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Chapter One
Introduction
What is Chemistry?
Pure
Mixture
substance
Is a a substance that
cannot be separated into
simpler substances by
chemical means
Pure
Mixture
substance
Element compound
Heterogeneous
magnet mixture
Homogeneous mixture
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Chapter One / Introduction
States of matter
States of matter
Measurement in chemistry
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electrical
ampere A
current
Temperature kelvin K
Amount of
mole mol
substance
Luminous
candela cd
intensity
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Chapter One / Introduction
Measurement in chemistry
Derived units are unit made up of combination of SI base units such as:
N/m2 or
Pressure Pascal pa
Kg /m s2
Kg/m2 s2 or N
Energy Joule J
m
Measurement in chemistry
Measurement in chemistry
Unit conversion:
1- prefix to Base unit
eg. Km =====> m
3- prefix to prefix
eg. km ==========>nm
Measurement in chemistry
Measurement in chemistry
(c) 21 mm
(d) 2.1 x 104 pm
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Chapter One / Introduction
Measurement in chemistry
Measurement in chemistry
There is also a set of non-SI units accepted for use with SI such as litter.
One common unite of volume is litter (L). A litter is the volume occupied by one
cubic decimeter.
1 dm = 10 cm
1 dm3 = 1000cm3
1 dm3= 1 L
1000 cm3 = 1 L
1 cm3 = 1mL
1L=1000 ml
1mL = 10-3 L
1mL=1cm3
1L=1 dm3
Density
Density = mass / volume Mass (g)
d = m/V
Density Volume
(g/ml) (ml)
Example:
A student determines that a piece of an unknown material has a mass of 5.854 g and a volume of
7.57 cm3. What is the density of the material?
d = m/V
= 5.854 (g) / 7.57 (cm3)
= 0.773 g/cm3
= 0.773 g/mL
Example
A piece of silver (Ag) metal weighing 194.3 g is placed in a graduated cylinder containing 242.0 mL
of water. The volume of water now reads 260.5 mL. From these data calculate the density of
silver?
volume of silver = volume of water (after) volume of water ( before ) = 260.5 242.0 = 18.5 ml
d = m/V
= 194.3 / 18.5
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Chapter Two
Atoms, molecules and Ions
Structure of atom
Structure of atom
Nucleus
Structure of atom
Protons and neutrons are together in the nucleus of an atom, whereas electrons
are in motion in orbits around the central nucleus.
Protons carry a positive electrical charge, electrons carry a negative charge, and
neutrons carry no charge.
Most atoms are electrically neutral, meaning that they have an equal number of
protons and electrons
Structure of atom
J.J. Thomson is the scientist who determine the ratio between electronic
charge to the mass of an electron using a cathode ray tube experiment
Structure of atom
What is amu?
amu is atomic mass unit
1 amu = 1.66053886 10-27 kilograms
All atoms can be identified by the number of proton and neutrons they
contain.
Atomic number is the number of proton in the nucleus.
In neutral atom the number of proton is equal to the number of electron
thus the atomic number also refer to the number of electron.
The chemical identity of an atom can be determined solely by the atomic
number.
Example: the atomic number of Fluorine is 9 this means that each fluorine
atom have 9 protons and 9 electrons.
Any atom have 9 proton is Fluorine.
Atomic Mass is the total number of neutrons and protons present in the
nucleus of an atom of an element.
Structure of atom
1H 2H 3H
Structure of atom
Mass Number A
ZX
Element Symbol
Atomic Number
With exception of hydrogen, which has different names for each of its
Isotopes, isotopes of element are identified by their mass number. For
example carbon isotopes are called : carbon-12 , carbon 13 and carbon 14
Structure of atom
Periodic Table
Between 1800 and 1900 more than half the elements were discovered.
Scientist tried to organize all the elements based on similarities which led
to the porn of the periodic table.
The periodic table is a chart in which elements having similar chemical and
physical properties are grouped together.
Periodic Table
Alkali Earth Metal
Alkali Metal
Noble Gas
Halogen
Group
Period
Periodic Table
Molecules
Molecules
Cation Anion
An ion with positive An ion with
charge negative charge
If a neutral atom loses one or more electrons it If a neutral atom gains one or more
becomes a cation. electrons it becomes an anion.
11 protons
Na
11 protons Na+ 10 electrons
11 electrons
17 protons 17 protons
Cl 17 electrons Cl- 18 electrons
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Chapter Two / Atoms, molecules and Ions
Ions
Ions
Chemical Formula
C3H6O
C6H12O2
NH2
N2H4
O
O3
ClCH2
Cl2C2H4
C4H5N2O2
C8H10N4O4
Al2O3
Al2O3
The subscript of the cation is numerically equal to the charge on the anion, and
the subscript on the anion is numerically equal to the charge on the cation
Examples:
Ca+2 O-2
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Chapter Two / Atoms, molecules and Ions
+1
+2 +3 -3 -2 -1
Organic Inorganic
Ionic Compounds
Ionic Compounds
-
+
Ionic Compounds
Ionic Compounds
Ionic Compounds
Ionic Compounds
Example 1 :
Name the following compounds :
a) Cu(NO3)2 b) KH2PO4 C) NH4ClO3
b) Cu from transition metal then it have more than one form of cation,
NO3-1 has common name nitrate thus
copper (II) nitrate
b) Potassium from group 1A thus it form only one type of cation, H2PO4-1 has
common name dihydrogen phosphate thus
Potassium dihydrogen phosphate.
C) NH4+1 has common name ammonium, ClO3-1 has common name chlorate
thus
Ammonium chlorate
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Chapter Two / Atoms, molecules and Ions
Ionic Compounds
Example 2:
Write the chemical formula of the following compounds :
a) Mercury(II) nitrite, b) cesium sulfide c) calcium phosphate.
compound
Summery of naming
Ionic Molecular
Cation: metal or NH4+
Anion: monotomic or polytomic
Molecular Compounds
Its common that one pair of element can form different compounds.
Example:
CO SO2 NO2
CO2 SO3 N2O4
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Chapter Two / Atoms, molecules and Ions
Molecular Compounds
CO carbon oxide
CO2 carbon oxide
SO2 sulfur oxide
SO3 sulfur oxide
N2O4 nitorgen oxide
Molecular Compounds
CO carbon monoxide
CO2 carbon dioxide
SO2 sulfur dioxide
SO3 sulfur trioxide
N2O4 dinitorgen tetraoxide
Molecular Compounds
Example1:
Name the following compounds:
a) PCl3 b) CCl4 c) P2Cl5
a) Phosphorus chloride
Molecular Compounds
Example1:
Name the following compounds:
a) PCl3 b) CCl4 c) P2Cl5
a) Phosphorus trichloride
b) Carbon chloride
Molecular Compounds
Example1:
Name the following compounds:
a) PCl3 b) CCl4 c) P2Cl5
a) Phosphorus trichloride
b) Carbon tetrachloride
c) phosphorus chloride
Molecular Compounds
Example1:
Name the following compounds:
a) PCl3 b) CCl4 c) P2Cl5
a) Phosphorus trichloride
b) Carbon tetrachloride
c) phosphorus pentachloride
Molecular Compounds
Example1:
Name the following compounds:
a) PCl3 b) CCl4 c) P2Cl5
a) Phosphorus trichloride
b) Carbon tetrachloride
c) diphosphorus pentachloride
Molecular Compounds
Example2:
Write the chemical formula of the following compounds:
a) Carbon disulfide b) disilicon hexabromide c) sulfur tetrafluoride
a) CS2
b)Si2Br6
c) SF4
compound
Summery of naming
Ionic Molecular
Cation: metal or NH4+ Nonmetal + nonmetal
Anion: monotomic or polytomic Nonmetal + metalloid
Cation has only Cation has more than Pair Form one type Pair Form more than
one charge one charge of compound one type
Name first of compound
Alkali metal Other metal
cations element
Alkaline earth metal Name first
add ide to the element
Ag+, Al+3, Cd+2, Zn+2 Name metal first name of second
element add ide to the
Specify charge of metal cation
Name metal first name of second
with roman numeral (STOCK
element
If monoatomic anion, add SYSTEM)
ide to the anion Add the prefix
If monoatomic anion, add ide to
(prefix mono
If polyatomic anion use the anion
usually omitted
name of anion from If polyatomic anion use name of for the first
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Chapter Two / Atoms, molecules and Ions
homework
homework
Chapter Three
Mass Relationships in Chemical
Reactions
Atomic mass
Most element in nature have more than one isotopes. This mean when
calculating the atomic mass we should calculated for all isotopes then take
the average this called Average atomic mass.
Natural abundance is the abundance of isotopes in nature.
Average atomic mass= sum of (natural abundance x atomic mass) for each
isotope
Example: calculate the average atomic mass of carbon?
C-12 natural abundance = 98.90% , atomic mass = 12 amu
C-13 natural abundance = 1.10% , atomic mass = 13 amu
Note that 98.9 % = 98.9 = 0.989
100
1.10 % = 1.10 = 0.011
100
Example 2:
Calculate the average atomic mass for Li ( 6Li (7.42%), 7Li (92.58%))?
Li-6 natural abundance = 7.42% , atomic mass = 6 amu
Li-7 natural abundance = 92.58% , atomic mass = 7 amu
Note that 7.42 % = 7.42 = 0.0742.
100
Avogadros number
Molar Mass
Example:
Atomic mass of Na is 22.99 amu then Molar mass is 22.99 g/mol
Atomic mass of P is 30.97 amu then Molar mass is 30.97 g/mol
Molar Mass
Example1:
Calculate the number of atoms in 2 mole of hydrogen?
Number of atoms = 6.022 x 10+23 x 2 = 12.044 x 10+23.
Example 2 :
Calculate the number of moles in 6 x 10+20 atom of helium (He)?
Number of mole = number of atom / avogadros number
= 6 x 10+20 / 6.022 x 10+23
= 0.99 x 10-3 mole.
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Chapter Three / Mass relationships in Chemical Reactions
Molar Mass
Mass (g)
Molar Mass
Example 2 :
Calculate the number of atoms in 6.46 grams of helium (He)?
The molar mass of He is 4 g/mole
Mass (g)
First calculate number of moles of He:
n = 6.46 (g) / 4 (g/mole) Mole
(mol)
Molar mass
= 1.62 mole
Number of atom = avogadros number x number of mole
= 6.022 x 10+23 x 1.62
= 9.73 x 1023 atoms
Molecular Mass
Molecular Mass
Molecular Mass
Example 3:
What is the molecular mass of C3H4O2?
Then molecular mass (C3H4O2)= 3X(molar mass of C) + 4X(molar mass of H) +
2X(molar mass of O)
= 3 X12 + 4X 1 + 2X 16
= 72 amu
Molecular mass (amu ) = molar mass (g/mole) .
Molecular Mass
Example 4:
How many molecules of ethane (C2H6) are present in 0.334 g of C2H6?
We know that
Number of molecules = Avogadros number x number of mole
= 6.022 x 1023 x 0.011
= 6.624 x 1021 molecules.
Molecular Mass
Example 5:
How many hydrogen atoms are present in 25.6 g of urea [(NH2)2CO]. The
molar mass of urea is 60.06 g/mol?
First we calculate the number of mole
Number of mole = mass / molar mass
= 25.6 / 60.06 = 0.426 mole
Number of molecules = avogadros number x number of mole
= 6.022 x 1023 x 0.426
= 2.57 x1023 molecules
From the chemical formula of urea (NH2)2CO
Molecular Mass
Example 6:
What is the mass, in grams, of one copper atom?
I know that
1 mole of Cu ====== 6.022 x 1023 atom of Cu
Molar mass of Cu= 63.55 g/mol
That mean 63.55 g of Cu ======= 1mole of Cu
Thus
1 mole of Cu ====== 6.022 x 1023 atom of Cu
1 mole of Cu ====== 63.55 g of Cu
Then
6.022 x 10 23 atom of Cu ====== 63.55 g of Cu
1 atom of Cu =======? g of Cu
6.22 X1023 x ?g= 63.55 x 1
grams of Cu = 1 x 63.55 = 10.55 = 10.55 x 10-23 g
6.022 x 1023 1023
Mass of one atom = molar mass / Avogadro number
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Chapter Three / Mass relationships in Chemical Reactions
Example 1:
Calculate the percentage of each element in H2O2?
First we calculate the molar mass of the compound
(2 x 1) + (2 x 16) = 34 g/mol
2x1
% of H = x 100% = 5.88 %
34
2 x 16
% of O= 34 x 100% = 94.12 %
Example 2:
Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) is a colorless , syrupy liquid used in detergents,
fertilizers, toothpastes, and in carbonates beverages for a tangy flavor.
Calculate the percent composition by mass of H, P, and O in this
compound?
First we calculate the molar mass of the compound
(3 x 1) + 31 +(4 x 16) =98 g/mol
3x 1 1x31
% of H = 98 x 100% = 3.06 % % of P= 98 x 100% = 31.63 %
4 x 16
% of O= x 100% = 65.31 %
98
Example 3:
Which of these is the richest source of nitrogen on a mass percentage basis?
A- Urea, (NH2)2CO b- Ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3
C- Guanidine, HNC(NH2)2 d- Ammonia, NH3+
We have to calculate the percentage of Nitrogen in each compound then compare
between them, the one who have the highest percentage of nitrogen is the richest
source of nitrogen.
Example 3:
Which of these is the richest source of nitrogen on a mass percentage basis?
A- Urea, (NH2)2CO b- Ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3
C- Guanidine, HNC(NH2)2 d- Ammonia, NH3+
We have to calculate the percentage of Nitrogen in each compound then compare
between them, the one who have the highest percentage of nitrogen is the richest
source of nitrogen.
Example 1:
Determine the empirical formula of Vitamin C. it is compose of 40.92% of C,
4.58% of H, and 54.50% of O by mass?
1- change from % to g
Mass (g)
40.92 g of C, 4.58 g of H , 54.50 g of O
Mole Molar mass
2- change from g to mole using (mol)
40.92
nc = 12 = 3.41 mol of C
4.58
nH =
1 = 4.58 mol of H
54.50
nO = = 3.406 mol of O
16
Divided by the smallest number of mole which is 3.406
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Chapter Three / Mass relationships in Chemical Reactions
Example 2 :
Allicin is the compound responsible of characteristic smell of garlic. an
analysis of the compound gives the following percent composition by
mass: C: 44.4 %, H: 6.21%, S: 39.5%, O: 9.86%. Calculate its empirical
formula?
1- change from % to g Mass (g)
44.4 6.21
nC = = 3.70 mol of C nH = = 6.21 mol of H
12 1
39.5 9.86
nS = = 1.23 mol of S nO = = 0.62 mol of O
32 16
3- Divide by the smallest number of mole which is 0.62
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Chapter Three / Mass relationships in Chemical Reactions
3.70 6.21
C: 6 H: 10
0.62 0.62
1.32 0.62
S: 2 O: =1
0.62 0.62
Because all the numbers are integer then we do not need to do anything else
and we just write the formula as following :
The empirical formula is C6H10O S2
Example 1:
1-Determine the molecular formula of Vitamin C. it is compose of 40.92% of C, 4.58%
of H, and 54.50% of O by mass and the molar mass of vitamin C is 176 g/mol?
First we determine the molecular formula as seen before for this compound
Empirical formula = C3H4O3
2- calculate the molar mass of empirical formula:
3 x 12 + 4 x 1 + 3 x16 = 88 g/mol
3- calculate the ratio
molar mass of compound
Ratio
empirical molar mass
Ratio = 176
88 = 2
4- molecular formula = ratio x empirical formula
= 2 x C3H4O3 = C6H8O6
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Chapter Three / Mass relationships in Chemical Reactions
Example 2:
Allicin is the compound responsible of characteristic smell of garlic. an analysis of the
compound gives the following percent composition by mass: C: 44.4 %, H: 6.21%, S:
39.5%, O: 9.86%. Calculate its molecular formula if you know that the molar mass
of the compound is 162.27 g/mol?
First we determine the empirical formula as seen before for this compound
Empirical formula = C6H10O S2
2- calculate the molar mass of empirical formula:
6 x 12 + 10 x 1 + 16 + 2 X 32 = 162 g/mol
3- calculate the ratio
molar mass of compound
Ratio
empirical molar mass
162.27
Ratio = 162 =1
Often chemist also indicate the physical state of the reactants and
products by using the letters g, l, s. and when chemical is dissolved in
water the symbol (aq) is used.
O2(g) + 2H2(g) H2O(l)
KBr(aq) + AgNO3(aq) KNO3(aq) + AgBr(s)
Reactants products
There are 3 way to represent the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen:
d) 2 g of Mg + 1 g of O2 makes 2 g of MgO
1. Identify all reactants and products and write their correct formula on the
left side and right side of the equation.
3. Start by balancing those elements that appear in only one reactant and
one product.
5. Check to make sure that you have the same number of each type of atom
on both sides of the equation.
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Chapter Three / Mass relationships in Chemical Reactions
Example1 :
Balance the following equation:
C5H12 + O2 CO2 + H2O
1. Identify all reactants and products and write their correct formula on the
left side and right side of the equation.
2. Start by balancing those elements that appear in only one reactant and
one product.
So we should start with C or H but not with O
C5H12 + O2 CO2 + H2O
Multiply CO2
by 5
5 carbon 1 carbon
on left on right
C5H12 +O2 5CO2 + H2O
Multiply H2O
by 6
12 hydrogen 2 hydrogen
on left on right
4. Check to make sure that you have the same number of each type of atom
on both sides of the equation.
C5H12 + 8O2 5CO2 + 6H2O
C5 C 5X1 =5
H 12 H 6X2 =12
O 8X2=16 O 5X2 + 6 = 16
Reactants Products
5C 5C
12 H 12 H
16 O 16 O
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Chapter Three / Mass relationships in Chemical Reactions
Example2 :
Balance the following equation:
C2H6 + O2 CO2 + H2O
1. Identify all reactants and products and write their correct formula on the
left side and right side of the equation.
2. Start by balancing those elements that appear in only one reactant and
one product.
So we should start with C or H but not with O
C2H6 + O2 CO2 + H2O
Multiply CO2
by 2
2 carbon 1 carbon
on left on right
C2H6 +O2 2CO2 + H2O
Multiply H2O
by 3
6 hydrogen 2 hydrogen
on left on right
4. Check to make sure that you have the same number of each type of atom
on both sides of the equation.
2C2H6 + 7O2 4CO2 + 6H2O
C 2X2=4 C 4X1 =4
H 2X6=12 H 6X2 =12
O 7X2=14 O 4X2 + 6 = 14
Reactants Products
4C 4C
12 H 12 H
14 O 14 O
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Chapter Three / Mass relationships in Chemical Reactions
Example3 :
Balance the following equation:
Al + O2 Al2O3
1. Identify all reactants and products and write their correct formula on the
left side and right side of the equation.
1 aluminum 2 aluminum
on left on right
2Al + O2 Al2O3 Multiply O2 by
3/2
2 oxygen 3 oxygen
on left on right
remove fraction by
2Al + 3
2 O2 Al2O3 multiply both sides by 2
6O 6O
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Chapter Three / Mass relationships in Chemical Reactions
Example 1:
The food we eat is degraded, or broken down, in our bodies to provide energy
for growth and function. A general overall equation for this very complex
process represents the degradation of glucose (C6H12O6) to carbon dioxide
and water:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O
If 856 g of C6H12O6 is consumed by a person over a certain period, what is the
mass of CO2 produced?
First we make sure that the equation is balanced
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O
C6 C6
H 12 H 6X2=12
O 6 + 6X2=18 O 6X2 + 6 =18
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Chapter Three / Mass relationships in Chemical Reactions
Then we have to calculate the molar mass of glucose from periodic table
6x12 + 12x1 + 6x 16 = 180 g/mol
856 g
n 4.76 mol C6 H 12O6
180 ( g / mol)
4- convert mole to g
Then we have to calculate the molar mass of CO2 from periodic table
1x12 + 2x 16 = 44 g/mol
Example 2 :
All alkali metals reacts with water to produce hydrogen gas and the
corresponding alkali metal hydroxide. A typical reaction is that between
lithium and water:
2Li + 2H2O 2LiOH + H2
How many grams of Li are needed to produced 9.89 g of H2?
First we make sure that the equation is balanced
2Li + 2H2O 2LiOH + H2
Li 2 Li 2
H4 H 2+2=4
O2 O2
4- convert mole to g
mass mole x molar mass
Then we have to calculate the molar mass of Li from periodic table which is
6.941 g/mole
Mass of Li = 9.88 x 6.941 = 68.6 g of Li
Limiting Reagents
A+B C +D
What is limiting reagents
Limiting reagents is the reactant used up first in a reaction.
Excess reagents is the reactant present in quantities grater than necessary to
react with the quantity of the limiting reagent (the one that is left at the
end of the reaction).
By knowing the limiting reagent we can determine the amount of product.
Limiting Reagents
Example :
Urea is [(NH2)2CO] is prepared by reacting ammonia with carbon dioxide:
2NH3 + CO2 (NH2)2CO + H2O
In one process, 637.2g of NH3 are treated with 1142g of CO2.
a) Which of the two reactants is the limiting reagent ?
b) Calculate the mass of (NH2)2CO formed?
c) How much excess reagent (in grams) is left at the end of the reaction?
a) We should calculate how much product each reactant produced and the
one with the smallest number is the limiting reagents.
to do so, we have to use the previous method of calculation.
Limiting Reagents
Thus the limiting reagent is NH3 because it produced the least amount of product
Abdulaziz-Bookstor
Always take the smallest number
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Chapter Three / Mass relationships in Chemical Reactions
Limiting Reagents
b) Calculate the mass of (NH2)2CO formed? Always take the smallest number
We take the number of mole of product formed from the limiting reagent and
then converted to grams
The limiting reagent here is NH3 and it produce 18.74 mole of (NH2)2CO
Molar mass of (NH2)2CO = 2 x 14 + 4x 1 + 12 + 16 = 60 g/mol
Mass = mole x molar mass
= 18.74 x 60 = 1124.4 g of (NH2)2CO .
Limiting Reagents
c) How much excess reagent (in grams) is left at the end of the reaction?
We need to know how much excess reagent (in this case CO2) remain after
the reaction.
Excess reagent = initial amount of CO2 - Reacted amount of CO2
The initial amount of CO2 we know it from the question (1142g = 25.95 mole)
We need to know how much reacted and we can do this by comparing CO2
with product (NH2)2CO Always take the smallest number
We know that there are 18.74 mole of (NH2)2CO
From equation
1 mole CO2 ======== 1 mole (NH2)2CO .
? Mole of CO2 ========== 18.74 mole of (NH2)2CO .
Then the number of mole of reacted CO2 is 18.74 mole
Then excess reagents = 25.95 18.74 = 7.21 mole
= 7.21 X 44 = 317.24 g of CO2
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Chapter Three / Mass relationships in Chemical Reactions
Yield
For any reaction there are theoretical yield and actual (practical) yield.
Theoretical yield : the amount of product that would result if all the
limiting reagent reacted.
Actual yield : the amount of product actually obtained from a reaction.
Normally the actual yield is less than theoretical yield.
To determine how efficient a given reaction is, we calculate the percent
yield.
Actual yield
% Yield X 100
Theoretica l yield
Yield
Example 1:
Titanium is a strong, lightweight, corrosion-resistance metal that is used in
rockets, aircraft, jet engines, and bicycle frames. Its prepared by the
reaction of titanium (IV) chloride with molten magnesium between 950 C
and 1150 C:
TiCl4 + 2Mg Ti + 2MgCl2
In a certain industrial operation 3.54 x 107 g of TiCl4 are reacted with 1.13 x
107 g of Mg.
a) Calculate the theoretical yield of Ti in grams.
b) Calculate the percent yield if 7.91 x 106 g of Ti are actually obtained.
Yield
Yield
Yield
Actual yield
% Yield X 100
Theoretica l yield
7.91 x 106
% Yield 6
X 100 88.4%
8.95 x 10
Chapter Four
Reactions in Aqueous Solutions
Example1:
How many grams of potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) are required to prepare
a 250 ml solution whose concentration is 2.16 M.?
n
M
V
where M molarity
n number of moles
V volume of solution in liters
Example 2:
In a biochemical assay, a chemist needs to add 3.81 g of glucose (C6H12O6) to a
reaction mixture. Calculate the volume in milliteres of a 2.53 M glucose
solution he should use for the addition.
M = n/V
Molar mass of C6H12O6 =180 g/mol
n = mass/molar mass
= 3.81 / 180
= 0.021 mol
M = n/V
V = n/M
= 0.021 / 2.53 = 8.30 X 10-3 L
= 8.36 X10-3 X 103L = 8.30 mL
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Chapter Four / Reactions in Aqueous Solutions
Dilution
Dilution
Add Solvent
Dilution
M1 V1 = M2 V2
BEFORE AFTER
Example 1 :
How you would prepare 5.00 x 102 mL of a 1.75 M H2SO4 solution, starting
with an 8.61 M stock solution of H2SO4?
M1 = 8.61 , V1= ?, M2 = 1.75, V2 = 5.00 X102
M1 V 1 = M2 V 2
8.61 X V1 = 1.75 X 5.00 X 102
V1 = 1.75 X 5.00 X 102 / 8.61 = 101.6 ml.
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Chapter Four / Reactions in Aqueous Solutions
Dilution
Example 2:
How would you prepare 60.0 mL of 0.200 M HNO3 from a stock solution of
4.00 M HNO3?
M1 = 4 , V1= ?, M2 = 0,2, V2 = 60
M1 V 1 = M2 V 2
4 X V1 = 0.2 x 60
V1 = 0.2 X 60 / 4 = 3 ml.
Chapter Five
Gases
Gas pressure
Gas particles are in constant moving thus they collide with objects in their
bath.
The gases push against the walls of their containers with a force.
These collisions produce what we called Gas pressure.
Gas pressure
Gas pressure
Unites of pressure :
Pascal (Pa), atm, mmHg, torr
1 torr = 1mmHg
1 atm = 760 mmHg
1 atm = 1.01325 x 105 Pa.
Example1 :
convert the pressure of 688 mmHg to atmospheric pressure?
1 atm = 760mmHg
X
? atm = 688 mmHg
760 X ? = 1 X 688
Pressure = 688 / 760 = 0.905 atm.
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Chapter Five / Gases
Gas pressure
Monometer
Gas Laws
Boyless law study the relationship between the pressure and volume of
gas.
Boyels law stated that the pressure of a fixed amount of gas at a constant
temperature in inversely proportional to the volume of the gas.
1
P
V
Chapter Seven
Quantum Theory and the
Electronic Structure of Atoms
We have to understand something about the nature of wave before talking about
Quantum theory.
Wave speed (u): depend on type of wave and the nature of the medium
through which the wave is traveling.
u=
Example:
The wavelength of the green light from a traffic signal is centered at 522 nm.
What is the frequency of this radiation?
u =
=u/
The speed of light is known as 3 x 108 m/s
Because the speed of light is in m we have to change the wavelength to m
= 522 x 10-9 m
= 3 x 108 / 522 x 10-9
= 5.75 x 1014 Hz.
There are many type of waves, such as water waves, sound waves and
light waves.
Clerk Maxwell proposed in 1973 that visible light consists of
electromagnetic wave has an electric field component and a magnetic
filed component. The two components have the same wavelength and
frequency, and hence the speed.
Example:
A photon has a frequency of 6.0 x 104 Hz. Convert this frequency into
wavelength (nm)?
c =
= c/
= 3 x108 / 6 x104
=5 x 103 m
= 5 x 1012 nm
When solid are heated they emit electromagnetic radiation over a wide
range of wavelength. Example is the dull red glow of an electric heater and
the bright white light of tungsten light bulb.
the amount of radiant energy emitted by an object at a certain
temperature depends on the wavelength
according to Plank the atoms and molecules could emit (or adsorb)
energy only in discrete quantities (quantum).
Quantum is the smallest quantity of energy that can be emitted (or
absorbed) in the form of electromagnetic radiation.
The energy of a signal quantum (E):
E h c Where h is
c Eh
plancks
constant
Hg
Ne
The equation that represent the energies that an electron in hydrogen atom
can occupy are given by:
1
En RH 2
n
RH is the Rodberg constant (2.18 x 10-18 J), n is an integer called the principle
quantum number (n= 1,2,3,..).
when n =1 this is refer to as ground state or the ground level. Which refer to
the lowest energy state of a system.
n=2,3,4. Is called an excited state or excited level, which is higher in energy
than the ground state.
1 1
E RH 2 2
ni n f
E h
1 1
E h RH 2 2
ni n f
Example:
What is the wavelength of a photon (in nm) emitted during a transition from
the ni = 5 state to the nf = 2 state in the hydrogen atom?
ni=5, nf = 2 , =?
1 1
E RH 2 2 hc
n n E
i f
hc hc hc 6.63 x10 34 x 3.0 x10 8
E
E E 4.58 x10 19
1 1 4.34 x10 7 m 434 nm
E RH 2 2
n
i nf
1 1
2.18 x10 18 J 2 2 4.58 x10 19 J
5 2
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Chapter Seven / Quantum Theory and the Electronic Structure of Atoms
Example
What is the de Broglie wavelength (in nm) associated with a 2.5 g Ping-Pong
ball traveling at 15.6 m/s?
h
mu
= ?, m= 2.5g = 2.5x10-3kg, u=15.6m/s
6.63 x10 34
=1.7x10-31m = 1.7x10-22nm.
Quantum numbers
Quantum numbers
Quantum numbers
l 0 1 2 3 4
Name of orbital s p d f g
Quantum numbers
Quantum numbers
Quantum numbers
Example :
List the values of n, l and ml for orbitals in 4d subshell? What is the total
number of orbital in 4d?
n= 4
for d l=2
ml = -2,-1,0,1,2
Number of orbital = 5
Atomic Orbitals
2l +1
Atomic Orbitals
Example
What is the total number of orbitals associated with the principal quantum
number n = 3 ?
n=3
l=0,1,2
1- ml = 0 ======> 1 orbital
2- ml = -1,0,1 =====> 3 orbital
2- ml= -2,-1,0,1,2 ======> 5 orbital
Total number of orbital 9
Or (2x0 +1) + (2x1 +1) + (2x2 +1) =1 + 3 + 5 = 9
OR
Number of orbital = n2 = 32 = 9
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Chapter Seven / Quantum Theory and the Electronic Structure of Atoms
Atomic Orbitals
The four quantum number for specific electron can written as (n,l,ml,ms).
Example :
Write the four quantum numbers for an electron in a 3p orbital?
n=3 , l = 1, ml= -1,0,1 , ms= - or
(3,1,-1,-1/2)
(3,1,0,-1/2)
(3,1,1,-1/2)
(3,1,-1,1/2)
(3,1,0,1/2)
(3,1,1,1/2)
Atomic Orbitals
S orbital
l=0 Spherical
Atomic Orbitals
P orbital
l=1 dumbbell
m = -1
l
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Chapter Seven / Quantum Theory and the Electronic Structure of Atoms
Atomic Orbitals
d orbital
l=2
ml = -2 ml = -1 ml = 0 ml = 1 ml = 2
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s < 4f < 5d < 6p < 7s < 5f < 6d < 7p
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Chapter Seven / Quantum Theory and the Electronic Structure of Atoms
Electron configuration
number of electrons
in the orbital or subshell
1s1
principal quantum angular momentum
number n quantum number l
NO two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers
? ? He 2 electrons
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Chapter Seven / Quantum Theory and the Electronic Structure of Atoms
Aufbau principle
Li 3 electrons
Li 1s22s1
Aufbau principle
Be 4 electrons
Be 1s22s2
Aufbau principle
B 5 electrons
B 1s22s22p1
Hunds Rule
?? C 6 electrons
C 1s22s22p2
Hunds Rule
The most stable arrangement of electrons in subshells is the one with
the greatest number of parallel spins
N 7 electrons
N 1s22s22p3
Aufbau principle
The electrons are added one by one to the atomic orbitals
O 8 electrons
O 1s22s22p4
Aufbau principle
The electrons are added one by one to the atomic orbitals
F 9 electrons
F 1s22s22p5
Aufbau principle
The electrons are added one by one to the atomic orbitals
Ne 10 electrons
Ne 1s22s22p6
Orbital diagram
Orbital diagram
1
2 3
1s 4
Example: 2s 2p 5
6
What is the electron configuration of Mg? 3s 3p 3d 7
Mg atom has 12 electrons 4s 4p 4d 4f 8
(from Periodic table (atomic number)) 5s 5p 5d 5f
The Electron Configuration: 1s22s22p63s2 6s 6p 6d
2 + 2 + 6 + 2 = 12 electrons 7s 7p
Orbital Diagram:
Orbital diagram
1
2 3
1s 4
What is the electron configuration of K? 2s 2p 5
6
K atom has 19 electrons 3s 3p 3d 7
(from Periodic table (atomic number)) 4s 4p 4d 4f 8
The Electron Configuration: 1s22s22p63s2 3p6 4s1 5s 5p 5d 5f
2 + 2 + 6 + 2 +6+1= 19 electrons 6s 6p 6d
Orbital Diagram:
7s 7p
Orbital diagram
1
2 3
1s 4
What is the electron configuration of K+1? 2s 2p 5
6
Atomic number19 3s 3p 3d 7
Electron 19 -1= 18 4s 4p 4d 4f 8
K atom has 18 electrons 5s 5p 5d 5f
(from Periodic table (atomic number)) 6s 6p 6d
The Electron Configuration: 1s22s22p63s2 3p6
7s 7p
2 + 2 + 6 + 2 +6= 18 electrons
Orbital Diagram:
Short Notation
Atomic Orbitals
Example
For Cl atom answer the following questions:
a) Write the electron configuration?
b) Draw the orbital diagram?
c) Write the electron configuration in short notation?
d) What are the possible quantum numbers for the last (outermost) electron
in Cl?
Answer:
a) Cl atom has 17 electrons
(from Periodic table (atomic number))
The Electron Configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
2 + 2 + 6 + 2 + 5 = 17 electrons
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Chapter Seven / Quantum Theory and the Electronic Structure of Atoms
Atomic Orbitals
Atomic Orbitals
Example
What is The electron configuration of 11Na ,12Mg ,16S ?
11Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 (OR) [Ne] 3s1
12Mg 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 (OR) [Ne] 3s2
16S 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4 (OR) [Ne] 3s2 3p4
Atomic Orbitals
Atomic Orbitals
Atomic Orbitals
Exceptions
Atomic Orbitals
29Cu: [Ar] 4s13d10
47Ag:[Kr] 5s1 4d10
42Mo: [Kr] 5s1 4d5
24Cr: [Ar] 4s1 3d5
Atomic Orbitals
2p
Diamagnetic substance: is the element that do not contain net unpaired
electrons (all electrons are paired) in the outermost subshell and is
repelled by a magnet. Diamagnetic
e.g. all electrons paired
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Chapter Seven / Quantum Theory and the Electronic Structure of Atoms
Atomic Orbitals
19K
Example
Electronic configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1
Short notation: [Ar] 4s1
Orbital diagram:
Atomic Orbitals
Example
10Ne
Atomic Orbitals
P D
D P P P P P
Atomic Orbitals
Example
What are the valence electrons of vanadium (V)?
23V: [Ar] 4s2 3d3
Example
What are the valence electrons of Gallium (Ga)?
31Ga: [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p1
The valence electrons are 4s2 4p1
ns2np6
Periodic Classification of the Elements
ns1
ns2np4
ns2np2
ns2np3
ns2np5
ns2np1
ns2
d10
d5
d1
4f
218
5f
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1 k
P1 P1 k P1 x V1
V1 V1
1 k
P2 P2 k P2 x V2
V2 V2
P1 V1 = P2 V2 Boyles Law
Example 1 :
A sample of chlorine gas occupies a volume of 946 mL at a pressure of 726
mmHg. What is the pressure of the gas (in mmHg) if the volume is
reduced at constant temperature to 154 mL?
P1 = 726 mmHg, V1= 946 ml, P2= ?, V2= 154 mL.
P1 V1 = P2 V2
726 x 946 = P2 x 154
726 x 946
P2
154
4459 .7 mmHg
Gas Laws
TV
T1
T1 V1 T1 k x V1 k
V1
T2
T2 V2 T2 k x V2 k
V2
T1 T2
Charles Law
V1 V2
T in Kelvin
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Chapter Five / Gases
Example:
A sample of carbon monoxide gas occupies 3.20 L at 125 C. At what
temperature will the gas occupy a volume of 1.54 L if the pressure remains
constant?
T1 T2
V1 V2
125 273 T2
3.2 1.54
Gas Laws
Avogadros law study the relationship between the volume and number of
mole of gas.
Avogadros law stated that at constant pressure and temperature, the
volume is directly proportional to the number of moles of the gas
nV
n1
n1 V1 n1 k x V1 k
V1
n2
n 2 V2 n 2 k x V2 k
V2
n1 n2
Avogadros Law
V1 V2
P1 V1 = P2 V2 Boyles Law
Constant T and n
T1 T2
Charles Law
V1 V2 Constant P and n
n1 n2
Avogadros Law
V1 V2 Constant P and T
We know that
1
V Boyle' s law
P
V T Charle' s law
V n A vogadro law
Then
nT
V
P
nRT
V
P
Ideal Gas Equation
Example 1:
Calculate the pressure (in atm) exerted by 1.82 moles of the sulphur
hexaflouride in a steel vessel of volume 5.43 L at 69.5 C.?
PV =nRT
P = nRT/V
= 1.82 x 0.0821 x (69.5 +273)/5.43
=9.41 atm.
Example 2:
Calculate the volume (in liters) occupied by 7.40g of NH3 at STP condition.?
PV=nRT
n = mass/molar mass
n = 7.40 / 17 = 0.435 mol
V = nRT/P
V= 0.435 X 0.082 X 273 / 1
= 9.74 L
We can use the ideal gas law if we know three out of four variable namely:
P,T,V,n. we can calculate one unknown if we know the other three from the
equation of ideal gas.
However, sometime we have to deal with two conditions, this means we
have two P , two V, two T, and two n. thus we need to apply some
modification into the equation of ideal gas that take into account the
initial and final conditions.
PV
PV = nRT R
nT Normally n1=n2
P V
R 1 1
befor change
n1 T1 And the law become
P V
R 2 2 after change
P1 V1 P2 V2
n 2 T2
P1 V1 P2 V2 T1 T2
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Chapter Five / Gases
Example 1:
A small bubble rises from the bottom of a lake, where the temperature and
pressure are 8 C and 6.4 atm, to the water surface, where the
temperature 25 C and the pressure is 1 atm. Calculate the final volume
(in mL) of the bubble if its initial volume was 2.1 mL.
We assume that air amount in the bubble remains constant (n1 = n2)
Example 1:
A small bubble rises from the bottom of a lake, where the temperature and
pressure are 8 C and 6.4 atm, to the water surface, where the
temperature 25 C and the pressure is 1 atm. Calculate the final volume
(in mL) of the bubble if its initial volume was 2.1 mL?
P1 V1 P2 V2
T1 T2
P1 V1 T2 = P2 V2 T1
6.4 x 2.1 x (25 273)
V2
1 x (8 273)
V2 = 14.25 mL
Example 2:
An inflated helium balloon with a volume of 0.55L at sea level (1 atm) is
allowed to rise to a high of 6.5 km. where the pressure is about 0.40 atm.
Assuming that the temperature remains constant. What is the final
volume of the balloon?
We assume that n1 = n2 and T1 = T2
P1 V1 P2 V2
n 1 T1 n 2 T2
P 1 V 1 = P 2 V2
1 x 0.55 = 0.4 x V2
V2 = 0.55 / 0.4
= 1.4L
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Chapter Five / Gases
Density Calculations
PV=nRT P MM = d R T
n
P RT d
P MM
V RT
n P
V RT Unite for gas density is g/L
Density Calculations
Example 1:
Calculate the density of CO2 in g/L at 0.990 atm and 55 C?
P MM
d
RT
MM(CO2)= 40 g/mol
0.99 x 40
d
0.0821 x (55 273)
d= 1.47 g/L
dRT
MM
P
Example 1:
A chemist has synthesised a green-yellow gaseous compound of chlorine and
oxygen and finds that its density is 7.71 g/L at 36 C and 2.88 atm.
Calculate the molar mass of the compound?
dRT
MM
P
7.71 x 0.0821 x (36 273)
MM
2.88
MM 67.9 g/mol
Example 2:
Chemical analysis of a gaseous compound showed that it contained 33.0
percent Si and 67.0 percent F by mass. At 35 C, 0.210 L of the compound
exerted a pressure of 1.70 atm. If the mass of 0.210 L of the compound
was 2.38 g, calculate the molar mass and determine the molecular
formula of the compound?
Si = 33%, F= 67%, T= 35 C, V= 0.210L, P= 1.7 atm, mass= 2.38g,
MM= ?, Molecular formula ??
dRT
MM d=11.33 g/L
P
m 11.33 x 0.0821 x (35 273)
d MM
V 1.70
2.38
d MM=168.5 g/mol
0.210
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Chapter Five / Gases
Gas Stoichiometry
Gas Stoichiometry
Example 1:
Calculate the volume of O2 (in L) required for the complete combustion of
7.64 L of C2H2 measured at the same temperature and pressure.?
From equation
2 mol C2H2 5 mol O2
2L C2H2 5L O2
7.64 L C2H2 X ? L O2
5 x 7.64 = 2 x ?
Volume of O2 = 5 X 7.64 / 2 = 19.1 L
Gas Stoichiometry
Example 2:
Sodium azide (NaN3) is used in some automobile air bags. The impact of a collision
triggers the decomposition of NaN3 as follows:
2 NaN3 (s) 2 Na (s) 3N 2 ( g )
The nitrogen gas produced quickly inflates the bag between the driver and the
windshield and dashboard. Calculate the volume of N2 generated at 80 C and 823
mmHg by the decomposition of 60g NaN3?
T = 80 C = 80 +273 = 353K
P= 823 mmHg
1 atm =760 mmHg
?atm = 823mmHg
From equation
823 x 1 = 760 x ? = 823/760 =1.083atm
2 mol NaN3 3 mol N2
m= 60g.
0.923 mol NaN3 X ? mol N2
First convert g to mole
n=m/MM 3 x 0.923 = 2 x ?
= 60 / 65.02 =0.923 mol Mole of N2= 3 x 0.923 / 2
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Chapter Five / Gases
Gas Stoichiometry
PV = nRT
nRT
V
P
1.38 x 0.0821 x 353
V
1.083
V = 36.9L
V and T are
constant
P1 P2 Ptotal = P1 + P2
n A RT
PA
V
n B RT
PB
V
PT = PA + PB
n A RT n B RT
PT
V V
RT
PT (n A n B )
V
nRT
PT
V
Where n = nA + nB
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Chapter Five / Gases
Example:
A mixture of gasses contains 4.46 moles of Ne, 0.74 mole of Ar, and 2.15
moles of Xe. Calculate the partial pressures of the gases if the total
pressure is 2.00 atm at a certain temperature.?
First we have to determine the molar fraction of each gas
ni
Xi
nT
X Ne
4.46
0.607 PNe X Ne PT 0.607 x2 1.214 atm
4.46 0.74 2.15
X Ar
0.74
0.1 PAr X Ar PT 0.1x2 0.2atm
4.46 0.74 2.15
X Xe
2.15
0.293 PXe X Xe PT 0.293 x2 0.586 atm
4.46 0.74 2.15
Example:
Oxygen gas generated by the decomposition of potassium chlorate is collected. The
volume of oxygen collected at 24 C and atmospheric pressure of 762 mmHg is 128
ml. Calculate the mass (in g) of oxygen gas obtained. The pressure of the water
vapour at 24 C is 22.4 mmHg.?
T=24 C = 24 + 273 = 297 K, VO2 =128ml = 128/1000=0.128L , m = ??
PT = 762 mmHg,
1 atm = 760 mmHg
?atm = 762 mmHg
762 x 1= ?x 760
762 /760 =1.002atm
PH20=22.4mmHg,
1 atm = 760 mmHg
?atm = 22.4 mmHg
22.4 x 1= ?x 760
22.4 /760 =0.029atm
PV = nRT
n = PV/RT
PT= PO2 + PH20
PO2=PT PH2O
= 1.002 0.029 =0.973 atm
0.973 x0.128
n 0.005mol
0.0821x 297
Chapter Eight
Periodic Relationships Among the
Elements
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Chapter Eight/ Periodic Relationships Among the Elements
Group
Period
ns2np6
Periodic Classification of the Elements
ns1
ns2np4
ns2np2
ns2np3
ns2np5
ns2np1
ns2
d10
d5
d1
4f
260
5f
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Chapter Eight/ Periodic Relationships Among the Elements
Example:
The element that has the valance electron configuration 3s2 3p3 is:
a)Carbon b) Nitrogen c) Phosphorus d)Neon
Example 2:
An atom of a certain element has 15 electrons. Without consulting a periodic
table, answer the following questions:
(a) What is the ground-state electron configuration of this element?
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
(b) How should be element be classified?
Period 3, group 5A
The element is representative element.
(c) Is the element diamagnetic or paramagnetic
paramagnetic
3s2 3p3
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Chapter Eight/ Periodic Relationships Among the Elements
Example:
Which of the following sets of elements is expected to have similar chemical
properties?
a) Sulfur and phosphorous b) Sulfur and oxygen c) Sulfur and argon
Example
Titanium (Ti) element is found in the periodic table in
s-block (b) P-block (c) d-block (d) f-block
Example
Characteristics of noble gases include:
a. filled s and p subshells.
b. monatomic gases.
c. generally unreactive chemical.
d. all of the above.
ns
ns np
ns (n-1)d
In the formation of an anion, one or more electrons are added to the highest
Partially filled n shell so that anion has a noble-gas outer electron
configuration. Consider the following examples:
Example:
Which of the following species is isoelectronic with Cl- 18 e
(a) F- (b) O2- (c) K+ (d) Na+
10 e 10 e 18 e 10 e
Example:
Mn: [Ar]4s23d5
Mn2+: [Ar] 3d5
Fe: [Ar]4s23d6
Fe2+: [Ar]3d6
Fe3+: [Ar]3d5
Z eff Z
Valence electron
Core electron
increasing Zeff
increasing Zeff
Atomic Radius
Atomic Radius: is one-half the distance between the two nuclei in two
adjacent metal atoms or in a diatomic molecule .
Atomic Radius
Atomic Radius
Example
Referring to a periodic table, arrange the following atoms in order of
increasing atomic radius: P, Si, N?
N <P <Si
Atomic Radius
Example
Which choice below correctly lists the elements in order of increasing atomic
radius?
a-Na < Mg < K < Rb b-Mg < Na < K < Rb
c-Rb< K < Na < Mg d-Rb< K < Mg < Na
Ionic Radius
Ionic Radius
The ionic radius increases from the top to the bottom of the group
For ions in different groups: they should be isoelectronic
Isolelectronic ions:
o cations < anions: example Na+ < F-
o Isolelectronic cations: example Al3+, Mg2+, Na+
Al3+ < Mg2+ < Na+
o Isoelectronic anoins: example O2-, F-
F- < O2-
Ionic Radius
Example
For each of the following pairs, indicate which one is larger:
a. N3- or F- b- Mg2+ or Ca2+ c-Fe2+ or Fe3+
N3- Ca2+ Fe2+
Ionic Radius
Isoelectronic cations:
Example: 10Al+3, 10Mg+2, 10Na+
Ionic Radius
Example
Order the following according to the increase in atomic/ionic radius.
N3 Li+ C O2
a- C < Li+ < O2 < N3
b- N3 < O2 < C < Li+
c- Li+ < C < N3 < O2
d- Li+ < C < N3 < O2
e- Li+ < C < O2 < N3
Always
Cation < neutral < anion
For cation the larger the charge the smaller the radius
For anion the smaller the charge the smaller the radius
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Chapter Eight/ Periodic Relationships Among the Elements
Ionization Energy
I1 < I2 < I3 ..
Ionization Energy
Ionization Energy
Exception
2A>3A
5A>6A
Example
Which atom should have a smaller first ionization energy: oxygen or sulphur?
Ionization Energy
Example
Arrange the following in order of increasing first ionization energy:
F, K, P, Ca, and Ne.
K < Ca < P < F < Ne
Electron Affinity
Electron Affinity : is the negative change of the energy that occurs when
an electron is accepted by an atom in the gaseous state to form an anion.
The higher electron affinity, the greater affinity to accept the electron.
The Electron Affinity for non-metal is higher than metal , EA for metalloid
fall between metals and nonmetals.
The Electron Affinity decreases from top to the bottom of the group.
The Electron Affinity increase from left to right in period.
Exception
2A<1A
5A<4A
Noble gases have the lowest electron affinities
Halogens have the largest electron affinities
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Chapter Eight/ Periodic Relationships Among the Elements
Electron Affinity
Example
Which choice correctly lists the elements in order of decreasing electron
affinity?
a-O, Cl, B, C b-O, Cl, C, B c-Cl, O, C, B d-Cl, O, B, C
Electron Affinity
Example
Specify which of the following elements you would expect to have the
greatest electron affinity and which have the least:
He, K, Co, S, Cl
He < K < Co < S < Cl
Chapter Nine
Chemical Bonding I
Basic Concept
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Chapter Nine / Chemical bonding I, Basic Concept
Valence Electrons
Valence electrons: are the outer shell electrons of an atom. The valence
electrons are the electrons that participate in chemical bonding.
1A ns1 1
2A ns2 2
3A ns2np1 3
4A ns2np2 4
5A ns2np3 5
6A ns2np4 6
7A ns2np5 7
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Chapter Nine / Chemical bonding I, Basic Concept
Lawis dot symbol consists of the symbol of an element and one dot for
each valence electron in an atom of the element.
The octet rule: in forming chemical bonds, atoms usually gain, lose or
share electrons until they have 8 electrons in the outer shell to reach the
same electronic configuration of the noble gasses (ns2 np6).
There are two main types of chemical bonds: ionic bond and covalent
bond.
Ionic Bond
There are two type of bonds: Ionic bond and covalent bond.
An ionic bond is the electrostatic force that holds ions together in an ionic
compound.
Ionic bond occurs normally between metal and nonmetal and the electron
transfer from element to another element.
Example:
Li + F Li+ + F -
1S2 2S1 1S22S22P5 1S2 1S22S22P6
Ionic Bond
Example 2
Use Lewis dot symbol to show formation of Al2O3
2 Al + 3 O
[Ne] 3s2 3p1 1s2 2s2 2p4
2 Al3+ + 3 O -2 (Al2O3)
[Ne] 1s2 2s2 2p6 [Ne]
Ionic Bond
Example:
An atom in the ground state has atomic number Z=5. Choose the correct
electron-dot structure which represents this atom?
c. X
d. X
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Chapter Nine / Chemical bonding I, Basic Concept
Covalent Bond
Covalent bond, is a bond in which two electrons are shared by two atoms.
Covalent bond occurs normally between nonmetal and nonmetal and the
electron only shared between elements (not transfer from element to
another element).
Example:
F + F F F
7e- 7e- 8e- 8e-
single covalent bond
F F
F F
single covalent bond
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Chapter Nine / Chemical bonding I, Basic Concept
Covalent Bond
lone pairs: pairs of valence electrons that are not involved in covalent bond
formation.
Covalent Bond
H + O + H H O H or H O H
O C O or O C O
-
8e 8ebonds
double 8e - - double bonds
N N or N N
8e - 8e -
triple
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Chapter Nine / Chemical bonding I, Basic Concept
Valence Electrons
Bond Lengths
Triple bond < Double Bond < Single Bond
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Chapter Nine / Chemical bonding I, Basic Concept
Electronegativity
Polar covalent bond or polar bond is a covalent bond with greater electron
density around one of the two atoms
electron rich
electron poor
region
region e- poor e- rich
H F H F
d+ d-
Electronegativity
X (g) + e- X-(g)
Electronegativity
Electronegativity
0 Covalent
2 Ionic
0 < and <2 Polar Covalent
Electronegativity
Example
Classify the following bonds as ionic, polar covalent, or covalent
A) HCl 3-2.1 =0.9
Polar covalent
b) KF 4-0.8 =3.2
Ionic
c) C-C 2.5-2.5 =0
covalent
Electronegativity
Example
Classify the following bonds as ionic, polar covalent, or covalent
A) CsCl 31=2
Ionic
c) N-N 3-3=0
covalent
Example 1
Write the Lewis structure of nitrogen trifluoride (NF3).
Step 1 N is less electronegative than F, put N in center
Step 2 Count valence electrons N - 5 (2s22p3) and F - 7 (2s22p5)
5 + (3 x 7) = 26 valence electrons
Step 3 Draw single bonds between N and F atoms and complete
octets on N and F atoms.
Step 4 - Check, are # of e- in structure equal to number of valence e- ?
3 single bonds (3x2) + 10 lone pairs (10x2) = 26 valence electrons
F N F
F
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Chapter Nine / Chemical bonding I, Basic Concept
Example 2
O C O
Write the Lewis structure of the carbonate ion (CO32-).
Step 1 C is less electronegative than O, put C in center
Step 2 Count valence electrons C - 4 (2s22p2) and O - 6 O
(2s22p4) -2 charge 2e-
4 + (3 x 6) + 2 = 24 valence electrons 2 single bonds (2x2) = 4
Step 3 Draw single bonds between C and O atoms and 1 double bond = 4
complete octet on C and O atoms. 8 lone pairs (8x2) = 16
Step 4 - Check, are # of e- in structure equal to number of Total = 24
valence e- ?
3 single bonds (3x2) + 10 lone pairs (10x2) = 26 valence
electrons
Step 5 - Too many electrons, form double bond and re-
check # of e-
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Chapter Nine / Chemical bonding I, Basic Concept
Example 3
Write the Lewis structure for nitric acid (HNO3) in which the three O atoms
are bonded to the central N and H atom is bonded to one of the O atoms?
Step 1: put N in center ,surrounded by 3O atoms , H bonded to one of the O.
Step 2: Count the valence electrons 5 + (3 x 6) +1 = 24 valence e-
Step 3: Draw single bonds between N and O atoms and O and H complete
octet on O and N atoms. Use all the valence e (step 2)
Step 4: Check, are # of e- in structure equal to number of valence e- ?
4 single bonds (4x2) + 9 lone pairs (9x2) = 26 valence electrons
Step 5 - Too many electrons, form double bond and re-check # of e-
O N O H
O
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Chapter Nine / Chemical bonding I, Basic Concept
total number of
formal charge on total number of
valence electrons total number of
an atom in a
Lewis structure
=
in the free atom - nonbonding
electrons
- bond
The sum of the formal charges of the atoms in a molecule or ion must equal the
charge on the molecule or ion.
Example:
Ozone molecule (O3)
Lewis Structure: OO=O
Formal Charge:
6 - 6 - 1 = -1 6 - 2 - 3 = +1 6 - 4 - 2 =0
-1+1+0=0
total number of
formal charge on total number of
valence electrons total number of
an atom in a
Lewis structure
=
in the free atom - nonbonding
electrons
- bond
Example 2
Write the formal charges for the carbonate ion (CO32-)
6 - 4 - 2 =0
2-
O
O C O -1+0 -1+0=-2
6 - 6 - 1 = -1 4 - 0 - 4 =0 6 - 6 - 1 = -1
Sometimes there is more than one acceptable Lewis structure for a given
species. In such cases, we can often select the most plausible Lewis
structure by using formal charges and the following guidelines:
1. For molecules, a Lewis structure in which there are no formal charges is
preferable to one in which formal charges are present.
2. Lewis structures with large formal charges (+2, +3, and/or -2, -3, and so
on) are less plausible than those with small formal charges.
3. Among Lewis structures having similar distributions of formal charges,
the most plausible structure is the one in which negative formal charges
are placed on the more electronegative atoms.
Example
Draw the most likely Lewis structure for formaldehyde (CH2O).
a b
- +
H
HC=O-H C=O
H
4 - 2 - 3 = -1 6 - 2 - 3 = +1 4 - 0 - 4 =0 6 - 4 - 2= 0
- - - -
O C O O C O O C O
O O O
- -
Example
What are the resonance structures of Ozon (O3)?
- + + -
OO=O
OO=O
Example
What are the resonance structures of benzene molecule (C6H6)?
Example
Draw three resonance structures for the molecule nitrous oxide, N2O (the
atomic arrangement is NNO). Indicate formal charges. Rank the structures
- + + - 2- + +
N=N=O N N O N N O
a b c
Structure (b) is the most important one because the negative charge is on the
more electronegative oxygen atom. Structure (c) is the least important
one because it has a larger separation of formal charges. Also, the positive
charge is on the more electronegative oxygen atom.
Incomplete octet
The number of electrons surrounding the central atom in stable molecule is
less than 8.
Example coordinate covalent bond
BeH2 (also referred to as a dative
bond ),
defined as a covalent bond
H Be H in which one of the atoms
donates both electrons.
The electron configuration of beryllium is 1 s2 2s2 ; it has two valence
electrons in the 2s orbital.
Also group 3A (Al, B).
FBF
F
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Chapter Nine / Chemical bonding I, Basic Concept
Incomplete octet
Example
Draw the Lewis structure for aluminium triiodide (AlI3)
The outer-shell electron configurations of Al and I are 3s2 2p1 and 5s2 5p5
respectively. The total number of valence electrons is 3 + 3 x 7 or 24.
Because Al is less electronegative than I, it occupies a central position and
forms three bonds with the I atoms:
I Al -I
I
there are only six valence electrons around the Al atom. Thus, AlI3 is an
example of the incomplete octet.
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Chapter Nine / Chemical bonding I, Basic Concept
Odd-Electron Molecules
+ -
N=O O=N O
3rd period and beyond (4th, 5th, 6th, 7th ) may form molecules in which the
central atom is surrounded by more than 8 electrons
Example
The electron configuration of sulfur is [Ne]3s2 3p4. In SF6 , each of sulfurs six
valence electrons forms a covalent bond with a fluorine atom, so there are
12 electrons around the central sulfur atom:
F
F F
F F
F
Example
Draw Lewis structure for phosphorus pentaflouridde (PF5), in which all five F
atoms are bounded to the central P atom.?
Valance electrons = 5 + (7 x 5 ) = 40 e
5x6=30 electron (lone pair)
5x2=10 electron (bond)
F
Total is 40 electron
F F
P has 10 electron (5x2) P
Thus it expanded octet
F
F
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Chapter Nine / Chemical bonding I, Basic Concept
O O
- - - -
O S2+ O O S O
O- O
This structure has an expanded octet on S, BUT it
is more correct because, it has less formal
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Chapter Nine / Chemical bonding I, Basic Concept
Example
When acting as a central atom, which of the following cannot expand its
octet?
a- P b-C c-Cl d-Xe e-S
Chapter Fourteen
Chemical Equilibrium
A B C D Chemical equilibrium
equilibrium
equilibrium
equilibrium
Start with NO2 Start with N2O4 Start with NO2 & N2O4
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Chapter Fourteen/ Chemical Equilibrium
[C ]c [ D]d
K Law of Mass Action
[ A]a [ B]b
Where K is equilibrium constant.
for a reversible reaction at equilibrium and a constant temperature, a certain
ratio of reactant and product concentrations has a constant value, K,
called the equilibrium constant.
Always
The concentration of solids and pure liquids and solvent are not included in
the expression for the equilibrium constant.
K dos not have a unit
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Chapter Fourteen/ Chemical Equilibrium
Homogeneous Equilibria
homogeneous equilibrium applies to reactions in which all reacting
species are in the same phase.
Example
K can be given as
2
[ NO2 ] 2
P
Kc Kp
NO2
[ N 2O4 ] PN 2O4
Note that the subscript in Kc indicates that the
concentrations of the reacting species
are expressed in molarity or moles per liter.
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Chapter Fourteen/ Chemical Equilibrium
Homogeneous Equilibria
K p Kc ( RT )n
aA bB cC dD
Kc = Kp, when n = 0
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Chapter Fourteen/ Chemical Equilibrium
Homogeneous Equilibria
Example
Write expressions for Kc , and Kp if applicable, for the following reversible
reactions at equilibrium?
Homogeneous Equilibria
[ H 3O ][ F ]
Kc
[ HF ][ H 2O]
Always do not write solvent in the expression of equilibrium constant.
Normally water is solvent
[ H 3O ][ F ]
Kc
[ HF ]
Homogeneous Equilibria
[ NO2 ]2
Kc
[ NO]2 [O2 ]
2
PNO
Kp 2
2
PNO PO2
Homogeneous Equilibria
Homogeneous Equilibria
Example
The following equilibrium process has been studied at 230 oC:
2NO( g ) O2 ( g ) 2NO2 ( g )
In one experiment, the concentrations of the reacting species at equilibrium
are found to be [NO] = 0.0542 M, [O2] = 0.127 M, and [NO2] = 15.5 M.
Calculate the equilibrium constant (Kc) of this reaction at this temperature.
[ NO2 ]2
Kc
[ NO]2 [O2 ]
(15.5) 2
Kc 6.44 x 10 5
(0.0542) 2 (0.127)
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Chapter Fourteen/ Chemical Equilibrium
Homogeneous Equilibria
Example
The equilibrium constant Kp for the decomposition of
PCl5 ( g ) PCl3 ( g ) Cl2 ( g )
Is found to be 1.05 at 250 oC . If the equilibrium partial pressures of PCl5, and
PCl3 are 0.875 atm and 0.463 atm, respectively, what is the equilibrium
partial pressure of Cl2 at 250 oC.
PPCl3 PCl2
Kp
PPCl5
K p PPCl5 (1.05)(0.875)
PCl2 1.98 atm
PPCl3 (0.463)
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Chapter Fourteen/ Chemical Equilibrium
Homogeneous Equilibria
Example
The equilibrium concentrations for the reaction between carbon monoxide
and molecular chlorine to form COCl2 (g) at 740C are [CO] = 0.012 M, [Cl2]
= 0.054 M, and [COCl2] = 0.14 M. Calculate the equilibrium constants Kc
and Kp.
CO (g) + Cl2 (g) COCl2 (g)
[COCl2] n = 1 2 = -1 R = 0.0821
Kc =
[CO][Cl2] T = 273 + 74 = 347 K
0.14
= = 220
0.012 x 0.054 Kp = 220 x (0.0821 x 347)-1 = 7.7
K p Kc ( RT )n
n = moles of products moles of reactants
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Chapter Fourteen/ Chemical Equilibrium
Heterogeneous Equilibria
Heterogeneous Equilibria
[ NH 3 ]2 [ H 2 Se]
Kc X
[( NH 4 ) 2 Se]
K c [ NH 3 ]2 [ H 2 Se]
K p PNH
2
P
3 H 2 Se
Heterogeneous Equilibria
K c [ Ag ][Cl ]
Heterogeneous Equilibria
Multiple Equilibria
[C][D]
Kc =
A+B C+D Kc [A][B]
[E][F]
C+ D E+F K K =
c
c
[C][D]
A+B E+F Kc [E][F]
Kc =
[A][B]
Kc =
Kc x Kc
If a reaction can be expressed as the sum of two or more reactions, the
equilibrium constant for the overall reaction is given by the product of the
equilibrium constants of the individual reactions.
Multiple Equilibria
[N2O4] 1
Abdulaziz-Bookstor K = [NO2]2
=
kau2017
K
= 216
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Chapter Fourteen/ Chemical Equilibrium
Example: The equilibrium constant for the following reaction at 700 K is,
H2(g) + I 2(g) 2HI(g) K1 10.17
What is the value of the equilibrium constant for the following :
HI(g) 1/2 H2(g) +1/2 I2(g) K2 ?
a- 9.668 x10-3 b- 3.189 c- 0.314 d- 0.098
K2 1 / K1
K 2 1 / 10.17 0.314
Example: The equilibrium constant for the following reaction at 700 K is,
H2(g) + I 2(g) 2HI(g) K1 10.17
What is the value of the equilibrium constant for the following :
HI(g) 1/2 H2(g) +1/2 I2(g) K2 ?
a- 9.668 x10-3 b- 3.189 c- 0.314 d- 0.098
H 2 ( g ) I 2 ( g ) 2HI ( g )
is 54.3 at 430C. that in a certain experiment we place 0.243 mole of H2,
0.146 mole of I2, and 1.98 moles of HI all in a 1.00-L container at 430C.
[ HI ]o2 (1.98) 2
111
[ H 2 ]o [ I 2 ]o (0.243)(0.146)
where the subscript 0 indicates initial concentrations (before equilibrium is
reached). Because the quotient [HI]02 /[H2]0 [I2]0 is greater than Kc, this
system is not at equilibrium
At the start of a reaction, there are 0.249 mol N2, 3.21 x 10-2 mol H2, and 6.42
x 10-4 mol NH3 in a 3.50 L reaction vessel at 375 oC. If the equilibrium
constant (Kc) for the reaction:
N 2 ( g ) 3H 2 ( g ) 2 NH3 ( g )
Is 1.2 at this temperature, decide whether the system is at equilibrium. If it is
not, predict which way the net reaction proceed?
0.249 mol Qc < Kc
[ N 2 ]o 0.0711 M
3.50 L
3.21x10 2 mol THUS: the reaction is NOT at equilibrium
[ H 2 ]o 9.17 x10 3 M
3.50 L THUS: the product concentration will increase
6.42 x10 4 mol and the reactant concentration will decrease
[ NH 3 ]o 1.83x10 4 M
3.50 L
The reaction will proceed from left to right
[ NH 3 ]2 (1.83x104 ) 2
Qc 3
3 2
0.611 until the equilibrium is reached.
[ N 2 ][ H 2 ]
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Chapter Fourteen/ Chemical Equilibrium
Example
A mixture of 0.500 mol H2 and 0.500 mol I2 was placed in a 1.00 L stainless-
steel flask at 430 oC. The equilibrium constant Kc for the reaction
H 2 ( g ) I 2 ( g ) 2HI ( g )
Is 54.3 at this temperature. Calculate the concentrations of H2, I2 and HI at
equilibrium
H2 I2 2HI
Initial (M) 0.5 0.5 0.0
Change -x -x +2x
Equilibrium 0.5 - x 0.5 - x 2x
3.684 2x 7.369x
3.684 9.369x
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Chapter Fourteen/ Chemical Equilibrium
Changes in Concentration
Changes in Concentration
Example
If all species are gases and H2 is added, the amount of CO present at
equilibrium will:
CO2 H 2 CO H 2O
a- Increase. b-decrease. c-remain unchanged. d-disappear.
Changes in Concentration
Example
At 720 oC, the equilibrium Kc for the reaction:
N 2 ( g ) 3H 2 ( g ) 2 NH3 ( g )
Is 2.37 x 10-3. the equilibrium concentrations are [N2] = 0.683 M,[H2] = 8.80 M,
and [NH3] = 1.05 M. Suppose some NH3 is added to the mixture so that the
concentration is increased to 3.65 M. (a) Use Le Chteliers Principal to
predict the shift direction of the net reaction to reach new equilibrium. (b)
Confirm your prediction by calculating the reaction quotient Qc and
comparing its value with Kc.
Changes in Concentration
N 2 ( g ) 3H 2 ( g ) 2 NH3 ( g )
a-The increase was in product thus the equilibrium will shift toward reactant
(left).
b- 2
[ NH 3 ]o
Qc
[ N 2 ]o [ H 2 ]3o
(3.65) 2
Qc 3
2.86 x102
(0.683)(8.80)
Qc > Kc
Qc > Kc system proceeds from right to left to reach equilibrium (Qc = Kc)
Example
If all species are gases and the container is compressed, the amount of CO
present will:
CO2 H 2 CO H 2O
Example
Consider the following equilibrium systems:
(a) 2PbS (s) 3O2 ( g ) 2PbO(s) 2SO2 ( g )
(b) PCl5 ( g ) PCl3 ( g ) Cl2 ( g )
Predict the direction of the net reaction in each case as a result of increasing
the pressure (decreasing the volume) on the system at constant
temperature.?
Changes in Temperature
Changes in Temperature
Example
If the reaction is endothermic and the temperature is raised, the amount of
CO present will:
CO2 H 2 CO H 2O
Changes in Temperature
Example
Which of the following will result in an equilibrium shift to the right?
uncatalyzed catalyzed
Catalyst lowers Ea for both forward and reverse reactions.
Catalyst does not change equilibrium constant or shift equilibrium.
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Chapter Fourteen/ Chemical Equilibrium
Example
If a catalyst is added to the equilibrium, the amount of CO present will:
CO2 H 2 CO H 2O
Change Equilibrium
Constant
Change Shift Equilibrium
Concentration yes no
Pressure yes no
Volume yes no
Catalyst no no
Chapter Fifteen
Acids and Bases
K c [ H 3O ][OH ] [ H ][OH ]
KW [ H ][OH ]
The ion-product constant (Kw) is the product of the molar concentrations
of H+ and OH- ions at a particular temperature.
At 25 C, Kw = 1.0 1014
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Chapter Fifteen/ Acids and Bases
For water:
K w [ H 3O ][ HO ] [ H ][ HO ] 1x10 14
[ H ] [ HO ] 1x1014 1x107 M
Solution Is
Example:
Calculate the [H+] ions in aqueous ammonia , [OH-] =0.0025 M?
KW [ H ][OH ]
KW
[H ]
[OH ]
1x1014
[H ] 4 x1012 M
0.0025
THUS [H+] < [OH-]
therefore the solution is basic
pK w log 1x10 14 14
pH pOH 14
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Chapter Fifteen/ Acids and Bases
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Acidic Basic
Example
The concentration of H+ ions in a bottle of vinegar was 3.2 x 10-4 M right after
the cork was removed. Only half of the vinegar was consumed. The other
half, after it had been standing open to the air for a month, was found to
have a hydrogen ion concentration equal to 1.0 x 10-3 M. Calculate the pH
of the vinegar on these two occasions.
Example
The pH of rainwater collected in a certain region of Saudi Arabia on a
particular day was 4.82. Calculate the H+ ion concentration of the
rainwater.
pH log[ H ]
[ H ] 10 pH
[ H ] 10 4.82 1.5 x10 5 M
Example
In a NaOH solution [OH-] is 2.9 x 10-4 M. Calculate the pH of the solution?
+ -
HA (aq) + H2O(l) H3O (aq) + A (aq)
The acid ionization constant (Ka), is the equilibrium constant for the ionization of
an acid.
[ H 3O ][ A ]
Ka
[ HA]
[ H ] K a [acid ]
[OH ] Kb [base]
Example
What is the pH of a 0.5 M HF solution (at 250C) if Ka= 7.1x10-4 ?
+ -
HF (aq) H (aq) + F (aq)
[ H ] K a [acid ]
[ H ] 7.1x104 x0.5
[ H ] 0.019
Example
What is the pH of a 0.122 M monoprotic acid whose Ka is 5.7 x 10-4?
+ -
HA (aq) + H2O(l) H3O (aq) + A (aq)
[ H ] K a [acid ]
Example
The pH of a 0.10 M solution of formic acid (HCOOH) is 2.39. What is the Ka of
the acid?
HCOOH (aq) H+ (aq) + HCOO- (aq)
pH log[ H ]
[ H ] 10 pH
[ H ] 10 2.39 4.1x10 3 M
[ H ] K a [acid ]
[ H ]2 K a [acid ]
[ H ]2
Ka
[acid ] [4.1x10 3 ] 2
Ka
[0.1]
K a 1.7 x10 4
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Chapter Fifteen/ Acids and Bases
[H+]
Percent ionization = x 100% [HA]0 = initial concentration
[HA]0
Example
Calculate the percent ionization of hydrofluoric acid at the concentrations of
0.50 M if Ka= 7.1x10-4 ?
HF (aq) H+ (aq) + F- (aq)
[ H ] K a x[acid ]
[ H ] 7.1x104 x0.5
[ H ] 0.019M
Example
A 0.040 M solution of a monoprotic acid is 3 percent ionized. Calculate the
ionization constant of the acid.?
Weak Bases
+ -
NH 3(aq) + H2O(l) NH 4 (aq) + OH (aq)
The ionization of weak bases is treated in the same way as the ionization
of weak acids.
The base ionization constant (Kb), is the equilibrium constant for the
ionization of a base.
[ NH4 ][OH ]
Kb
[ NH3 ]
Weak Bases
Example
What is the pH of a 0.40 M ammonia solution if Kb= 1.8x10-5?
+ -
NH 3(aq) + H2O(l) NH 4 (aq) + OH (aq)
[OH ] Kb [base]
Chapter Sixteen
Acid-Base Equilibria and Solubility
Equilibria
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Chapter Sixteen/ Acid-Base Equilibria and Solubility Equilibria
The common ion effect is the shift in equilibrium caused by the addition of
a compound having an ion in common with the dissolved substance.
Ka [HA]
[H+] =
[A-]
[HA]
-log [H+] = -log Ka - log
[A-]
[A-]
-log [H+] = -log Ka + log
[HA]
[A ] salt
pH pK a log pKa = -log Ka Henderson-Hasselbalch equation
[ HA]
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Weak acid
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Chapter Sixteen/ Acid-Base Equilibria and Solubility Equilibria
Example
What is the pH of a solution containing both 0.20 M CH3COOH and 0.30 M
CH3COONa? The Ka of CH3COOH is 1.8 x 10-5.
CH3COOH (aq) H+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq)
Buffer Solutions
A buffer solution is a solution of (1) a weak acid or a weak base and (2)
its salt; both components must be present.
The solution has the ability to resist changes in pH upon the addition of
small amounts of either acid or base.
A buffer solution must contain a relatively large concentration of acid to
react with any OH- ions that are added to it, and it must contain a similar
concentration of base to react with any added H+ ions. Furthermore, the
acid and the base components of the buffer must not consume each other
in a neutralization reaction. These requirements are satisfied by an acid-
base conjugate pair.
Buffer Solutions
A solution containing acetic acid (CH3COOH) and its salt sodium acetate
(CH3COONa) added to water these two substances has the ability to
neutralize either added acid or added base. Sodium acetate, a strong
electrolyte, dissociates completely in water:
If a base is added to the buffer system, the OH- ions will be neutralized by
the acid in the buffer:
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OH (aq) + CH3COOH (aq)
- CH3COO- (aq) + H2O (l)
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Chapter Sixteen/ Acid-Base Equilibria and Solubility Equilibria
Buffer Solutions
Example
Which of the following are buffer systems? (a) KF/HF (b) KBr/HBr
Buffer Solutions
Example
A-What is the pH of a solution containing both 0.20 M CH3COOH and 0.30 M
CH3COONa? The Ka of CH3COOH is 1.8 x 10-5.
B-If you add 0.01M HCl to the previous solution (buffer solution) what is the
new PH?
C- If you add 0.01M NaOH to the previous solution (buffer solution) what is
the new PH?
CH3COOH (aq) H+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq)
Buffer Solutions
Example
A-What is the pH of a solution containing both 0.20 M CH3COOH and 0.30 M
CH3COONa? The Ka of CH3COOH is 1.8 x 10-5.
CH3COOH (aq) H+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq)
[A-]
pH = pKa + log
[HA] 0.3
pH = -log 1.8 x 10 -5 +log
0.2
pH = 4.92
Buffer Solutions
Example
B-If you add 0.01M HCl to the previous solution (buffer solution) what is the
new PH?
CH3COOH (aq) H+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq)
Thus the H+ will increase and the equilibrium will shift toward reactant.
Thus we have to add 0.01 to the weak acid concentration (CH3COOH) so it will
be (0.2+0.01=0.21)and also take 0.01 from the negative ion concentration
(CH3COO-).(0.3-0.01= 0.29)
[A-]
pH = pKa + log
[HA] 0.29
pH = -log 1.8 x 10 -5 +log
0.21
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Chapter Sixteen/ Acid-Base Equilibria and Solubility Equilibria
Buffer Solutions
Example
C- If you add 0.01M NaOH to the previous solution (buffer solution) what is
the new PH?
CH3COOH (aq) H+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq)
Example:
Describe how you would prepare a phosphate buffer with a pH of about
7.40.?
The most suitable of the three buffer systems is HPO4-2 /H2PO4- , because the
pKa of the acid H2PO4- is closest to the desired pH. From the Henderson-
Hasselbalch equation
- we write
[A ] [A-] [A-]
pH = pKa + log 0.19= log
[HA] 1.5 =
[HA] [HA]
[A-] -
[A ]
7.4 = 7.21+ log 10 0.19 =
[HA] [HA]
Solubility Equilibria
Ksp =[Ag+][Cl-]
The solubility product (Ksp) of a compound is the product of the molar
concentrations of the constituent ions, each raised to the power of its
stoichiometric coefficient in the equilibrium equation.
MgF2 (s) Mg2+ (aq) + 2F- (aq) Ksp = [Mg2+][F-]2
The value of Ksp indicates the solubility of an ionic compound, the smaller
the value, the less soluble the compound in water.
Solubility Equilibria
Solubility Equilibria
Solubility Equilibria
Solubility Equilibria
Example:
The solubility of calcium sulfate (CaSO4) is found to be 0.67 g/L. Calculate the
value of Ksp for calcium sulfate.?
CaSO4(s) Ca+2 (aq) + SO4-2 (aq)
[Ca+2] = s [SO4-2] = s
Ksp = [Ca+2][SO4-2]
Ksp = s2
Solubility Equilibria
Example:
What is the solubility of Cu(OH)2 in g/L if Ksp =2.2 x 10-20
Cu(OH)(s) Cu+2 (aq) + 2 OH- (aq)
[Cu+2]= s [OH-]2= 2s
Ksp = [Cu+2][OH-]2
Ksp = (s)(2s)2
Ksp = 4s3
4s3= 2.2 x 10-20
s3= 5.5 x 10-21
s= 1.8 x 10-7M
Solubility = molar solubility (s) x molar mass
solubility= 1.8 x 10-7x 97.57
solubility= 1.8 x 10-5 g/L
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Chapter Twenty-four
Organic Chemistry
Example:
C10H22 is the formula of an:
Aliphatic hydrocarbons
Alkanes
Aliphatic hydrocarbons
Alkanes
Aliphatic hydrocarbons
Alkanes
Aliphatic hydrocarbons
CH3 Alkanes
CH3
4-methylpentane
Aliphatic hydrocarbons
Alkanes
CH4 methane
CH3 methyl
Aliphatic hydrocarbons
Alkanes
4. When there is more than one alkyl branch of the same kind present, we
use a prefix such as di-, tri-, or tetra - with the name of the alkyl group.
prefixes di-, tri-, tetra-,
Aliphatic hydrocarbons
Alkanes
5. The substituent groups are listed alphabetically in the name, and the
chain is numbered in the direction that gives the lowest number to the
first substituted carbon atom.
Br CH3
CH CH
CH3 Abdulaziz-Bookstor CH3 2-bromo-3-nitrobutane
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Chapter Twenty-Four/ Organic Chemistry
Aliphatic hydrocarbons
Alkanes
Example:
The systematic name for is
a- 1-ethyl-2-methylbutane.
b- 3,3-dimethylpentane
Example
Give the IUPAC name of the following compound:
2,2,4-trimethylhexane
Aliphatic hydrocarbons
Example Alkanes
CH3
Example
What is the IUPAC name of the following compound?
CH3 C2H5 4-ethyl-2-methyloctane
Aliphatic hydrocarbons
Alkanes
Example
What is the structure of 4-methyl-2-propylhexane?
C3H7 CH3
Aliphatic hydrocarbons
Alkanes
Structural isomers: are molecules that have the same molecular formula
but different structures.
# carbons Name # isomers
1 Methane 1
2 Ethane 1
3 Propane 1
4 Butane 2
5 Pentane 3
6 Hexane 5
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7 Heptane
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Chapter Twenty-Four/ Organic Chemistry
Aliphatic hydrocarbons
Alkanes
Example
How many structural isomers does pentane (C5H12) have?
a-1 b-2 c-3 d-4
Example
Which of the following hydrocarbons does not have isomers?
a-C7H16 b-C6H14 c-C5H10 d-C4H8 e-C3H8
Aliphatic hydrocarbons
Cycloalkanes
Aliphatic hydrocarbons
Alkenes
Alkenes (also called olefins) are Alkanes contain at least one carbon-
carbon double bond.
They have the general formula CnH2n where n = 2,3,
The simplest alkene is C2H4 , ethylene CH2 = H2C
Aliphatic hydrocarbons
Alkenes
CH3
3-methyl-2-heptene
CH3 CH CH CH CH3
Br
4-bromo-2-pentene
Aliphatic hydrocarbons
Alkenes
Cl Cl Cl H
C C C C
H H H Cl
cis-dichloroethylene trans-dichloroethylene
Aliphatic hydrocarbons
Alkenes
Example
Which of the following compounds has geometrical isomer?
H Cl H Cl
C C C C
H H H Cl
NO NO
NO2 Cl Cl Cl NO2 Cl
C C C C C C
H Cl H H H H
yes yes
NO
Aliphatic hydrocarbons
Alkenes
Example
For which of the compounds below are cis-trans isomers possible?
CH3CH=CH2 CH3CH=CHCH2CH3 CH3CH=CHCH3
(1) (2) (3)
a-only 2 b-both 1 and 2 c-both 2 and 3 d-all three only 3
Example
Which of the following does NOT exhibit geometric isomerism?
Aliphatic hydrocarbons
Alkynes
1-butyne 2-butyne
Aromatic
H
H
H C H
C C H C H
C C
C C
H C H C C
H C H
H
H
Aromatic
Nomenclature: Same rules as before +
If one H atom has been replaced by another atom or a group of atom
the name of the atom or group then benzene
chlorobenzene nitrobenzene
Aromatic
If more than one substituent is present, we must indicate the location of the
second group relative to the first. 1
Br 6 2
Br 5 3
Br
4
Br
1,2 ortho o-
1,2-dibromobenzene 1,3 meta m-
(o-dibromobenzene)
1,4 para p-
Br
Br
1,3-dibromobenzene
1,4-dibromobenzene
(m-dibromobenzene)
(p-dibromobenzene)
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Chapter Twenty-Four/ Organic Chemistry
Aromatic
Aromatic
NO2
Br CH3-CH-CH3
2-phenylpropane
3-bromonitrobenzene
(m-bromonitrobenzene)
The group containing benzene minus a hydrogen atom (C6H5) is called the
phenyl group.
Aromatic
Example
Which one of these formulas is that of unsaturated hydrocarbon?
Example
Which of these is the systematic name for the compound represented below?
CH3 CH2 CH CH3
CH = CH2
A. 2-ethylbutane B. 3-methyl-1-hexene C. 3-methyl-1-pentene
Hybridization
px py
pz
Hybridization
sp3 hybridization
Promote one 2s electron into the vacant p-orbital.
Combine (mix) all four orbitals to give four hybrid orbitals of equivalent
E energy:
x y z
2p 2p
2sp 3
2s 2s
combine
SP3 hybridization always associated with saturated hydrocarbon compounds
(i.e any carbon atom with 4 single bonds have SP3 hybridization).
CH3
Hybridization
sp2 hybridization
Promote one 2s electron into the vacant p-orbital.
Combine (mix) the 2s, 2px and 2py orbitals to give three hybrid orbitals of
equivalent energy
E
The 2pz orbital is unaltered.
x y z 2p z
2p 2p
2sp 2
2s 2s
combine
SP2 hybridization always associated with unsaturated hydrocarbon compounds
(i.e any carbon atom with 1 duple bonds have SP2 hybridization).
CH3 CH CH CH CH3
CH2 CH CH2 CH3
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Br
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Chapter Twenty-Four/ Organic Chemistry
Hybridization
sp hybridization
Promote one 2s electron into the vacant p-orbital.
Combine (mix) the 2s and 2px orbitals to give two hybrid orbitals of equivalent
energy
E The 2py and 2pz orbital are unaltered.
x y z 2py 2pz
2p 2p
2s 2s combine 2sp
Hybridization
Sigma bond () : the first bond made with any other atom.
Made from : hybridized orbitals
Pi bond (): Any second or third bond made with any other atom
Made from : left over p orbital
CH3
Functional Groups
Functional groups are responsible for most of the reactions of the parent
compounds.
Functional groups are:
Alcohol , Ethers , Aldhyde , Ketones , Carboxylic acid , Esters ,
Amines , Aminoacid
Functional Groups
Functional Groups
Functional Groups
O O O
Functional Groups
Amines: are organic bases having the general formula R3N, where R may be H
or a hydrocarbon group.
CH3NH2 CH3CH2NH2
Functional Groups
Chapter Twenty-five
Synthetic and Natural Organic Polymers
Proteins
Proteins
H
O
H C C
NH2 OH
Amino acids in solution at neutral pH exist as dipolar ions, meaning that the
proton on the carboxyl group has migrated to the amino group.
Proteins
H O H O
+H N C C O- + +H N C C O-
3 3
R1 R2
Peptide bond
H O H O
+H N C C N C C O- + H2O
3
R1 H R2
Proteins
Example
A protein is:
A) a polymer of amino acids B) a fatty acid ester of glycerol
C) an addition polymer D) a polymer of fatty acids
Example
The formula CH3CH2CH2CH2CH 2CH2CH2 OH represents:
a-an alcohol b-an alkene c-an alkyne d-an unsaturated hydrocarbon
Example
Which of the following is a ketone?
a-CH3CH2COCH3 b-CH3CH2CHO c-CH3OCH3 d-CH3CH2COOH
Proteins
Example
Classify each of the following molecules as:
alcohol, aldehyde, ketone, carboxylic acid, ether, amine or amino acid
(a) CH3 O CH2 CH3 ether
(Ether)
NH2 O
(g) CH2 C C OH
AminoAcid)
(Amino acid
H
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First exam
Exercises
2-The density of a piece of gold with a mass of 301 g and a volume of 15.6
cm3 is:
a-19.3 kg/m3 b-19.3 g/m3 c-19.3 g/cm3 d-19.3 kg/cm3
d = m/V
m = 301 g, V = 15.6 cm3
d = 301 / 15.6 = 19.3 g/cm3
2-The density of a piece of gold with a mass of 301 g and a volume of 15.6
cm3 is:
a-19.3 kg/m3 b-19.3 g/m3 c-19.3 g/cm3 d-19.3 kg/cm3
5-Atoms with the same number of protons and with different number of
neutrons are called
a- ions. b- neutral atoms c- isotopes. d- different atoms.
5-Atoms with the same number of protons and with different number of
neutrons are called
a- ions. b- neutral atoms c- isotopes. d- different atoms.
7-How many grams of SF4 (g) can theoretically be prepared from 6.00 g of SCl2
(g) and 3.50 g of NaF(s)? The equation of reaction is:
3 SCl2 (g) + 4 NaF (s) SF4 (g) + S2Cl2 (l) + 4 NaCl (s)
a- 21.0 g SF4 b- 210 g SF4 c- 2.10 g SF4 d- 0.210 g SF4
First we have to determine the limiting reagent:
First start with SCl2 second start with NaF
1-Convert to mole : 1-Convert to mole :
n = 6 / 103 = 0.058 mol n = 3.5 / 42 = 0.083mol
2- from equation 2- from equation
3mole SCl2 ========= 1 mole SF4 4mole NaF ========= 1 mole SF4
0.058 mole SCl2 =====? Mole SF4 0.083 mole SCl2 =====? Mole SF4
1 x 0.058 = 3 x ? 1 x 0.083 = 4 x ?
Mole of SF4 = 0.058 / 3 Mole of SF4 = 0.083 / 4
= 0.019 mole = 0.02 mole
Mass = n x molar mass
= 0.019 x 108
=2.052 g 2.1g
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First Exam/ Exercises
7-How many grams of SF4 (g) can theoretically be prepared from 6.00 g of SCl2
(g) and 3.50 g of NaF(s)? The equation of reaction is:
3 SCl2 (g) + 4 NaF (s) SF4 (g) + S2Cl2 (l) + 4 NaCl (s)
a- 21.0 g SF4 b- 210 g SF4 c- 2.10 g SF4 d- 0.210 g SF4
7-How many grams of SF4 (g) can theoretically be prepared from 6.00 g of SCl2
(g) and 3.50 g of NaF(s)? The equation of reaction is:
3 SCl2 (g) + 4 NaF (s) SF4 (g) + S2Cl2 (l) + 4 NaCl (s)
a- 21.0 g SF4 b- 210 g SF4 c- 2.10 g SF4 d- 0.210 g SF4
7-How many grams of SF4 (g) can theoretically be prepared from 6.00 g of SCl2
(g) and 3.50 g of NaF(s)? The equation of reaction is:
3 SCl2 (g) + 4 NaF (s) SF4 (g) + S2Cl2 (l) + 4 NaCl (s)
a- 21.0 g SF4 b- 210 g SF4 c- 2.10 g SF4 d- 0.210 g SF4
12-If you need 1.1 x 1024 molecules of oxalic acid, H2C2O4, how many grams of
the acid should you weigh out in the laboratory?
1.826 g b- 0.02 g c- 164.4 g d- 82.2 g
12-If you need 1.1 x 1024 molecules of oxalic acid, H2C2O4, how many grams of
the acid should you weigh out in the laboratory?
a- 1.826 g b- 0.02 g c- 164.4 g d- 82.2 g
Number of particle = Avogadro number x number of mole
1.1 x1024 = 6.022 x 1023 x n
n= 1.1 x 1024 / 6.022 x 1023
= 1.827 mole
n= mass / molar mass
Mass = n x molar mass
= 1.827 x 90
= 164.4 g
12-If you need 1.1 x 1024 molecules of oxalic acid, H2C2O4, how many grams of the acid
should you weigh out in the laboratory?
1.826 g b- 0.02 g c- 164.4 g d- 82.2 g
13-How many grams of Na2CO3 are required for complete reaction with 0.144 g HNO3?
Na2CO3(aq) + 2 HNO3(aq) 2 NaNO3(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
a-2.286 x 10-3 g b- 0.121 g c- 1.143 x 10-3 g d- 0.072 g
13-How many grams of Na2CO3 are required for complete reaction with 0.144 g HNO3?
Na2CO3(aq) + 2 HNO3(aq) 2 NaNO3(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
a-2.286 x 10-3 g b- 0.121 g c- 1.143 x 10-3 g d- 0.072 g
12-If you need 1.1 x 1024 molecules of oxalic acid, H2C2O4, how many grams of the acid
should you weigh out in the laboratory?
1.826 g b- 0.02 g c- 164.4 g d- 82.2 g
13-How many grams of Na2CO3 are required for complete reaction with 0.144 g HNO3?
Na2CO3(aq) + 2 HNO3(aq) 2 NaNO3(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
a-2.286 x 10-3 g b- 0.121 g c- 1.143 x 10-3 g d- 0.072 g
14-A glass of water contains 75.96 g of water molecules. How many hydrogen
atoms are in the water?
4.57 x 1025 b- 5.08 x 1024 c- 2.54 x 1024 d- 9.15 x 1025
First we calculate the number of mole
n = 75.96 / 18 = 4.22 mole
Number of molecules = Avogadro's number x number of mole
= 6.022 x 1023 x 4.22
= 2.54 x1024 molecules
From the chemical formula of water H2O
14-A glass of water contains 75.96 g of water molecules. How many hydrogen
atoms are in the water?
4.57 x 1025 b- 5.08 x 1024 c- 2.54 x 1024 d- 9.15 x 1025
15-168 O-2 has the correct set of (Z = Atomic number, A = mass number, c =
charge )
a- Z = 16, A = 8, c = 0 b- Z = 8, A = 16, c = 1
c- Z = 8, A = 16, c = -2 d- Z = 8, A = 16, c = 0
16-Phosphorus ion (P -3) with (Z=15 and A= 31) has the correct set of (e =
electrons and n = neutrons)
a- e = 18, n = 16 b- e = 15, n = 16
c- e = 15, n = 18 d- e = 16, n = 18
14-A glass of water contains 75.96 g of water molecules. How many hydrogen
atoms are in the water?
4.57 x 1025 b- 5.08 x 1024 c- 2.54 x 1024 d- 9.15 x 1025
15-168 O-2 has the correct set of (Z = Atomic number, A = mass number, c =
charge )
a- Z = 16, A = 8, c = 0 b- Z = 8, A = 16, c = 1
c- Z = 8, A = 16, c = -2 d- Z = 8, A = 16, c = 0
16-Phosphorus ion (P -3) with (Z=15 and A= 31) has the correct set of (e =
electrons and n = neutrons)
a- e = 18, n = 16 b- e = 15, n = 16
c- e = 15, n = 18 d- e = 16, n = 18
17-Vanadium (V) has two stable isotopes, (50V and 51V). The average atomic
mass of Vanadium (V) is 50.9415 amu; 50V has a mass of 49.9462 amu with
an abundance of 0.25%. The mass of (51V) isotope in amu with an
abundance of 99.75% is
a- 51.4940 b- 50.9440 c- 50. 4490 d- 50.9404
Average atomic mass = (atomic mass x abundenace)V-50+ (atomic mass x
abundenace)V-51
50.9415 = (49.9462 X (0.25 /100))V-50 + ( atomic mass of V-51 x (99.75 /100))V51
50.9415 = 0.125 + (ATMOIC MASS OF V-51 X 0.9975)
50.9415 0.125 = (ATMOIC MASS OF V-51 X 0.9975)
50.8166=(ATMOIC MASS OF V-51 X 0.9975)
ATOMIC MASS OF V-51 = 50.8166 / 0.9975= 50.944
17-Vanadium (V) has two stable isotopes, (50V and 51V). The average atomic
mass of Vanadium (V) is 50.9415 amu; 50V has a mass of 49.9462 amu
with an abundance of 0.25%. The mass of (51V) isotope in amu with an
abundance of 99.75% is
a- 51.4940 b- 50.9440 c- 50. 4490 d- 50.9404
17-Vanadium (V) has two stable isotopes, (50V and 51V). The average atomic mass of
Vanadium (V) is 50.9415 amu; 50V has a mass of 49.9462 amu with an abundance
of 0.25%. The mass of (51V) isotope in amu with an abundance of 99.75% is
a- 51.4940 b- 50.9440 c- 50. 4490 d- 50.9404
17-Vanadium (V) has two stable isotopes, (50V and 51V). The average atomic mass of
Vanadium (V) is 50.9415 amu; 50V has a mass of 49.9462 amu with an abundance
of 0.25%. The mass of (51V) isotope in amu with an abundance of 99.75% is
a- 51.4940 b- 50.9440 c- 50. 4490 d- 50.9404
compound
Summery of naming
Ionic Molecular
Cation: metal or NH4+ Nonmetal + nonmetal
Anion: monotomic or polytomic Nonmetal + metalloid
Cation has only Cation has more than Pair Form one type Pair Form more than
one charge one charge of compound one type
Name first of compound
Alkali metal Other metal
cations element
Alkaline earth metal Name first
add ide to the element
Ag+, Al+3, Cd+2, Zn+2 Name metal first name of second
element add ide to the
Specify charge of metal cation
Name metal first name of second
with roman numeral (STOCK
element
If monoatomic anion, add SYSTEM)
ide to the anion Add the prefix
If monoatomic anion, add ide to
(prefix mono
If polyatomic anion use the anion
usually omitted
name of anion from If polyatomic anion use name of for the first
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First Exam/ Exercises
P =8 , e = 8+2=10
P:e
8:10
4:5
24-How many moles of MgCl2 are present in 60.0 mL of 0.100 M MgCl2 solution?
a-60.0 mol b- 0.572 mol c- 6.00 10-3 mol d- 6.00 mol
M= 0.100M, n=?, V= 60 mL= 60/1000=0.06L
M=n/V
n=M X V
= 0.1 X 0.06 = 0.006 mol = 6 x 10-3 mol
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First Exam/ Exercises
24-How many moles of MgCl2 are present in 60.0 mL of 0.100 M MgCl2 solution?
a-60.0 mol b- 0.572 mol c- 6.00 10-3 mol d- 6.00 mol
M = n/V
n = mass /molar mass
= 2.5 / 46= 0.0543 mole
M = 0.0543 / (545 / 1000)= 0.0996 M = 9.96 X 10-2M
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First Exam/ Exercises
M = n/V
n = MXV
= 0.173 X (250 /1000)= 0.04325 mol
Mass = n x molar mass
= 0.04325 x 85
= 3.68 g
First exam
Exercises
Sr+2 Cl-
SrCl2
7- An atom is
a) Smallest unit of matter that maintains its chemical identity.
b) The smallest unit of a compound.
c) Always made of carbon
d) Smaller than electron
9- Rubidium (Rb) and cesium (Cs) are members of which of the following
categories?
a) Halogens b) Alkali metals c) Alkaline earth metals d) Noble gases
10- What is the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in the atom of 32
16 S 2
a) 32 protons, 34 electrons, 16 neutrons b) 16 protons, 16 electrons, 16 neutrons
c) 16 protons, 18 electrons, 16 neutrons d) 18 protons, 16 electrons, 32 neutrons
10- What is the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in the atom of 32
16 S 2
a) 32 protons, 34 electrons, 16 neutrons b) 16 protons, 16 electrons, 16 neutrons
c) 16 protons, 18 electrons, 16 neutrons d) 18 protons, 16 electrons, 32 neutrons
P = 16, e = 16+2 = 18 , n = 32-16 = 16
9- Rubidium (Rb) and cesium (Cs) are members of which of the following
categories?
a) Halogens b) Alkali metals c) Alkaline earth metals d) Noble gases
10- What is the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in the atom of 32
16 S 2
a) 32 protons, 34 electrons, 16 neutrons b) 16 protons, 16 electrons, 16 neutrons
c) 16 protons, 18 electrons, 16 neutrons d) 18 protons, 16 electrons, 32 neutrons
compound
Summery of naming
Ionic Molecular
Cation: metal or NH4+ Nonmetal + nonmetal
Anion: monotomic or polytomic Nonmetal + metalloid
Cation has only Cation has more than Pair Form one type Pair Form more than
one charge one charge of compound one type
Name first of compound
Alkali metal Other metal
cations element
Alkaline earth metal Name first
add ide to the element
Ag+, Al+3, Cd+2, Zn+2 Name metal first name of second
element add ide to the
Specify charge of metal cation
Name metal first name of second
with roman numeral (STOCK
element
If monoatomic anion, add SYSTEM)
ide to the anion Add the prefix
If monoatomic anion, add ide to
(prefix mono
If polyatomic anion use the anion
usually omitted
name of anion from If polyatomic anion use name of for the first
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First Exam/ Exercises
13- Gallium consists of 60.108% 69Ga with a mass of 68.9256 amu, and
39.892% 71Ga with a mass of 70.9247 amu, the average atomic mass of
gallium is:
a) 70.93 amu b) 71.62 amu c) 68.93 amu d) 69.723 amu
Average atomic mass = (atomic mass x abundenace)Ga-69+ (atomic mass x
abundenace)Ga-71
Average atomic mass = (68.9256 X (60.108 /100))Ga-69 + ( 70.9247 x (39.892
/100))Ga-71 = 69.723
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First Exam/ Exercises
13- Gallium consists of 60.108% 69Ga with a mass of 68.9256 amu, and
39.892% 71Ga with a mass of 70.9247 amu, the average atomic mass of
gallium is:
a) 70.93 amu b) 71.62 amu c) 68.93 amu d) 69.723 amu
14- Which pair of Atoms would be most likely to form an ionic compound?
a) C and N b) K and Ca c) P and Ar d) Ba and S
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First Exam/ Exercises
19- How many molecules of ethane (C2H6) are present in 0.30 g of C2H6?
a) 1.20 x 1022 b) 1.00 x 1022 c) 8.03 x 1021 d) 6.02 x 1021
We know that
Number of molecules = avogadros number x number of mole
= 6.022 x 1023 x 0.01
= 6.02 x 1021 molecules.
19- How many molecules of ethane (C2H6) are present in 0.30 g of C2H6?
a) 1.20 x 1022 b) 1.00 x 1022 c) 8.03 x 1021 d) 6.02 x 1021
20- The empirical formula of an organic compound with 85.7% C and 14.3%
H is
a) CH b) CH2 c) C2H d) CH4
1- change from % to g Divided by the smallest number
of mole which is 7.14
85.7 g of C, 14.3 g of H
7.14 14.3
2- change from g to mole C: 7.14 =1 H: =2
7.14
85.7
nc = 12 = 7.14 mol of C Thus the empirical formula is CH2
14.3
nH =
1 = 14.3 mol of H
19- How many molecules of ethane (C2H6) are present in 0.30 g of C2H6?
a) 1.20 x 1022 b) 1.00 x 1022 c) 8.03 x 1021 d) 6.02 x 1021
20- The empirical formula of an organic compound with 85.7% C and 14.3%
H is
a) CH b) CH2 c) C2H d) CH4
19- How many molecules of ethane (C2H6) are present in 0.30 g of C2H6?
a) 1.20 x 1022 b) 1.00 x 1022 c) 8.03 x 1021 d) 6.02 x 1021
20- The empirical formula of an organic compound with 85.7% C and 14.3%
H is
a) CH b) CH2 c) C2H d) CH4
19- How many molecules of ethane (C2H6) are present in 0.30 g of C2H6?
a) 1.20 x 1022 b) 1.00 x 1022 c) 8.03 x 1021 d) 6.02 x 1021
20- The empirical formula of an organic compound with 85.7% C and 14.3%
H is
a) CH b) CH2 c) C2H d) CH4
24- How many moles of FeSO4 are present in a 500 mg of this salt?
a) 1.64 x 10-3 b) 2.30 x 10-3 c) 3.29 x 10-3 d) 4.93 x 10-3
Mass = 500mg = 0.5 g
n= mass / molar mass
= 0.5 / 152
= 0.00329 = 3.29 x 10-3 g
24- How many moles of FeSO4 are present in a 500 mg of this salt?
a) 1.64 x 10-3 b) 2.30 x 10-3 c) 3.29 x 10-3 d) 4.93 x 10-3
25- How many milliliter of water must be added to 200 mL of 0.15M Na2CO3
to prepare 0.05 M Na2CO3?
a) 200 mL b) 300 mL c) 400 mL d) 450 mL
M1 V 1 = M2 V 2
0.15 X 200 = 0.05 X V2
V2 = 0.15 X 200 / 0.05 = 600 ml
Add water = 600-200 = 400 ml
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First Exam/ Exercises
24- How many moles of FeSO4 are present in a 500 mg of this salt?
a) 1.64 x 10-3 b) 2.30 x 10-3 c) 3.29 x 10-3 d) 4.93 x 10-3
25- How many milliliter of water must be added to 200 mL of 0.15M Na2CO3
to prepare 0.05 M Na2CO3?
a) 200 mL b) 300 mL c) 400 mL d) 450 mL
26- What is the theoretical yield of chromium (Cr) that can be produced by
the reaction of 40.0 g of Cr2O3 with 8.00 g of aluminum (Al) according to
the chemical reaction?
2 Al + Cr2O3 Al2O3 + 2 Cr
a) 15.4 g b) 17.33 g c) 19.4 g d) 13.48 g
First we have to determine the limiting reagent:
First start with Al second start with Cr2O3
1-Convert to mole : 1-Convert to mole :
n = 8 / 27 = 0.296 mol n = 40 / 152 = 0.263mol
2- from equation 2- from equation
2mole Al ========= 2 mole Cr 1mole Cr2O3 ========= 2 mole Cr
0.296 mole Al =====? Mole Cr 0.263mole Cr2O3 =====? Mole Cr
2x 0.296 = 2 x ? 2 x 0.263 = 1 x ?
Mole of Cr = 0.296 mol Mole of Cr = 0.526 mol
Mass = n x molar mass
= 0.296 x 52
=15.4g
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First Exam/ Exercises
26- What is the theoretical yield of chromium (Cr) that can be produced by
the reaction of 40.0 g of Cr2O3 with 8.00 g of aluminum (Al) according to
the chemical reaction?
2 Al + Cr2O3 Al2O3 + 2 Cr
a) 15.4 g b) 17.33 g c) 19.4 g d) 13.48 g
27- If the actual yield for the experiment in question (26) produced 13.0g,
what is the percentage yield?
a) 84.4% b) 75.0% c) 67% d) 96.4%
Actual yield
% Yield X 100
Theoretica l yield
13
% YIELD X 100 84.4%
15.4
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First Exam/ Exercises
26- What is the theoretical yield of chromium (Cr) that can be produced by
the reaction of 40.0 g of Cr2O3 with 8.00 g of aluminum (Al) according to
the chemical reaction?
2 Al + Cr2O3 Al2O3 + 2 Cr
a) 15.4 g b) 17.33 g c) 19.4 g d) 13.48 g
27- If the actual yield for the experiment in question (26) produced 13.0g,
what is the percentage yield?
a) 84.4% b) 75.0% c) 67% d) 96.4%
28- The mass of Na that will react with excess of water to produce 16.0 g
NaOH is
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) H2(g) + 2NaOH(aq)
a) 5.75 g b) 6.90 g c) 8.05 g d) 9.20 g
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First Exam/ Exercises
28- The mass of Na that will react with excess of water to produce 16.0 g
NaOH is
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) H2(g) + 2NaOH(aq)
a) 5.75 g b) 6.90 g c) 8.05 g d) 9.20 g
1-First make sure the equation is balanced
2- g to mole
n = mass / molar mass
= 16 / 40
= 0.4 mol
From equation
2 mole Na =======2mole NaOH
?mole Na ======== 0.4 Mole NaOH
2 X 0.4 = 2 X ?
Mole of Na = 0.4 mole
Mass = n x molar mass
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= 0.4 x 23 = 9.2 g
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First Exam/ Exercises
26- What is the theoretical yield of chromium (Cr) that can be produced by
the reaction of 40.0 g of Cr2O3 with 8.00 g of aluminum (Al) according to
the chemical reaction?
2 Al + Cr2O3 Al2O3 + 2 Cr
a) 15.4 g b) 17.33 g c) 19.4 g d) 13.48 g
27- If the actual yield for the experiment in question (26) produced 13.0g,
what is the percentage yield?
a) 84.4% b) 75.0% c) 67% d) 96.4%
28- The mass of Na that will react with excess of water to produce 16.0 g
NaOH is
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) H2(g) + 2NaOH(aq)
a) 5.75 g b) 6.90 g c) 8.05 g d) 9.20 g
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First Exam/ Exercises
29- A 100.0 mL of 0.25 M HCl is diluted with water to a total volume of 200.0
mL. What is the final concentration in the resulting solution?
a) 0.125M b) 0.083 M c) 0.05 M d) 0.0625 M
M1 V 1 = M2 V 2
0.25 X 100 = M2 X 200
M2= 0.25 X 100 / 200 = 0.125 M
29- A 100.0 mL of 0.25 M HCl is diluted with water to a total volume of 200.0
mL. What is the final concentration in the resulting solution?
a) 0.125M b) 0.083 M c) 0.05 M d) 0.0625 M
29- A 100.0 mL of 0.25 M HCl is diluted with water to a total volume of 200.0
mL. What is the final concentration in the resulting solution?
a) 0.125M b) 0.083 M c) 0.05 M d) 0.0625 M
Second exam
P1 V1 P2 V2 V1 V2
n 1 T1 n 2 T2 T1 T2
32.1 V2
293 493
32.1x 493
V2 54.01L
293
2- The volume occupied by 32.75g of methane gas (CH4) at 25 C and 1.0 atm
is :
a- 0.186L b- 4.5 L c- 50.0L d- 80.0L
m= 32.75g, T= 25 C= 298 K, P= 1atm
n = m/MM
= 32.75 / 16 = 2.05 mol
PV=nRT 2.05 x 0.082 x 298
V 50.01L
nRT 1
V
P
2- The volume occupied by 32.75g of methane gas (CH4) at 25 C and 1.0 atm
is :
a- 0.186L b- 4.5 L c- 50.0L d- 80.0L
3- what is the molar mass of Freon-11 gas if its density is 6.12 g/L at STP?
a- 0.274 g/mol b- 3.64 g/mole c- 78.2 g/mol d- 137 g/mol
2- The volume occupied by 32.75g of methane gas (CH4) at 25 C and 1.0 atm
is :
a- 0.186L b- 4.5 L c- 50.0L d- 80.0L
3- what is the molar mass of Freon-11 gas if its density is 6.12 g/L at STP?
a- 0.274 g/mol b- 3.64 g/mole c- 78.2 g/mol d- 137 f/mol
4- A mixture of gases contain 0.31 mol CH4 , 0.05 mole He and 0.25 mol3 C2H6
the total pressure is 1.5 atm. What is the partial pressure of He?
a- 0.12 atm b- 0.76 atm c- 0.61 atm d- 123 atm
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Second exam
4- A mixture of gases contain 0.31 mol CH4 , 0.05 mole He and 0.25 mol C2H6
the total pressure is 1.5 atm. What is the partial pressure of He?
a- 0.12 atm b- 0.76 atm c- 0.61 atm d- 123 atm
nCH4 = 0.31 mol , nHe = 0.05mol, nC2H6 =0.25mol , PT = 1.5atm
ni
Xi
nT
0.05
X He 0.082
0.31 0.05 0.25
Pi X i PT
PHe 0.082 x1.5
0.12 atm
2- The volume occupied by 32.75g of methane gas (CH4) at 25 C and 1.0 atm
is :
a- 0.186L b- 4.5 L c- 50.0L d- 80.0L
3- what is the molar mass of Freon-11 gas if its density is 6.12 g/L at STP?
a- 0.274 g/mol b- 3.64 g/mole c- 78.2 g/mol d- 137 f/mol
4- A mixture of gases contain 0.31 mol CH4 , 0.05 mole He and 0.25 mol3 C2H6
the total pressure is 1.5 atm. What is the partial pressure of He?
a- 0.12 atm b- 0.76 atm c- 0.61 atm d- 123 atm
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Second exam
c
Eh
10- No two electrons in the same atom can have the same four quantum
numbers is a statement of:
a- The Pauli exclusion principle. b- Bohrs equation
c- Hunds rule d- de Broglies relation
11- The frequency of the light emitted by a hydrogen atom during a transition
of its electron from n=4 to the n=1 is:
a- 1.35 x 10-15 s-1 b- 1.03 x 1015 s-1 c- 8.03 x 1015 s-1 d- 3.09 x 1015 s-1
11- The frequency of the light emitted by a hydrogen atom during a transition
of its electron from n=4 to the n=1 is:
a- 1.35 x 10-15 s-1 b- 1.03 x 1015 s-1 c- 8.03 x 1015 s-1 d- 3.09 x 1015 s-1
1 1
E RH 2 2
n n
i f
1 1
2.18 x1018 J 2 2 2.04 x1018 J
4 1
E hv
E 2.04 x1018 15 1
v 34
3.08 x10 s
h 6.63x10
10- No two electrons in the same atom can have the same four quantum
numbers is a statement of:
a- The Pauli exclusion principle. b- Bohrs equation
c- Hunds rule d- de Broglies relation
11- The frequency of the light emitted by a hydrogen atom during a transition
of its electron from n=4 to the n=1 is:
a- 1.35 x 10-15 s-1 b- 1.03 x 1015 s-1 c- 8.03 x 1015 s-1 d- 3.09 x 1015 s-1
12- Which one of the following sets of quantum numbers is not possible?
a- n=3 , l=2, ml =-2, ms =+1/2 b- n=3, l=2, ml =-3, ms =+1/2
c- n=3, l=0, ml =0, ms =+1/2 d- n=3, l=1, ml =1, ms= +1/2
12- Which one of the following sets of quantum numbers is not possible?
a- n=3 , l=2, ml =-2, ms =+1/2 b- n=3, l=2, ml =-3, ms =+1/2
c- n=3, l=0, ml =0, ms =+1/2 d- n=3, l=1, ml =1, ms= +1/2
14- How many orbitals in an atom having the quantum numbers: n=3, l=2?
a- 3 b- 5 c- 7 d- 14
2l +1
(2x2)+1 = 5
12- Which one of the following sets of quantum numbers is not possible?
a- n=3 , l=2, ml =-2, ms =+1/2 b- n=3, l=2, ml =-3, ms =+1/2
c- n=3, l=0, ml =0, ms =+1/2 d- n=3, l=1, ml =1, ms= +1/2
14- How many orbitals in an atom having the quantum numbers: n=3, l=2?
a- 3 b- 5 c- 7 d- 14
12- Which one of the following sets of quantum numbers is not possible?
a- n=3 , l=2, ml =-2, ms =+1/2 b- n=3, l=2, ml =-3, ms =+1/2
c- n=3, l=0, ml =0, ms =+1/2 d- n=3, l=1, ml =1, ms= +1/2
14- How many orbitals in an atom having the quantum numbers: n=3, l=2?
a- 3 b- 5 c- 7 d- 14
19- The general electron configuration for atoms of all elements in group 5A is
a- ns2 nd3 b- ns2 np5 c- ns2 np4 d- ns2 np3
20- In what group of the periodic table is the element with the elecgron
configuration : [Ar]4s23d104p3?
a- 2A b- 3A c- 5A d- 7A
Ar=18 e
18+2+10+3 =33 e= As
20- In what group of the periodic table is the element with the electron
configuration : [Ar]4s23d104p3?
a- 2A b- 3A c- 5A d- 7A
21- In which of these pairs of atoms would the bond be the most polar?
a- C-C b- C-N c- C-O d- C-S
20- In what group of the periodic table is the element with the electron
configuration : [Ar]4s23d104p3?
a- 2A b- 3A c- 5A d- 7A
21- In which of these pairs of atoms would the bond be the most polar?
a- C-C b- C-N c- C-O d- C-S
20- In what group of the periodic table is the element with the electron
configuration : [Ar]4s23d104p3?
a- 2A b- 3A c- 5A d- 7A
21- In which of these pairs of atoms would the bond be the most polar?
a- C-C b- C-N c- C-O d- C-S
23- Which of these choices is the electron configuration of the iron (III) ion?
a- [Ar] 3d5 b-[Ar] 4s1 3d5 c- [Ar] 4s2 3d3 d- [Ar] 3d6
Fe = 26e = [Ar] 4s2 3d6
+3 = 23 e= [Ar] 3d5
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Second exam
20- In what group of the periodic table is the element with the electron
configuration : [Ar]4s23d104p3?
a- 2A b- 3A c- 5A d- 7A
21- In which of these pairs of atoms would the bond be the most polar?
a- C-C b- C-N c- C-O d- C-S
23- Which of these choices is the electron configuration of the iron (III) ion?
a- [Ar] 3d5 b-[Ar] 4s1 3d5 c- [Ar] 4s2 3d3 d- [Ar] 3d6
24- Which one of these atoms has the largest atomic radius: K, P, S, Cl
a- P b- K c- Cl d- S
26- The de Broglie wavelength of a ball which has a mass of 250 g and
traveling with a speed of 32.9 m/s is :
a- 8.1 x1033 m b- 8.1 x 10-35 m c- 8.1 x 10-33 m d- 8.1 x 1035 m
m =250 g = 0.25 kg , u= 32.9 m/s
h
mu
34
6.626 x10
8.01x10 35 m
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Second exam
24- Which one of these atoms has the largest atomic radius: K, P, S, Cl
a- P b- K c- Cl d- S
26- The de Broglie wavelength of a ball which has a mass of 250 g and
traveling with a speed of 32.9 m/s is :
a- 8.1 x1033 m b- 8.1 x 10-35 m c- 8.1 x 10-33 m d- 8.1 x 1035 m
24- Which one of these atoms has the largest atomic radius: K, P, S, Cl
a- P b- K c- Cl d- S
26- The de Broglie wavelength of a ball which has a mass of 250 g and
traveling with a speed of 32.9 m/s is :
a- 8.1 x1033 m b- 8.1 x 10-35 m c- 8.1 x 10-33 m d- 8.1 x 1035 m
O P O
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Second exam
O P O
O
5 - 0 - (8)= +1
total number of
formal charge total number of 1 total number of
on an atom in
a Lewis
structure
= valence
electrons in
the free atom
- nonbonding
electrons
- 2 ( bonding
electrons )
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Second exam
Second exam
2-The mole fraction of nitrogen in the air is 0.6808. Calculate the partial
pressure of N2 in air when the atmospheric pressure is 2.5 atm.
a- 0.817 atm b- 1.70 atm c- 0.567 torr d- 1.7 torr
XN = 0.6808, PN =?, PAIR = 2.5 atm
Pi X i PT
PN 0.6808x2.5
1.702 atm
2-The mole fraction of nitrogen in the air is 0.6808. Calculate the partial
pressure of N2 in air when the atmospheric pressure is 2.5 atm.
a- 0.817 atm b- 1.70 atm c- 0.567 torr d- 1.7 torr
4-A mixture of 1.0 g H2 and 2.0 g He is placed in 1.0 L container at 27 oC. The
total pressure for this mixture is:
a-43.2 atm b- 12.3 atm c- 24.6 atm d- 15.5 atm
4-A mixture of 1.0 g H2 and 2.0 g He is placed in 1.0 L container at 27 oC. The
total pressure for this mixture is:
a-43.2 atm b- 12.3 atm c- 24.6 atm d- 15.5 atm
mH2 =1g, mHe =2g, V=1L, T= 27 C = 27+273 =300K, PT =?
nRT
PT Where n = nA + nB
V
2-The mole fraction of nitrogen in the air is 0.6808. Calculate the partial
pressure of N2 in air when the atmospheric pressure is 2.5 atm.
a- 0.817 atm b- 1.70 atm c- 0.567 torr d- 1.7 torr
4-A mixture of 1.0 g H2 and 2.0 g He is placed in 1.0 L container at 27 oC. The
total pressure for this mixture is:
a-43.2 atm b- 12.3 atm c- 24.6 atm d- 15.5 atm
5-If 0.500 mol of nitrogen gas occupies a volume of 11.2 L at 0 oC, what
volume will 4.00 mol of nitrogen occupy at the same temperature and
pressure?
a-none b- 44.8 L c- 54.7 L d- 89.6 L
n1=0.5mol, V1 = 11.2L, n2 = 4mole, P and T constant
P1 V1 P2 V2 V1 V2
n 1 T1 n 2 T2 n1 n 2
11.2 V2
0.5 4
4 x11 .2
V2 89.6 L
0.5
5-If 0.500 mol of nitrogen gas occupies a volume of 11.2 L at 0 oC, what
volume will 4.00 mol of nitrogen occupy at the same temperature and
pressure?
a-none b- 44.8 L c- 54.7 L d- 89.6 L
6-Detrmine the density of uranum hexafluride gas (UF6) at 60 oC and 640 torr,
(Mwt UF6 = 352 gmol-1).
a-10.85 g/L b- 8.2 x 103 mg/mL c- 8.2 x 103 g/L d- 10.85 x 103 g/L
T=60C = 60+273=333K, P=640torr= 640/760=0.842atm, MM=352 g/mol
P MM
d
RT
0.842x352
d 10.85 g / l
0.082x333
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Second exam
5-If 0.500 mol of nitrogen gas occupies a volume of 11.2 L at 0 oC, what
volume will 4.00 mol of nitrogen occupy at the same temperature and
pressure?
a-none b- 44.8 L c- 54.7 L d- 89.6 L
6-Detrmine the density of uranum hexafluride gas (UF6) at 60 oC and 640 torr,
(Mwt UF6 = 352 gmol-1).
a-10.85 g/L b- 8.2 x 103 mg/mL c- 8.2 x 103 g/L d- 10.85 x 103 g/L
5-If 0.500 mol of nitrogen gas occupies a volume of 11.2 L at 0 oC, what
volume will 4.00 mol of nitrogen occupy at the same temperature and
pressure?
a-none b- 44.8 L c- 54.7 L d- 89.6 L
6-Detrmine the density of uranum hexafluride gas (UF6) at 60 oC and 640 torr,
(Mwt UF6 = 352 gmol-1).
a-10.85 g/L b- 8.2 x 103 mg/mL c- 8.2 x 103 g/L d- 10.85 x 103 g/L
8-What is the wavelength of radiation that has a frequency of 2.10 1014 s-1?
a- 6.30 1022 m b- 7.00 10-2 nm c- 7.00 105 m d- 1.43 103 nm
V= 2.10 1014 s-1 , =?
c =
=c/v
= 3x108 /(2.10 1014 )
= 1.43 x10-6 m
= 1.43 X103 nm
8-What is the wavelength of radiation that has a frequency of 2.10 1014 s-1?
a- 6.30 1022 m b- 7.00 10-2 nm c- 7.00 105 m d- 1.43 103 nm
c
Eh
8-What is the wavelength of radiation that has a frequency of 2.10 1014 s-1?
a- 6.30 1022 m b- 7.00 10-2 nm c- 7.00 105 m d- 1.43 103 nm
8-What is the wavelength of radiation that has a frequency of 2.10 1014 s-1?
a- 6.30 1022 m b- 7.00 10-2 nm c- 7.00 105 m d- 1.43 103 nm
3s2 3p3
15-The four quantum numbers of the last electron in oxygen (O) atom are:
a- n = 2 l=1 ml = -1 ms = -1/2
b- n = 1 l=1 ml = 0 ms = +1/2
c- n = 2 l=0 ml = +1 ms = -1/2
d- n = 2 l=1 ml = 0 ms = -1/2
O=8e
1s2 2s2 2p4
-1 0 +1
2s2 2p4
n=2, L=1, ml =-1, ms = -1/2
15-The four quantum numbers of the last electron in oxygen (O) atom are:
a- n = 2 l=1 ml = -1 ms = -1/2
b- n = 1 l=1 ml = 0 ms = +1/2
c- n = 2 l=0 ml = +1 ms = -1/2
d- n = 2 l=1 ml = 0 ms = -1/2
15-The four quantum numbers of the last electron in oxygen (O) atom are:
a- n = 2 l=1 ml = -1 ms = -1/2
b- n = 1 l=1 ml = 0 ms = +1/2
c- n = 2 l=0 ml = +1 ms = -1/2
d- n = 2 l=1 ml = 0 ms = -1/2
17-What is the De Broglie wave length for an electron with velocity 8x105 ms-1
a- 3.5 x 10-9 m b- 1.46 x 10-9 m c- 0.91 x 10-9 m d- 1.42 x 10-8 m
17-What is the De Broglie wavelength for an electron with velocity 8x105 ms-1
a- 3.5 x 10-9 m b- 1.46 x 10-9 m c- 0.91 x 10-9 m d- 1.42 x 10-8 m
=?, u= 8x105 m s-1
h
mu
6.626 x1034
31 5
0.91x10 9
m
9.11 x10 x8 x10
17-What is the De Broglie wave length for an electron with velocity 8x105 ms-1
a- 3.5 x 10-9 m b- 1.46 x 10-9 m c- 0.91 x 10-9 m d- 1.42 x 10-8 m
17-What is the De Broglie wave length for an electron with velocity 8x105 ms-1
a- 3.5 x 10-9 m b- 1.46 x 10-9 m c- 0.91 x 10-9 m d- 1.42 x 10-8 m
-
19-How many bonding electrons around the chlorine atom in ClO 4 ?
a- 8 b- 4 c-6 d- 2
-
19-How many bonding electrons around the chlorine atom in ClO 4 ?
a- 8 b- 4 c-6 d- 2
Step 1 Cl is less electronegative than O, put Cl in center
Step 2 Count valence electrons Cl - 7 (3s23p5) and O - 6 (2s22p4)
7+ (4 x 6)+1 = 32 valence electrons
Step 3 Draw single bonds between Cl and O atoms and complete
octets on Cl and O atoms.
Step 4 - Check, are # of e- in structure equal to number of valence e- ?
4 single bonds (4x2) + 12 lone pairs (12x2) = 32 valence electrons
O
O Cl O
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Second exam
17-What is the De Broglie wave length for an electron with velocity 8x105 ms-1
a- 3.5 x 10-9 m b- 1.46 x 10-9 m c- 0.91 x 10-9 m d- 1.42 x 10-8 m
=?, u= 8x105 m s-1
20-How many lone pairs of electrons are there around the chlorine atom in ClO -4
a- 6 b- 2 c- 0 d- 1
O Cl O
O
7 - 0 - 4 = +3
total number of
formal charge total number of
valence total number of
on an atom in
a Lewis
=
electrons in - nonbonding - bond
electrons
the free atom
structure
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Second exam
-
23-The Formal charge on chlorine atom in ClO 4
a-+3 b- + 2 c- -1 d- + 1
24-Which one of the following atoms in its ground state has the greatest
number of valence electrons?
a-P b- Al c- O d- Si
24-Which one of the following atoms in its ground state has the greatest
number of valence electrons?
a-P b- Al c- O d- Si
25-The element 'X' does not usually form compounds with atoms of other
elements. Which one of the following could be the electron configuration
of 'X'?
a-1s22s1 b- 1s22s22p3 c- 1s22s22p6 d-1s22s22p1
24-Which one of the following atoms in its ground state has the greatest
number of valence electrons?
a-P b- Al c- O d- Si
25-The element 'X' does not usually form compounds with atoms of other
elements. Which one of the following could be the electron configuration
of 'X'?
a-1s22s1 b- 1s22s22p3 c- 1s22s22p6 d-1s22s22p1
Final exam
Exercises
31 3
3- What is the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in the atom of 15 P ?
a) 31 protons, 34 electrons, 15 neutrons b) 16 protons, 16 electrons, 16 neutrons
c) 15 protons, 18 electrons, 16 neutrons d) 18 protons, 15 electrons, 31 neutrons
P = 15, e = 15+3 = 18 , n = 31-15 = 16
31 3
3- What is the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in the atom of 15 P ?
a) 31 protons, 34 electrons, 15 neutrons b) 16 protons, 16 electrons, 16 neutrons
c) 15 protons, 18 electrons, 16 neutrons d) 18 protons, 15 electrons, 31 neutrons
compound
Summery of naming
Ionic Molecular
Cation: metal or NH4+ Nonmetal + nonmetal
Anion: monotomic or polytomic Nonmetal + metalloid
Cation has only Cation has more than Pair Form one type Pair Form more than
one charge one charge of compound one type
Name first of compound
Alkali metal Other metal
cations element
Alkaline earth metal Name first
add ide to the element
Ag+, Al+3, Cd+2, Zn+2 Name metal first name of second
element add ide to the
Specify charge of metal cation
Name metal first name of second
with roman numeral (STOCK
element
If monoatomic anion, add SYSTEM)
ide to the anion Add the prefix
If monoatomic anion, add ide to
(prefix mono
If polyatomic anion use the anion
usually omitted
name of anion from If polyatomic anion use name of for the first
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Final Exam/ Exercises
31 3
3- What is the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in the atom of 15 P ?
a) 31 protons, 34 electrons, 15 neutrons b) 16 protons, 16 electrons, 16 neutrons
c) 15 protons, 18 electrons, 16 neutrons d) 18 protons, 15 electrons, 31 neutrons
9- If the actual yield for the experiment in the above question (8) produced
13.0g, what is the percentage yield?
a) 84.4% b) 75.0% c) 67% d) 96.4%
Actual yield
% Yield X 100
Theoretica l yield
13
% YIELD X 100 75.01%
17.33
9- If the actual yield for the experiment in the above question (8) produced
13.0g, what is the percentage yield?
a) 84.4% b) 75.0% c) 67% d) 96.4%
9- If the actual yield for the experiment in the above question (8) produced
13.0g, what is the percentage yield?
a) 84.4% b) 75.0% c) 67% d) 96.4%
11- Which of the following electron transitions would absorb the lowest
energy by the hydrogen atom?
a) from n = 1 to n = 4 b) from n = 1 to n = 5
c) from n = 3 to n = 4 d) from n = 1 to n = 6
11- Which of the following electron transitions would absorb the lowest
energy by the hydrogen atom?
a) from n = 1 to n = 4 b) from n = 1 to n = 5
c) from n = 3 to n = 4 d) from n = 1 to n = 6
dR t
MM
P
17.14x0.08 2 x 308
MM 254.68 g / mol
1.7
11- Which of the following electron transitions would absorb the lowest
energy by the hydrogen atom?
a) from n = 1 to n = 4 b) from n = 1 to n = 5
c) from n = 3 to n = 4 d) from n = 1 to n = 6
15- What is the molecular formula of the compound in the above question if
you know that it contained 33.0 percent Si and 67.0 percent F by mass?
a) Si2F6 b) SiF3 c) Si3F9 d) Si3F
1- we change from % to g
33 g of Si, 67 g of F Ratio
molecular mass of compound
empirical molecular mass
2- change from g to mole using
254.68
33 Ratio = 85 =3
nSi 28 = 1.18 mol of Si
= molecular formula = ratio x empirical formula
67 = 3 x SiF3 = Si3F9
nF =
19 = 3.53 mol of F
Divided by the smallest number
of mole which is 1.18
1.18 3.53
Si: 1.18 = 1 F: 1.18 =3
15- What is the molecular formula of the compound in the above question if
you know that it contained 33.0 percent Si and 67.0 percent F by mass?
a) Si2F6 b) SiF3 c) Si3F9 d) Si3F
16-The element 'X' does not usually form compounds with atoms of other
elements. Which one of the following could be the electron
configuration of 'X'?
a) 1s22s1 b) 1s22s22p3 c) 1s22s22p6 d)1s22s22p1
18-If the energy (E) of radiation is 6.63 x 10-24 J, what is the frequency () of
this radiation?
a) 1X1010 Hz b) 1X108 Hz c) 1X10-34 Hz d) 1X10-8 Hz
E h
E
h
6.63 x10 24
V 34
1x1010
Hz
6.63 x10
18-If the energy (E) of radiation is 6.63 x 10-24 J, what is the frequency () of
this radiation?
a) 1X1010 Hz b) 1X108 Hz c) 1X10-34 Hz d) 1X10-8 Hz
18-If the energy (E) of radiation is 6.63 x 10-24 J, what is the frequency () of
this radiation?
a) 1X1010 Hz b) 1X108 Hz c) 1X10-34 Hz d) 1X10-8 Hz
20-What is the volume of 4.3510-3 mol gas at 21.2 C and 0.83 atm?
a) 0.13 L b) 0.2 L c) 0.1L d) 0.3 L
n= 4.3510-3 mole, T= 21.2 C= 21.2+273=294.2 K, P= 0.83 atm, V= ?
PV=nRT
V= nRT/P
= 4.3510-3 x 0.082 x 294.2 / 0.83
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Final Exam/ Exercises
18-If the energy (E) of radiation is 6.63 x 10-24 J, what is the frequency () of
this radiation?
a) 1X1010 Hz b) 1X108 Hz c) 1X10-34 Hz d) 1X10-8 Hz
20-What is the volume of 4.3510-3 mol gas at 21.2 C and 0.83 atm?
a) 0.13 L b) 0.2 L c) 0.1L d) 0.3 L
[OH ] Kb [base]
[OH ] 1.8 x10 5 x0.05
[OH ] 9.5 x10 4
pOH log[ OH ] log( 9.5 x10 4 ) 3.02
pH 14 pOH 14 3.02 10.98
18-If the energy (E) of radiation is 6.63 x 10-24 J, what is the frequency () of
this radiation?
a) 1X1010 Hz b) 1X108 Hz c) 1X10-34 Hz d) 1X10-8 Hz
20-What is the volume of 4.3510-3 mol gas at 21.2 C and 0.83 atm?
a) 0.13 L b) 0.2 L c) 0.1L d) 0.3 L
24-If the solubility of BaSO4 is 1.05x10-5 M at 25 C, the Ksp of this salt is:
BaSO4 (s) Ba+2 (aq) + SO4-2 (aq)
a) 1.1x10-10 b) 2.5x10-12 c) 1.05x10-5 d) 5x10-20
24-If the solubility of BaSO4 is 1.05x10-5 M at 25 C, the Ksp of this salt is:
BaSO4 (s) Ba+2 (aq) + SO4-2 (aq)
a) 1.1x10-10 b) 2.5x10-12 c) 1.05x10-5 d) 5x10-20
[Ba+2] = s [SO4-2] = s
Ksp = [Ba+2][SO4-2]
Ksp = s2
s = 1.05x 10 -5mol/L
Ksp = [Ba+2][SO4-2]
Ksp = (1.05x 10 -5 )(1.05x 10 -5 )
Ksp = 1.1x10-10
24-If the solubility of BaSO4 is 1.05x10-5 M at 25 C, the Ksp of this salt is:
BaSO4 (s) Ba+2 (aq) + SO4-2 (aq)
a) 1.1x10-10 b) 2.5x10-12 c) 1.05x10-5 d) 5x10-20
27-At equilibrium, the total gas pressure was found to be 0.033 atm.
Calculate the equilibrium constant KP for the following decomposition;
NH4CO2NH2 (s) 2 NH3 (g) + CO2 (g)
a) 5.32x10-6 b) 5.55x10-4 c) 2.22x10-3 d) 5.0x10-3
Pt = P(NH3)+ P(CO2)
= 2P + P
= 3P
0.033 = 3P P= 0.033/3= 0.011
THEN
P(CO2)= 0.011, P(NH3)= 2X0.011=0.022
K p PNH
2
PCO
3 2
a) 5-methyl-3-hexene b) 5-methylhexane
c) 2-methylhexane d) 3-methylhexene
a) 5-methyl-3-hexene b) 5-methylhexane
c) 2-methylhexane d) 3-methylhexene
[ H ] K a x[acid ]
[ H ] 7.1x104 x0.5
[ H ] 0.019M
a) b)
c) d)
a) b)
c) d)
Final exam
Exercises
1-Which atom of these following atoms will gain two electrons when forming
ion.
a-Mg b- S c- Br d- Al
a- Na b- Ca c- K d- Li
1-Which atom of these following atoms will gain two electrons when forming
ion.
a-Mg b- S c- Br d- Al
a- Na b- Ca c- K d- Li
5- The mass of one atom of an element is 3.82 x 10-23g, what is the molar
mass of this element?
a- 23 g/mol b- 19 g/mol c- 20 g/mol d- 40 g/mol
molar mass
mass of one atom
Avogadro' s number
molar mass mass of one atom x Avogadro' s number
molar mass 3.82 x1023 x6.022 x1023 23g / mol
5- The mass of one atom of an element is 3.82x10-23g, what is the molar mass
of this element?
a- 23 g/mol b- 19 g/mol c- 20 g/mol d-40 g/mol
5- The mass of one atom of an element is 3.82x10-23g, what is the molar mass
of this element?
a- 23 b- 19 c- 20 d-40
8- The partial pressure of oxygen was observed to be 130 torr in air with
atmospheric pressure of 743 torr. Calculate the mole fraction of O2
present.
a-0.210 b- 0.175 c- 4.76 d- 5.72
Pi
Xi
PT
130
Xi 0.175
743
8- The partial pressure of oxygen was observed to be 130 torr in air with
atmospheric pressure of 743 torr. Calculate the mole fraction of O2
present.
a-0.210 b- 0.175 c- 4.76 d- 5.72
9- In a process 500 g of NaCl are treated with an excess of H2SO4 and yield
500 g of Na2SO4. Calculate the percent yield of Na2SO4.
2NaCl + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2HCl
a- 77.51% b- 90.7% c- 82.39% d- 85.76%
9- In a process 500 g of NaCl are treated with an excess of H2SO4 and yield
500 g of Na2SO4. Calculate the percent yield of Na2SO4.
2NaCl + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2HCl
a- 77.51% b- 90.7% c- 82.39% d- 85.76%
Normally we should determine the limiting reagent but in this question it
already mention that H2SO4 is excess therefore the limiting regent is NaCl
Calculate mole of NaCl
Mole= 500/58.5 (molar mass of NaCl)=8.55
Actual yield
From equation % Yield X 100
Theoretica l yield
2 mole NaCl ======1 mole Na2SO4
X
8.55 mole ==========? Mole of Na2SO4 Yield = (500/606.84) x100
= 82.39 %
Mole of Na2SO4 = 8.55 /2 = 4.27 mole
Then change mole of product to g
= 4.275 x 142 (molar mass of Na2SO4)= 606.84 g
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Final Exam/ Exercises
8- The partial pressure of oxygen was observed to be 130 torr in air with
atmospheric pressure of 743 torr. Calculate the mole fraction of O2
present.
a-0.210 b- 0.175 c- 4.76 d- 5.72
9- In a process 500 g of NaCl are treated with an excess of H2SO4 and yield
500 g of Na2SO4. Calculate the percent yield of Na2SO4.
2NaCl + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2HCl
a- 77.51% b- 90.7% c- 82.39% d- 85.76%
13- The density of benzene (C6H6) is 0.8765 g/mL. How many benzene
molecules are present in 4.50 mL?
a-2.85 x 1023 molecule b- 3.04 x 1022 molecule
c-1.51 x 1022 molecule d- 2.18 x 1023 molecule
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Final Exam/ Exercises
13- The density of benzene (C6H6) is 0.8765 g/mL. How many benzene
molecules are present in 4.50 mL?
a-2.85 x 1023 molecule b- 3.04 x 1022 molecule
c-1.51 x 1022 molecule d- 2.18 x 1023 molecule
d=g/v
Mass = 0.8765 x 4.50 = 3.94425 g
Mole=mass/molar mass
=3.94425 /78=0.05057 mol
Number of particle = Avogadro's number x number of moles.
= 6.022 x1023 x 0.05057 =3.04 x 1022 molecule
13- The density of benzene (C6H6) is 0.8765 g/mL. How many benzene
molecules are present in 4.50 mL?
a-2.85 x 1023 molecule b- 3.04 x 1022 molecule
c-1.51 x 1022 molecule d- 2.18 x 1023 molecule
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Final Exam/ Exercises
14- The empirical formula for a compound that gives the following analysis
75.95% C, 6.33% H, 17.72% N, is :
a-C7H6O b- C6H6O c- C5H5N d- C6H7N
1- change from % to g
75.95 g of C, 6.33 g of H, 17.72 g of N 6.33 6.33
C: 1.27 = 5 H:
1.27 =5
2- change from g to mole using
1.27
75.95 N:
1.27 =1
nc = 12 = 6.33 mol of C
6.33 Thus the empirical formula is C5H5N
nH =
1 = 6.33 mol of H
17.72
nN = 14 = 1.27 mol of N
14- The empirical formula for a compound that gives the following analysis
75.95% C, 6.33% H, 17.72% N, is :
a-C7H6O b- C6H6O c- C5H5N d- C6H7N
14- The empirical formula for a compound that gives the following analysis
75.95% C, 6.33% H, 17.72% N, is :
a-C7H6O b- C6H6O c- C5H5N d- C6H7N
16- You have 500 mL of a 0.600 M HCl solution and you want to dilute it to
exactly 0.400 M. How much water should you add?
a- 250 mL b- 500 mL c- 1000 mL d- 2500 mL
M1 V 1 = M2 V 2
0.6 X 500 = 0.4 X V2
V = 750 ml
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Add water = 750 500 =250 mL
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Final Exam/ Exercises
14- The empirical formula for a compound that gives the following analysis
75.95% C, 6.33% H, 17.72% N, is :
a-C7H6O b- C6H6O c- C5H5N d- C6H7N
16- You have 500 mL of a 0.600 M HCl solution and you want to dilute it to
exactly 0.400 M. How much water should you add?
a- 250 mL b- 500 mL c- 1000 mL d- 2500 mL
17- What is the density of NH3 gas at 100 C and 0.4 atm?
a- 0.111 g/L b- 0.222 g/L c- 0.333 g/L d- 0.445 g/L
P MM
d
RT
0.4 x 17
d 0.22 g / L
0.082x 100 273
17- What is the density of NH3 gas at 100 C and 0.4 atm?
a- 0.111 g/L b- 0.222 g/L c- 0.333 g/L d- 0.445 g/L
21- At equilibrium, the total gas pressure was found to be 0.033 atm.
Calculate the equilibrium constant for the following decomposition;
NH4CO2NH2(s) 2 NH3(g) + CO2(g)
a-1.33 x 10-6 b- 5.3 x 10-6 c- 3.59 x 10-5 d- 1.44 x 10-4
PT = PNH3 + PCO2
0.033 = 2P + P
0.033 = 3P
P= 0.011
THEN PNH3 = 2 X 0.011 = 0.022
P CO2= 0.011
Kp =P2NH3 X PCO2
= (0.022)2 X(0.011) =5.3 X 10-6
21- At equilibrium, the total gas pressure was found to be 0.033 atm.
Calculate the equilibrium constant for the following decomposition;
NH4CO2NH2(s) 2 NH3(g) + CO2(g)
a-1.33 x 10-6 b- 5.3 x 10-6 c- 3.59 x 10-5 d- 1.44 x 10-4
21- At equilibrium, the total gas pressure was found to be 0.033 atm.
Calculate the equilibrium constant for the following decomposition;
NH4CO2NH2(s) 2 NH3(g) + CO2(g)
a-1.33 x 10-6 b- 5.3 x 10-6 c- 3.59 x 10-5 d- 1.44 x 10-4
23- When 0.01 mol of N2O4(g) were placed in a 2.0 L flask at 200 C, it was
found that at equilibrium [N2O4] = 0.0042 M. What is the value of Kc for
the following reaction; N2O4(g) 2 NO2(g)
Abdulaziz-Bookstor b- 1.5 x 10-4
a-0.032 kau2017c- 6.1 x 10-4 d- 5.12 x 10
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Final Exam/ Exercises
23- When 0.01 mol of N2O4(g) were placed in a 2.0 L flask at 200 C, it was
found that at equilibrium [N2O4] = 0.0042 M. What is the value of Kc for
the following reaction; N2O4(g) 2 NO2(g)
21- At equilibrium, the total gas pressure was found to be 0.033 atm.
Calculate the equilibrium constant for the following decomposition;
NH4CO2NH2(s) 2 NH3(g) + CO2(g)
a-1.33 x 10-6 b- 5.3 x 10-6 c- 3.59 x 10-5 d- 1.44 x 10-4
23- When 0.01 mol of N2O4(g) were placed in a 2.0 L flask at 200 C, it was
found that at equilibrium [N2O4] = 0.0042 M. What is the value of Kc for
the following reaction; N2O4(g) 2 NO2(g)
Abdulaziz-Bookstor b- 1.5 x 10-4
a-0.032 kau2017c- 6.1 x 10-4 d- 5.12 x 10
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Final Exam/ Exercises
K P KC ( RT ) n
K P 0.0304 x(0.082 x(25 273)) 2 5.1x105
a-10 b- 14 c- 16 d- 18
2 4 6 8
1 3 5 7 9
11
a-24 b- 10 c- 25 d- 22
29-From question (28), What is the hybridization for carbon atom number 4
(C4)?
a-sp b- sp2 c- sp3 d- sp3d2
a-1,2,4-trichlorobenzene Cl Cl b- 1,3,4-trichlorobenzene
c- Abdulaziz-Bookstor
1,2,3-trichlorobenzene kau2017
d- 1,4,5-trichlorobenzene
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Final Exam/ Exercises
[Hg+2]= s [Cl-]= 2s
Ksp = [Hg+2][Cl-]2
Ksp = (s)(2s)2
Ksp = 4s3
4s3= 1.8 x 10-18
s3= 4.5 x 10-19
s= 7.66 x 10-7M
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Final Exam/ Exercises
37- Find the pH of a 0.1 M aqueous solution of hypobromous acid (HOBr), for
which Ka = 2.06 10-9.
a- 4.84 b- 2.55 c- 3.0 d- 4.5
[ H ] K a [acid ]
pH = -log[H+] = 4.84
37- Find the pH of a 0.1 M aqueous solution of hypobromous acid (HOBr), for
which Ka = 2.06 10-9.
a- 4.84 b- 2.55 c- 3.0 d- 4.5
[A-]
pH = pKa + log
[HA] 0.2
pH = -log 1.8 x 10 -5 +log
0.1
pH = 5.04
37- Find the pH of a 0.1 M aqueous solution of hypobromous acid (HOBr), for
which Ka = 2.06 10-9.
a- 4.84 b- 2.55 c- 3.0 d- 4.5
37- Find the pH of a 0.1 M aqueous solution of hypobromous acid (HOBr), for
which Ka = 2.06 10-9.
a- 4.84 b- 2.55 c- 3.0 d- 4.5