Common emitter (CE)
3. Common collector (CC)
Figure 2-6
2.1.5 The transition characteristic
The transistor transition characteristic describes the relationship between IC and IB shown in
the following figure:
The base of the transistor is significantly thinner than its collector and its emitter. A small
change of the base current, significantly affects the collector current as shown in the graph
below. Figure
2-7
IC
1 2 3
IB
Figure 2-7
This graph has 3 regions:
1) The CUTOFF region. In this range VBE < 0.5V and IB and IC are very small.
2) The LINEAR region. In this range the transistor acts as a linear current amplifier and
I C = I B . is one of the transistor's parameters, depending on the base width.
Typical values are in the range 50 - 200 but can be as high as 800. In the linear range
VBE = 0.6 - 0.7V.
3) The SATURATION region. In this region, changes in IB do not affect the IC current. In
this range VBE = 0.7 - 0.8V.
Another important characteristic is the output characteristic, which describes the

relationship between IC and VCE for a certain IB.
IC
1 2 IB = 50A
VCE sat
VCE
Figure 2-8
In the output characteristic, we can find two regions.
1) The SATURATION region. In this range VCE < 0.2V (VCE sat) and the relationship
between IC and IB is not I C = I B .
2) The LINEAR region. In this range, IC is constant and depends on IB only and not on
VCE.
If we change IB, we will get another output characteristic. The different output characteristics
may be drawn on a graph to show the relationship between IC, IB and VCE as shown in figure
2-9:
IC
1 IB = 50A
IB = 40A
IB = 30A 2
IB = 20A
IB = 10A
3
VCE
Figure 2-9
We can see how IC depends on IB and on VCE. In this graph, we can find three regions:
1) The SATURATION region. In this range VCE < 0.2V (VCE sat) and I C = I B .
2) The LINEAR region. In this range IC does not depend on VCE, but on IB according to
the formula I C = I B .
3) The CUTOFF region. In this range, IB and IC are very small.
2.1.6 Input or driving point characteristics for a common-base silicon

transistor amplifier
To fully describe the behavior of a three-terminal device such as the common-base amplifiers
requires two sets of characteristicsone for the driving point or input parameters and the other for
the output side. The input set for the common-base amplifier as shown in Fig. 2-10 will relate an
input current (IE) to an input voltage (VBE) for various levels of output voltage (VCB).
The output set will relate an output current (IC) to an output voltage (VCB) for various levels of input
current (IE). The output or collector set of characteristics has three basic regions of interest. Input or
driving point characteristics for a common-base silicon transistor amplifier is shown in figure 2-10.
Figure 2-10
Figure 2-11
The active region is the region normally employed for linear (undistorted) amplifiers. In particular:
In the active region the collector-base junction is reverse-biased, while the base-emitter junction is
forward-biased.
The curves clearly indicate that a first approximation to the relationship between IE and IC in the
active region is given by
IC ~ IE (3.3)
increases so rapidly with temperature. Note in Fig. 2-11 that as the emitter current increases above
zero, the collector current increases to a magnitude essentially equal to that of the emitter current
as determined by the basic transistor-current relations. Note also the almost negligible effect of VCB
on the collector current for the active region.
As inferred by its name, the cutoff region is defined as that region where the collector current is 0 A,
as revealed on Fig. 2-11. In addition:
In the cutoff region the collector-base and base-emitter junctions of a transistor are both reverse-
biased.
The saturation region is defined as that region of the characteristics to the left of VCB _ 0 V. The
horizontal scale in this region was expanded to clearly show the dramatic change in characteristics in
this region. Note the exponential increase in collector current as the voltage VCB increases toward 0
V.
In the saturation region the collector-base and base-emitter junctions are forward-biased.
The input characteristics of Fig. 3.7 reveal that for fixed values of collector voltage (VCB), as the base-
to-emitter voltage increases, the emitter current increases in a manner that closely resembles the
diode characteristics.
In other words, the effect of variations due to VCB and the slope of the input characteristics will be
ignored as we strive to analyze transistor networks in a manner that will provide a good
approximation to the actual response without getting too involved with parameter variations of less
importance.
2. 2 Analysis of single and multistage transistor amplifiers, frequency

response analysis
2.2.1 Load line and operating point
The idea is to determine the transistor operating point in the linear region. In this way, small
changes in IB will create big changes in IC.
In the following circuits, we will show NPN and PNP circuits in parallel. The calculations are
the same. Later we will use the NPN only because it is more popular in circuits. We will also
use the silicon parameters.
The basic bias circuit is the following one:
IE RC
VBB VBE
E VCC IC
VCE Q
RB IB B C VCC
C RB IB
B VCE
IC
E
VBB VBE
RC IE
Figure 2-12
Example 1
Find the operating point (usually called the Q point) of the circuit above using the parameters
below
VCC = 12V, RC= 2K, RB=40K, VBB=3V, =50
SOLUTION: To find the operating point (usually called the Q point) means to calculate or to
measure IC and VCE.
IC and VCE are parameters in a circuit called the output circuit and its equation is:
VCC = I C RC + VCE
VCE = VCC I C RC
This is a line equation, which describes the dependency between IC and VCE. RC is called the
circuit load and thats why this line is called the load line.
When IC = 0, then:
VCE = VCC
When VCE = 0, then:
VCC
IC =
RC
IC
VCC
RC
Q
VCE
VCC
Figure 2-13
The solution starts with the input circuit equation:
VBB = I B RB + VBE
We may assume VBE = 0.7V for silicon and 0.1V for germanium.
VBB VBE 3 0.7

IB = = = 0.0575mA
RB 40 K
I C = I B = 50 0.0575 = 2.875mA
VCE = VCC I C RC = 12 2.875m 2 K = 6.25V
Note:
If for example RC is equal 4K then:
VCE = 12 5.75m 4K = 11V
VCE cannot be negative. When it is, it means that the transistor is in the saturation
region and IC is not equal to I B .
In a saturation region:
VCE = 0.2V
VCC VCE sat 12 0.2

IC = = = 2.95mA
RC 4K
2.1.5 Fix bias circuit
In the above circuit, we use two voltage sources, which is unusual in transistor circuit.
Instead, we can connect RB to VCC and use VCC as VBB.
VCC VCC
IE
IB
RC
RB
IC
IC
RB
VCE
RC
IB
VBE
Figure 2-14
Observe the way we use to indicate the power supply terminals.
The input circuit equation is:
VCC = I B R B + VBE
VCC VBE
IB =
RB
The rest is the same as before.
IC = IB
VCE = VCC I C R C
We will design the system and calculate RB. RC is the load resistor and determined according
to the output impedance and the amplifier gain we want to get .Usually is 1K-2K. Lets
assume RC is 2K as before.
Usually we want that the Q point will be in the middle of the load line so:
VCC
VCE = = 6V
2
V VCE 12 6
I C = CC = = 3mA
RC 2K
I 3m
IB = C = = 0.06mA
50
The input circuit equation is:
VCC VBE 12 0.7

VCC = I B R B + VBF R B = = 188K
IBB 0.06m
We need larger resistance than before in order to achieve the same operating point.
This circuit is called fix bias because IB has a constant value.
VCC VBE
IB =
RB
The problem is that IC depends on and VCE depends on IC.

I C = I B
VCE = VCC I C RC
That means that the operating point depends on .
When we use a bipolar transistor we cant know its .
has a very wide range (may reach 50-400 or 100-800). Also, if we have a circuit that works
properly and we have to replace the transistor, the operating point may change significantly.
If we double from 50 to 100 IC will be doubled and the transistor will enter into saturation
mode. Check this.
The fix bias is used when we use the transistor as a switch .In this application, the
transistor is applied in two states only - the cutoff state and the saturation state.
2.1.6 Self bias circuit
When we use the transistor as an amplifier, which amplifies small changes in the input circuit
into large changes of VCE and IC in the output circuit, it is very important that the operating
point will be in the center of the load line.
In order to solve the fix bias problem we add resistor RE to the emitter.
RC = 2K , RE=500 , RB =? , =50
The input circuit equation is
VCC = I B RB + VBE + I E RE
I E = I B + I C = I B + I B = ( + 1) I B
VCC = I B RB + VBE + I B ( + 1) RE
VCC VBE
IB =
RB + ( + 1) RE
VCC VCC
RE
IE
RC
RB IB
IC
VCE IC
IB RB
VBE
IE RC
RE
Figure 2-15
We can see that if increases, IB decreases and vice versa.
(VCC VBE )
IC = IB =
R B + ( + 1)R E
If RB << ( + 1) RE we may assume:
(VCC VBE ) VCC VBE

IC
( + 1)R E RE
IC is no more depended on and so is the operating point.
VCE = VCC I C RC I E RE
I E IC
VCE = VCC I C ( RC + RE )
In order to get:
V
V
CE
= CC
= 6V
2
V V CE 12 6
I = CC
= = 2 .4 mA
C
R
C +R E 2 .5 K
I 2 .4 m
I
B =
C
= = 0 .048 mA
50
V
CC = I
B R B + I B ( + 1 ) R E
V V I ( + 1 )R 12 0 .7 1 .2
R
B
= CC BE B E
= = 210 K
I 0 .048 m
B
Lets double from 50 to 100.
VCE V BE 12 0.7
IB = = = 0 .043 mA
R B + ( + 1) R E 210 K + 101 0 .5 K
I C = I B = 4 .3mA
VCE = VCC I C ( RC + R E ) = 12 4 .3m 2 .5 K = 1 .25V
The change was less than without RE but still there is a change.
In order to increase the stability of the circuit we have to reduce the RB resistance. We can do
it by using VBB or voltage divider as shown in the following figure.
VCC
R1 RC 2K
R2 RE 500
Figure 2-16
To reach the same operating point VCE = 6V and IC = 2.4mA we have to do the following
steps:
VRE I C RE = 2.4 0.5K = 1.2V

VB = VBE + VRE = 0.7 + 1.2 = 1.9V
IC 2.4
IB = = = 0.48mA
50
If IB << I2 then changes in IB will not affect the voltage on R2(VR2) so VR2 = VB = constant.
We may choose:
I 2 = 10 I B = 0.48mA
VB 1.9
R2 = = = 4 K
I 2 0.48m
I1 = I 2 + I B = 0.48m + 0.048m = 0.53m
VCC VB 12 1.9
R1 = = = 19 K
I1 0.53m
We can check the circuit reaction by using the Thevenin transform of R1, R2, and VCC.
VCC
RC
IC
RB IB
IE
VBB
RE
Figure 2-17
VCC R2 12 4 K
VBB = = = 2.1V
R1 + R2 23K
R R 19 K 4 K
RB = 1 2 = = 3 .3 K
R1 + R2 23K
RB << ( + 1) RE
Lets check the new operating point:
VBB VBE 2 .1 0 .7
IB = = = 0.048mA
RB + ( + 1) RE 3.3K + 51 0.5K
I C = I B = 2.4mA
VCE = VCC I C ( RC + RE ) = 12 2.4m 2.5K = 6V
The same as before. Lets double now to 100.
VBB VBE 2 .1 0 .7
IB = = = 0.026mA
RB + ( + 1) RE 3.3K + 101 0.5K
I C = I B = 100 0.026m = 2.6mA
VCE = VCC I C ( RC + RE ) = 12 2.6m 2.5K = 5.5V
The operating point changes very little although is doubled.
The bipolar transistor circuit is the following one:
+12V
R1 91K 1K RC
VC
2N2222
VB
VE
R2 10K 100R RE
Figure 2-18
The Thevenin equivalent to this circuit is the following:
12V
1K
9K
1.2V
100
Figure 2-19
VBB VBE 1 .2 0 .7 0 .5
IB = = = = 26 A
RB + ( + 1) RE 9 K + 101 100 19 K
Calculate IC, VRC, VRE and VCE assuming that = 100.
2.2.1 Linear amplifier
One of the major applications of the transistor is as an amplifier. We supply a small AC

signal to its input and get an amplified signal (voltage or current) in its output.
To distinguish between DC parameter and AC parameter (Voltage or Current) we use capital
letter for DC and small letter for AC.
We describe an amplifier as follows:
ii Ro io
Vi Vo
Figure 2-20
Amplifier parameters are AV, Ai, Ri, Ro.
AV is the voltage gain:
Vo
AV =
Vi
Ai is the current gain:
io
Ai =
ii
AV and Ai do not have measurement units.
Ri is the input impedance:
Vi
Ri =
ii
Ro is the output impedance of the amplifier. It acts as a serial as a serial resistance located in
the amplifiers output.
2.2.2 Bipolar transistor h parameters
In order to understand the behavior of the internal parts of the transistor to AC signals, an h
parameter model was developed.
This model is shown in the following figure:
ib hie ic
B C
+ 1
Hre VCE Hfe i b
- hoe
ie
Figure 2-21
hie is an input resistance. Its typical value is 1-2K. hie depends on the operating point
according to the following formula:
26
hie =
I E ( mA)
hoe represents the output resistance but the parameter value shows it continuance. We prefer
1 1
to use resistance and thats why we use hoe . The typical value of hoe is 40K.
Usually, we find in the transistor data sheet the hfe parameter and hFE which is .
The signal in the input of the transistor affects the output. We can see a current source with
the value hfe i b in the output branch. This is the AC current gain of the transistor. The
typical value of hfe is 50-200.
The output also affects the input. We can see it as a voltage source in the input branch with
4
the value hre VCE . The typical value of hre is 2.5 10 . It is so small that we usually
neglect it.
Usually we use the following h parameters model.
ib ic
B C
1
hie Hfe i b
hoe
ie
Figure 2-22
1
If RC is less than 4K we may neglect also the resistance hoe . We will get the following
model, which is easy for calculation and quit accurate.
ib ic
B C
hie Hfe i b
ie
Figure 2-23
We will use this model for the following example.
In AC as in DC:
I e = ib + iC
2.2.3 Common emitter amplifier
In the Common Emitter (CE) amplifier, the input signal is supplied to the base and the output
signal is received on the collector.
VCC
RC
R1 Vo
Vi
R2
Figure 2-24
In h parameter model, we refer to a capacitor and a voltage source as a short circuit. In this
way R1 and R2 are connected in parallel in AC analyze.
The h parameter model of the above circuit is the following one.
ib c ic
b
Vi Vo
R1 R2 hie Hfe i b RC
Figure 2-25
We will replace R1 in parallel to R2 with the equivalent resistor RB.

R1 R2
RB =
R1 + R2
b ib ic c ii
Vi Vo
iL
RB hie Hfe i b RC
e
Ri Ri
Figure 2-26
If we use RE resistor for self bias but we do not want it to affect the AC analyze we by pass it
with a capacitor.
VCC
RC
CC
R1 Vo
CB1
Vi
R2
RF CE
Figure 2-27
As we said, we refer to a capacitor as a short circuit in AC analyze.
Voltage gain AV:
VO
AV =
Vi
Vi = ib hie
Vo = I L RC
I L = iC = hfe ib
Vo = hfe ib RC
Although we are dealing with AC voltage and current, we use polarity. It is important
because in this way, we can see the output signal is in the same phase of the input signal or
inverted. It is in the opposite direction of ic.
Vo hfe ib RC hfe RC
AV = = =
Vi ib hie hie
The goal is to have a formula without variables (like ib, Vi, Vo) and only with h parameters
and resistors.
The negative sign indicates that this amplifier is inverted. The output voltage is shifted by
180 from the input voltage.
Ri input resistance:
In order to calculate the input resistance, first we calculate the input resistance without the RB
influence. Afterwards we calculate the general input resistance Ri.
Vi
Ri =
ib
Vi = ib hie
ib hie
Ri = = hie
ib
Ri = RB Ri
Current Gain AI:
io
Ai =
ii
The simple way for calculation is to use AV and Ri for calculating AI.
Vo = io R2 Vi = ii Ri
Vo Vi
io = ii =
RL Ri
Vo

i RL V R
AI = o = = o i
ii Vi Vi RL
Ri
Ri
AI = AV
RL
Source Voltage gain AVS:

If a voltage VS source is connected to the amplifier through resistor RS.
RS
Vi
VS ~ RL
Ri
Figure 2-28
Vo
AVS =
VS
VS Ri
Vi =
Ri + RS
Vi ( Ri + RS )
VS =
Ri
Vo Vo Vo
AVS = = =
VS VS V i + RS
R
i
Ri
Vo Ri
AVS =
Vi Ri + RS
Ri
AVS = AV
Ri + RS
Output Impedance RO:

Output impedance is an imaginary resistance, which is in series with the output line.
Our output is composed of a current source hfe i b and a parallel resistor RC.
Vo
Hfe i b RC
Figure 2-29
With Norton transform, we may transform it to a voltage source and a resistor in series as
follows:
RC
Vo
~ hfe i b R C
Figure 2-30
Here it is easy to see that:
Ro = RC
2.2.4 Common Emitter with RE (CE+RE) Amplifier
Two problems we have in CE amplifier:
hfe RC
1) AV =
hie
Like we cant know exactly the hfe values and it is different in every transistor, even
in the same kind.
2) Ri = RB || hie
Usually hie is very small so Ri hie. In voltage amplifier, we prefer high input
impedance.
The CE+RE amplifier solves these two problems.
VCC
RC
R1 Vo
Vi
R2
RE
Figure 2-31
The h parameters model is as follows:
ii ib ic
Vo
hie Hfe i b
iL
RB ie
RC
RE
Ri Ri
Figure 2-32
AV
Vi = ib hie + ie RE
Vi = ib hie + (ib + hfe ib ) RE
Vi = ib hie + ib (hfe + 1) RE
Vi = ib [hie + (hfe + 1) RE ]
Vo = iL RC
Vo = ib hie RE
Vo ib hie RC hfe RC
AV = = =
Vi ib [hie + (hfe + 1) RE ] hie + (hfe + 1) RE
hie << (hfe + 1) RE
hfe RC
AV
(hfe + 1) RE
RC
AV
RE
The gain depends no more on hfe or hie. With RC and RE we can determine the amplifier
gain.
Ri V i [hie + (hfe + 1) RE ]
= i = b
R i ib ib
Ri = hie + (hfe + 1) RE
Ri = R2 Ri
Now we have to select R1 and R2 with high resistance for having high input impedance. It
conflicts the requirement for low RB resistance for DC operating point stability. As
everything in life, we have to compromise.
AI
Ri
AI = AV
RI
AVS
Ri
AVS = AV
Ri + RS
Ro
Ro = RC
2.2.5 Emitter follower amplifier
This circuit is also called Common Collector (CC) amplifier.
VCC
RC
R1
Vi
R2 Vo
RE
Figure 2-33
The h parameter model is as follows:
RS ii ib hie ic
Vo
Vi Hfe i b iL
VS ~ RB RC RE
Ri Ri
Figure 2-34
AV
Vi = ib hie + ie RE
Vi = ib hie + ib (hfe 1) RE
Vo = iL RL = ie RL = ib (hfe 1) RE
Vo ib (hfe + 1) RE
AV = =
Vi ib [hie + (hfe + 1) RE ]
(hfe + 1) RE
AV = 1
hie + (hfe + 1) RE
The output and the input signals are almost the same and with the same phase. Thats why it
is called emitter follower. The emitter follows the base.
We use this circuit as a buffer. It has high input impedance and very low output impedance.
Ri
Vi
Ri = = hie + (hfe + 1) RE
ib
Ri = RB Ri
AI
Ri
AI = AV
RE
AVS
Ri
AVS = AV
Ri + RS
In order to calculate Ro we have to short circuit VS. The input branch is then composed of RS
|| RB+hie. The current through this branch is ib.
This branch is in parallel with RE which has the current ib(hfe+1) .

If we convert the current source into a voltage source, its Ro will be:
RS RB + hie
RE
hfe + 1
This is a very low impedance.

2.2.6 Common base amplifier
In Common Base (CB) amplifier, the input signal is supplied to the emitter and the output
signal is received on the collector.
VCC
RC
R1 Vo
R2 Vi
RE
Figure 2-35
This circuit was common, in the past, in high frequency amplifiers. Today, the transistors
frequency response is much better, so this circuit is less popular. Its Ri is low and its Ro is
high (the opposite of a good amplifier characteristics).
The h parameter model is as follows:
RS ie Hfe i b c
Vo
Vi iL
VS ~ hie RC
Ri Ro
Figure 2-36
Analyze the circuit and prove that:
hfe
Ai =
1 + hfe
hie
Ri =
1 + hfe
hfe RC
AV =
hie
Ro RC
2.2.7 How to measure amplifier parameters
In order to measure the amplifiers parameters, we connect it to an alternate voltage source

VS through a series resistance RS and its output to a load resistance RL as follows:
RS Vi ii Ro iL
Vo VL
VS
RL
Figure 2-37
The absolute value of io is equal to iL which equals:
VL
iL =
RL
ii equal to the current through RS:
VRS
ii =
RS
To calculate the Ro we measure VL without RL (Vo) and with RL (VL).
Ro is determined according to the following formula:
Vo I L Ro = VL
VL
Vo Ro = VL
RL
Vo VL
Ro = RL
VL
2.2.8 Series and parallel feedback
Usually the amplifier is an open loop system. The input signal is amplified according to the
amplifier gain. The problem is that the gain is not accurate and may change dramatically
when replacing component or at temperature change.
Let's look at the following diagram, which describes a system with negative feedback.
+ Ve
Vi A Vo
-
Vb
Figure 2-38
Vo is the voltage at the output. A part of it is fed back to the input negatively, i.e. it is
subtracted from the input voltage. This parameter is called Vb (Vback) and its value is:
Vb = Vo
The voltage, which is fed into the amplifier that drives Vo, is called Ve (Verror) and is the
difference between the input voltage Vi and the feedback voltage Vb.
Ve = Vi - Vb = Vi - Vo
Vo is the product of the amplification of Ve.
Vo = AVe = A(Vi - Vo)
In this equation, Vo (the output value) appears in both sides of the equation. We will isolate
Vo to see the system equation. First, we open the parentheses:
Vo = AVi - AVo
Now let's collect all the elements with Vo on the left:
Vo + AVo = Vi A
Vo (1 + A) = Vi A
Thus the final system equation is:
A
Vo = Vi
1 + A
This is the formula for the amplification of a negative feedback control system.
In an open circuit system, A indicates the ratio between Vo and Vi. It is difficult to control
exact amplification especially in a system in which there is an interference of the controlled
variable, which affects the amplification of the amplifier.
To achieve accurate and stable amplification in the system, we see to it that the amplification
A is as large as possible (even approaching infinity). is obtained from an accurate
attenuator such as a resistor voltage divider for example. The feedback system b does not
have to contend with interferences to its output variable as it is connected directly into the
amplifier's internal summation system (which presents a fixed load on b).
In cases where A >> 1 and A , we will have:
A A 1
Vo = Vi Vi = Vi
1 + A A
As is smaller than 1 the result is that Vo is greater than Vi. The system amplification is
1
equal to and does not depend on the accuracy of the amplifier A. In other words,
fluctuations in A (assuming that this value is still very high) will not affect Vo.
2.3.1 FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR
In the bipolar transistor, the current of the input circuit affects the operating point of the
output circuit.
The Field Effect Transistor (FET) works differently. An electrical field in the input circuit
affects the output circuit. There is no current in its control terminal.
There are two types of FETs. One is called JFET (Junction FET) and the other one is called
MOSFET (Metal Oxide Silicon FET).
The two types are 3-leg transistors. The legs are D (Drain), S (Source) and G (Gate).
The electrical field of the JFET is one that exists in a reverse PN junction. The gate is the
reverse PN junction.
The gate of the MOSFET is a metal gate isolated by oxide silicon from the drain and the
source.
2.3.2 JFET Junction Field Effect Transistor
There are two kinds of JFET N channel and p channel. They are built as follows:
N Channel P Channel
G G
P N
S N D S P D
P N
G G
Figure 2-39
Their symbols are as follows:
N Channel P Channel
D D
G G
S S
G Gate
D Drain
Figure 2-40
We will describe the N channel, which is more common. The P channel works the same with
the opposite voltages.
When there is no voltage on the gate, the JFET conducts. The N material includes free
electrons, so current can flow from D to S and from S to D. Usually, D is positive refer to S
and current flows from D to S.
P
IS S +D ID
Figure 2-41a
When the gate of the N channel has negative voltage refer to the voltages of the S and D,
depletion areas are surrounding the P material (the free electrons get a free way to the gate) as
follows:
G Depletion
-
P
IS S +D ID
0V
P
-
Free Electrons G
Figure 2-41b
D is positive refer to S, so it is more positive refer to G. This is why the depletion area is
wider in the D side then in the S side. ID is equal to IS.
When the voltage VDS increase, ID increase, but the depletion areas near the D side expand,
until they touch each other. This voltage is called Vp (Punch Voltage).
G
-
P
S +D
P
-
G
Figure 2-42
At this point, increasing VDS does not affect ID and ID becomes constant. If VDS is too high
(over the maximum rating), the transistor beaks and the current goes high at once.
The output characteristic of the transistor is as follows:
ID
VGS = -1V
VDS
VP VA
Figure 2-43
From now on, we disregard the VA, because this is the breaking area and usually damages the
transistor.
The area between VP and VA is called the linear area and all the FET calculations relate to
this area.
The JFET characteristics depend on the VGS voltage. As higher the voltage is (more negative)
it creates a faster punching.
For different values of VGS we get the following output characteristics.
ID
VGS = -1V
VGS = -2V
VGS = -3V
VGS= -4V
VDS
Figure 2-44
On a certain voltage of VGS, ID is so small, thus we call this area the cutoff area.
2.3.3 MOSFET
The second type of the FET is the MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect
Transistor). This transistor can be made by silicon only, because it is based on the
characteristics of the silicon oxide. The MOSFET has 3 terminals- Drain, Source and Gate.
The gate is insulated from the semiconductor material by silicon oxide, as shown in the
following figure:
G
S D
B D Drain
N P N G Gate
- - -
Silicon oxide
- - - -
Metal
Figure 2-45
When there is no voltage on the gate, there is no current between D (Drain) and S (Source).
The P substrate has holes as charge carrier, but also a few free electrons as minor charge
carrier.
When we apply a positive voltage on the gate (between the gate and S and B (Bulk-Substrate)
electrodes, the minor charge carriers (the free electrons) of the P-substrate are attracted to the
gate. They are accumulated near the gate and create an n-type channel and the FET conducts.
G
S - + +
D
B D Drain
N P N G Gate
- - -
Silicon oxide
- - - -
Metal
Figure 2-45
The voltage between the gate and the source is called VGS. The higher the VGS is, the wider is
the n-type channel and the greater is ID.
There is another kind of MOSFET called P-channel MOSFET.
G
S D
B D Drain
P N P G Gate
Silicon oxide
Metal
Figure 2-46
In this transistor, the holes are the charge carriers.

The MOSFET is called an enhancement MOSFET and its symbols are:
D D
G G
S S
N Channel Enhancement P Channel Enhancement
MOSFET MOSFET
Figure 2-48
The MOSFET output characteristics is as follows:
ID
VGS = 4V
VDS
Figure 2-49
Up to a certain value of VDS ID increases and vice versa. After it reaches this value, ID stays
constant and does not depend on VDS. It depends only on the width of the channel, which
depends on VGS.
For different values of VGS we get the following output characteristics.
ID
VGS = 4A
VGS = 3A
VGS = 2A
VGS= 1A
VDS
Figure 2-50
The above MOSFET is enhancement type FET. The channel is enhanced depend on VGS.
Another kind of MOSFET is depletion/enhancement MOSFET. In this type of MOSFET, an

n-type channel is injected between D and S.
S G
D
N
N N
P
Figure 2-51
When VGS=0V, the FET conducts. When VGS increases, the conductance increases, because
of the accumulation of electrons in the P-type material near the n-channel.
If we supply a negative VGS, the free electrons in the n-channel are rejected under the gate
and we get a depletion area, which decrease the current and the conductance.
The symbols of this type of MOSFET are:
D D
G G
S S
N Channel depletion/enhancement P Channel depletion/enhancement
MOSFET MOSFET
Figure 2-52
The MOSFET depletion/enhancement is called in short MOSFET depletion.
The output characteristics are as follows:
ID
VGS = 2A
VGS = 1A
VGS = 0A
VGS= -1A
VGS= -2A
VDS
Figure 2-53
The VDS value where ID becomes constant and does not depend on VDS, is called VP (V
punch). For every VGS VP is a slightly different.
In the output characteristics, we can see how ID depends on VGS and VDS. We can find 3
regions:
1) The SATURATION region - In this range VDS < VP and IB depend on VDS.
2) The LINEAR region - In this range VDS > VP and ID depend only on VGS and not on
VDS.
3) The CUTOFF region - In this range VGS < VPO (VGS OFF). In this region, ID is very
small.
The MOSFET major advantage is its isolated gate. It creates a very high input impedance.
This isolated gate creates two problems. One is that it acts as a capacitor and decreases the
speed of the transistors of the component.
The other problem is that the gate accumulates electrical static charges when it is open. It
means that before putting the component in a circuit, its gate can have a very high voltage
that breaks it and damages the component.
This is why MOSFET are packed in anti-static material packages.
Most of the MOSFET components are gate protected today by diodes.
2.3.4 The transition characteristic
The relationship between ID (the Drain current) and VGS is described in the following
transition characteristic.
ID ID ID
IDSS
IDSS
IDSS
VPO VGS VPO VGS VPO VGS
JFET MOSFET Enhancement MOSFET

Depletion/Enhancement
Figure 2-54
The FET does not have IG current. (IG=0) so ID=IS always.
In the bipolar transistor, we need only one parameter () for the relationship between IC and
IB. Here we need two parameters (IDSS and VPO) for the relationship between ID and VGS.
2
V
I D = I DSS 1 GS
VPO
As we can see it is a parabola formula.

IDSS is the value of ID when VGS=0
VPO is the value of VGS for ID=0. It is called VGS OFF.
Usually VPO is negative.
There is no connection between VP (V Punch), which relates to VDS and VPO (which is VGS
OFF).
2.3.5 The MOSFET DC bias
VDD
VDD
RD
RD
R1 ID
ID
D G
RG D
G S
S
VGG IS
R2 IS
Figure 2-55
If we use a voltage divider as in the left circuit, then
VDD R2
VGS = VR1 =
R1 + R2
ID = IS
2
V
I D = I DSS 1 GS
VPO
VDS = VDD I D RD
The load line and the operating point are similar to the bipolar transistor.
ID
VDD
RD
VDS
VDD
Figure 2-56
When we use a depletion/enhancement MOSFET bias we may give up on R1, VGS=0V and
ID=IDSS which is not small in this type of transistor.
We use a very high resistance resistors for biasing the MOSFET in order not to spoil its high
input impedance (described in the following chapter).
We may add a RS resistor for the stability of the operating point.
VDD
VDD
RD
RD
R1 ID
ID
RG IG
IS IS
VGG
R2
RS RS
Figure 2-57
IG = 0
VDD R2
VGG = VR1 =
R1 + R2
R1 R2
RG =
R1 + R2
VGG = I G RG + VGS + I S RS = VGS + I S RS
ID = IS
VGS = VGG I S RS = VGG I D RS
2
V
I D = I DSS 1 GS
VPO
2
V I D RS
I D = I DSS 1 GG
VPO
We have a second degree equation which we have to solve in order to calculate ID.
VDD = I D RD + VDS + I S RS
VDS = VDD I D ( RD + RS )
As in the bipolar transistor, we try to get:
VDD
VDS =
2
Adding RS enables to create negative VGS, which is required for JFET. A JFET (and also in
some MOSFET depletion), the common circuit is the following one:
VDD
RD
Vo
RG RS
Figure 2-58
ID = IS
I G RG = 0V
VGS = I D RS
2
V
I D = I DSS 1 GS
VPO
2
I R
I D = I DSS 1 + D S
VPO
We should remember that in JFET and in MOSFET depletion VPO is negative.
3.0 OSCILLATORS
Oscillators are good examples of feedback amplifiers. Example of oscillators are wein bridge, triangle
wave and rectangle wave oscillators.
3. 1 Wein bridge oscillator
A Wein Bridge Oscillator is a special circuit, which includes an amplifier with positive
feedback.
An amplifier with positive feedback looks like this:
Vi -
A Vo
+
Figure 3-1
is the feedback factor, which indicates what part of the output is returned and added to the
input. Positive feedback drives the amplifier to one of its extreme points (+V or V). There is
a special case where the feedback voltage is the amplifier input signal.
A Vo
Figure 3-2
In this amplifier:
Vo = AVo
There are three cases:
1) A < 1. In this case, the output voltage will bound to 0.

2) A > 1. In this case, the output will be bounded to one of the extreme voltages.
3) A = 1. In this case, the amplifier acts as an oscillator.
A Wein bridge oscillator is the following amplifier:
R3
R4
-
Vo
+ C1
Z1
R1
R3 C2
Z2
Figure 3-3
If we consider the V+ input as the amplifier input, we can treat the amplifier as a non
inverting amplifier:
R3 R4 + R3
AV = 1 + =
R4 R4
The feedback signal is equal to:
Vo Z 2
V+
Z1 + Z 2
Hence:
Z2
=
Z1 + Z 2
For the amplifier to oscillate we must have:
R3 + R4 Z 2 + R4
A = =1
R4 Z1 + Z 2
May be described as follows:
R 1
A = 1 + 3
R4 Z
1+ 1
Z2
The oscillating condition only applies to a specific frequency. To calculate this frequency, it
Z
is enough to find the condition in which the phase shift of Z12 is equal to zero.
1
R1 +
Z1 jwc1
=
Z2 1
R2
jwc 2
In our circuit:
R3 = R1 = R
C1 = C2 = C
We will get:
1
f =
2 RC
Prove this.
Calculate the oscillator frequency according to the component values in the following values:
R1 = 4.7K, R2=4.7K, R3=1K, R4=1K , C1=0.1F, C2=0.1F

3.2 A square wave oscillator
The following circuit is a square wave generator.
VA -
C Vo
VB
+
R1
R2
Figure 3-4
Vo has only two states because of the positive feedback, +V and V of the operational
amplifier.
When Vo = +V then:
R2
VB = +V
R1 + R2
The capacitor C is charged and VA increases.
When VA goes a little over VB, Vo changes to V and:
R2
VB = V
R1 + R2
Now, the capacitor C is discharged and charged to a negative value.
When VA lower then VB, Vo changes to +V and vice versa.

The following is the output wave of the above application.
+V
-V
Figure 3-5
The capacitor C is charged exponentially according to RC values.
3.3 A triangle wave oscillator
To get a triangle wave we need to charge the capacitor with a current source. We use an
integrator circuit for that.
The following circuit is a triangle wave generator.
- -
VB R3
A1 A2 Vo
+ +
R1
VA R2
Figure 3-6
VB has only two states because of the positive feedback - +V and V of the operational
amplifier.
When VB is equal to +V then the capacitor is charged at the negative direction of Vo (Vo will
be negative). The process stops when VA = 0.
(V Vo ) R2
VA = + Vo = 0
R1 + R2
After extracting Vo, we will get:

V R2
Vo =
R1
Now the capacitor is charged to the other direction, until:

V R2
Vo =
R1
Vo is the capacitor voltage. At one period of charging its voltage the change is:
V R2
V = 2
R1
V R2
Vo =
R1
R2
R3 2V C
V C V C R3 V C R1
t= = = =
I V V V
R3
2 R2 R3 C
t=
R1
4 R2 R3 C
T = 2t =
R1
1 R1
f = =
t 4 R2 R3 C
Vo
VB t
+V
-V
Figure 3-7

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COURSE CODE: ELE 307

Course Coordinator: Dr. A. O. Fakolujo

Review of two port network theory applied to transistor circuit. Transistor

1. M.Razeghi - Fundamentals of Solid State Engineering. 2nd edition

2. Botslestad and Nashelesky . Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory Botslestad

3. Theraja, B.L. and Theraja, A.K. A textbook of Electrical Technology. S.

4. Basavaraj, B. and Shi Vashankar, H.N. Basic Electronics. 2nd Edition.

5. Jimmie, J.C. Electronic devices and Circuits.2nd edition. Schaums Outline

1.0 Review of 2-port network theory applied to transistor circuits.

2.0 Transistor Characteristics

2.1 The Transistor

2.1.1 The bipolar transistor

This is used in two broad areas of electronics namely :

The transistor has three terminals: C -Collector, B- Base, E -Emitter

Its symbols are: E E

2.1.2 Transistor biasing

The CE junction may viewed as two diodes back to back:

IC = ICmajority+ ICOminority (2.2)

2.1.3 Transistor Amplifying Action

Transfer+ resistor > transistor

2.1.4 Transistor Circuit Configuration

There are basically three types of configurations for operating a transistor:

2.1.5 The transition characteristic

Another important characteristic is the output characteristic, which describes the

In the output characteristic, we can find two regions.

3) The CUTOFF region. In this range, IB and IC are very small.

2.1.6 Input or driving point characteristics for a common-base silicon

2. 2 Analysis of single and multistage transistor amplifiers, frequency

2.2.1 Load line and operating point

The basic bias circuit is the following one:

When VCE = 0, then:

The solution starts with the input circuit equation:

VBB VBE 3 0.7

If for example RC is equal 4K then:

VCE = 12 5.75m 4K = 11V

VCC VCE sat 12 0.2

2.1.5 Fix bias circuit

Observe the way we use to indicate the power supply terminals.

The input circuit equation is:

The rest is the same as before.

The input circuit equation is:

VCC VBE 12 0.7

This circuit is called fix bias because IB has a constant value.

The problem is that IC depends on and VCE depends on IC.

That means that the operating point depends on .

When we use a bipolar transistor we cant know its .

2.1.6 Self bias circuit

We can see that if increases, IB decreases and vice versa.

If RB << ( + 1) RE we may assume:

(VCC VBE ) VCC VBE

IC is no more depended on and so is the operating point.

Lets double from 50 to 100.

VRE I C RE = 2.4 0.5K = 1.2V

Lets check the new operating point:

The bipolar transistor circuit is the following one:

The Thevenin equivalent to this circuit is the following:

Calculate IC, VRC, VRE and VCE assuming that = 100.

2.2.1 Linear amplifier

One of the major applications of the transistor is as an amplifier. We supply a small AC

Amplifier parameters are AV, Ai, Ri, Ro.

AV is the voltage gain:

Ai is the current gain:

AV and Ai do not have measurement units.