THERMODYNAMICS & FLUIDS (Thermodynamics level I\Tlhermo & Fluids Module -Thermo Book 2-Contents-December 07.dov) UFMEQU-20-1 THERMODYNAMICS NOTES - BOOK 2 OF 2 Students must read through these notes and work through the various exercises in their own time in parallel with the course of lectures. Thermodynamics is the study of the relationships that exist between the properties of a gas or a vapour and the transfer of heat and work energy to or from that gas or vapour. Contents Page Number Formulae & data 2 Non-flow processes — Gases 4 Exercise 9 Steady-flow processes — Gases 13 Exercise 16 Steam tables 4 Exercise 28 Non-flow processes ~ Steam 29 Exercise 31 Steady-flow processes - Steam 35 Exercise 38 Thermo level 1\Thermo & Fluids Module\Thermo & Fluids Module - Thermo Notes Book 2-Dec 07 Join Withers - December 2007 1FORMULAE & DATA GENERAL Density p= mass / volume=mv/V Specific volume v= Vim p=liv p = 1000kg/m* for water p = 13600kg/m’ for mercury Im? = 1000litres KE= mC PE =mgZ g=9.8Im/s* Ibar = 10° N/m? PRESSURE: Pressure p = force /area=F/ A Absolute pressure p = Pgauge * Patmos Note that hy is sometimes represented by ‘2’ Atmospheric pressure Pamos = Pghy where hy is the barometric head Standard atmospheric pressure Patmos = 1.0132Sbar Ibar = 10° N/m? FOR GASES TK=T°C +273 R=gas constant pV=mRT y=Vim=RTip = V=mv p=m/V=pRT For any process, change in internal energy: (U2 - Ui) =me,(T2- T1) For any process, change in internal energy per kg: (uz - w1) = ¢(T2 - T:) U=m For any process, change in enthalpy: (Hz - H:) =me,(T2 - T;) For any process, change in enthalpy per kg: (hz - hy) = ¢,(T2- T H=-mh Gas constant: R= & Y= ep! 6 For any process: piVuT; =p:VeiTos For a polytropic process: piViP=p.V2" and piVvT:=p2VzT, and T/T, = (pop) = VyV2)"? For an adiabatic process (Q= 0): piVit=prV2" and piVv/Ti=p2VyTz and Ty/T1 = (pa/p)*"= (VyrVay*? For constant volume heating: QemeyTy-T)) (ic. Q=U2-U)) Q=Hh- HM) For constant pressure heating: Q=me,(T2-T1) Thermo level 1\Thermo & Fluids Module\Thermo & Fluids Module - Thermo Notes Book 2-Dec 07 Join Withers - December 2007 2FOR WET STEAM w= xuy + (Lex)ur h=xhg+(loghp or h=hy+ xhg. V=xvpt(I-X¥p or V=XVq approximately NON-FLOW THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES FOR GASES & VAPOURS NFEE Heat in — Work out = change in Internal Energy NFEE: Q-W=(U2-U)) NFEE per kg of fluid U=mu Q=0 for adiabatic processes W=0 when V = constant W-=p(V2-Vi) when p= constant W=piViln(V2/Vi) when pV = constant W=(piVi-p2V2)/(n-l) when pV" = constant (Polytropic process) W=(prVi -p2V2)/(y-1) when pV" = constant (GAS undergoing an adiabatic process) STEADY FLOW THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES FOR GASES & VAPOURS SFE: Heat in — Work out = change in potential energy + change in kinetic energy + change in enthalpy SFEE: Q- W=mg(Zz = 21) + 4m(Cz? -C”) + (Ho = Hi) SFEE for lkg of fluid: q-w>g(Z2- Zi) + 4(C2- C1?) + (ha - hy) H=mh Q=0 for adiabatic processes Mass flow rate tn= AyCy/vj = AzCa/v2 or t= pyAyC; = prArC Power = win Thermo level 1\Thermo & Fluids Module\Thermo & Fluids Module - Thermo Notes Book 2-Dec 07 Join Withers - December 2007NON-FLOW PROCESSES - GASES (Thermodynamics\ level 1\non-flow gas.doc) CLOSED SYSTEMS Non-flow processes take place in closed systems Real continuous boundary Work output from system W when valves are closed CLOSED SYSTEM CYLINDER & PISTON (thermo\eylindersd) Heat transfer into system Q THE GAS LAWS The gas laws given below apply to any process where the working fluid is a gas. PV mR = Constant | pwT=R for! kg R=ep-ey paVuTs = paVa/T Uz-Us=mey(Tz-Ty) | up-uy=ey(T2- Ty) | He- Hi = mey(T2-Ty) | hy- hy (T2- Ti) THE NON-FLOW ENERGY EQUATION ‘The NFE hown below applies to all non-flow processes. Q-W=()-U) or q-w Qis the heat transfer into the s} (uz- Uy) perkg W is the work transfer out of the system (Ur Uj) is the change in intemal energy of the system U;-Uy=me(T-T)) or y= uy = e(T:-T1)/kg for all gas processes WORK DONE W All the work done expressions for non-flow processes involve the product (pV) in some form. ‘Thus for gases, (pV) can be replaced by (mR) from the equation of state, pV = mRT Thermo level 1\Thermo & Fluids Module\Thermo & Fluids Module - Thermo Notes Book 2-Dec 07 4 John Withers - December 2007CONSTANT VOLUME PROCESS FOR A GAS ISOMETRIC PROCESS Process law: Or p/T = constant from pW/T=constant with V = constant pyTs = p22 from piV/Ti=p:V2/T: as V1 = V2 Q=me(Tz-Ty) _ by definition of c, wo U,- Uy =me,(T2 -T;) CONSTANT PRESSURE PROCESS FOR A GAS. ISOBARIC PROCESS Process law: Or V/T =constant from pV/T'=constant with p= constant VT, = V2T2 from piVv/T:=p2V/T:2 as pi=p2 Qz=me(T2-T1) by definition of ce» W=p(V2- Vi) or = W=mR(T;-T) Uz- Ur = mey(T-T1) CONSTANT TEMPERATURE PROCESS FOR A GAS ISOTHERMAL PROCESS A constant temperature process is known as an isothermal process. Process law: Or Also Or pV = constant from pV=mRT with T= constant prVi= p2V2 from) piV/Ti=p2VYT: as T1= Tr (V2/V1) = (P/p2) We=piViln(V/V1) or W=piViln(py/p2) In means “log to base e” W=mRTIn(V,/Vi) or W=mRTIn(p/p:) as pV=mRT Up- Us = me\(Tz - Ti) = Zero as T)=T> Thermo level 1\Thermo & Fluids Module\Thermo & Fluids Module - Thermo Notes Book 2-Dec 07 John Withers - December 2007POLYTROPIC PROCESS FOR A GAS This is a general type of process. Process law: pV"=constant ie. piVi"=p,V2" "n" is known as the Polytropic index and has a value which is normally between 1 and 1.5. Thus two equations apply to a polytropic process when the working fluid is a gas: The polytropie law The gas law From (1) & (2) From (1) Substitute in (3) Combine (3) & (4) Also piVi"= pV." which gives p2/pi = (Vi/V3)" -=- prVv/T1=pVYT: which gives TyT1=(px/pd(VVi) (2) Ta/Ty = (V/V2)"(VIV1) = (Vil V2)"(VV2)" = (V TyTy = (V/V) ~ ViV2 = (p2/p.)"™ TYT,=[(px/p)""" or T/T = (po/p)"” W=(PrVi-p2V2)/(n-1) or = W=mR(T - T2)/(n-1) Uz- U, = me\(T; T) Thermo level 1\Thermo & Fluids Module\Thermo & Fluids Module - Thermo Notes Book 2-Dec 07 John Withers - December 2007ADIABATIC PROCESS FOR A GAS ‘An adiabatic process is a special type of polytropie process in which there i ice. Q=0 A reversible adiabatic process is also known as an isentropic process, ic. a proc ero heat transfer, s in which the property entropy remains constant. Adiabatic conditions can be achieved if either: (a) The temperature difference between the system and the surroundings is zero (6) The system is perfectly insulated ‘Thus for a gas undergoing an adiabatic process Q=0 Ur- Us = me(Ta-T) W= (pV ps1) = mR(T - T3)/(n-1) But Q-W=U2-U (FEE) o 0- mR(Ty - T2y/(a-1) = me(T> -T) ” Rz- Tyla) = e(Tz+T) 2-1) = o-Rley= nel But R=ep-cy foragas — .(¢p-eyNley= mel -.ey/ey-1 =e . n=«y/e, Thus an adiabatic process for a gas is a special case of a polytropic process in which the index of the process "n" is equal to the ratio of the specific heats of the gas. The ratio of the specific heats of the gas is written as (gamma), ie. 7 = eq/ey Hence the process law for a gas undergoing an adiabatic process is pV’ = constant ive. piVi’=prV2" where Y= Cpley Also W=(piVi- p2Vaty-1) or W=mR(Ty - T)/(y-1) And TyT; = (pops) = (VV? Thermo level 1\Thermo & Fluids Module\Thermo & Fluids Module - Thermo Notes Book 2-Dec 07 1 Join Withers - December 2007p—V DIAGRAMS FOR NON-FLOW PROCESSES Pp P 2 v=c 1 v v Constant volume heating process Constant pressure expansion process PB 1 PB pV=C 2 v Constant temperature expansion process Polytropic expansion process i.e, an isothermal expansion (sdrcemp-V diagrams) AIR AS THE WORKING FLUID Many thermodynamic systems u ir as the working fluid. When this the specific heats, ete. may be obtained from page 26 of the tables of Thermodynamic and s the case, values of R, Transport Properties of Fluids by Rogers and Mayhew, and these are given below Rksikgk, cp kk ey k/kgk 0.287 1.005 0.718 Thermo level 1\Thermo & Fluids Module\Thermo & Fluids Module - Thermo Notes Book 2-Dec 07 8 John Withers - Decemt 2007