(E o l u mh i a mn i uz rs i t g

i n th e (Mt g of 25 2 111 y o u];

PUBL I CA TI ON N UM B E R ON E
OF TH E

T KE M PTON A D A M S F UND FOR PH Y SI CA L RE SE

E ST A B L IS H E D DE C E M BE R 1 7 , 1 904

F I E L D S O F F OR C E
C O U RSE O F L E CTU R E S I N M A T H E MA TI CA L PH Y SI C

D E L I VE R E D -
D ECE MB E R 1 TO 2 3 , 1 9 05

VI L H E L M F R I M A N KO R E N BJ E R K N E S
PRO F E SSO R O F M E C H A N l CS A N D M A TH E M A T I C A L PH Y S I CS I N TH E L N l V lJ RS l T Y O F STOC K H O L )!

-

L E CT UR E R I N M A TH E M A T I C A L v m su zs I N CO L U M B I A U N I V E RS I TY 1 90 5 6
'
-

,
 On the sevente en th day of D ecember n i neteen h u ndred and fou r ,

E d w a r d D ean A d a m s o f N ew Y o r k establ ished i n Co lu m bia

, ,

U n i versity
Th e E rnest K em pton A d a m s F u n d for Physical
R esearch
as a m emorial to h is so n E rnest K em pton A dams
, ,

wh o recei ved the degrees o f E lectrical E ngin eering i n 1 8 9 7 an d

M aster o f A rts i n 1 8 9 8 and who devoted h is l i fe t o scientic re
,

search The i ncome o f th is fu n d is by the term s o f the deed of

.
,

gi ft to be devoted to the main tenance o f a research fel lowsh i p a nd

,
.

to th e pu b l ication a nd distri b ution o f th e resu lts o f s cien ti fi c re

search o u t he part o f the fellow A gen erous i n te rpreta tion o f
.

th e terms o f th e deed on the part of M r A dam s and of the Trus

.

tees o f the U n i versity has m ade it possi ble to pri n t an d distribute

th e fol lo wing lectu res as a pu bl ication of th e E rnest K em pton
A dam s F u nd
 F I E L D S O F F O R CE .

I .

E L E M E N TA RY I NV E STI G A TI O N OF TH E GE O
M ETR I C PRO PERTI E S OF H Y DRO
D Y NA M I C F I E L D S .

R
I N T ODU T O C R Y .

Th e idea Of electric an d magnetic elds of force was i ntro

d uc ed by F A R A D A Y to avoi d the mysterious idea of an action at
a d is ta nce A fter th e v ictory wh ich M A ! W E L L S theory gai ned
.

th rough th e ex peri men ts o f H E R TZ the idea of th ese elds took

,

its place a mong the most fr u itfu l o f th eoretical physics .

A n d yet i f we ask wh at i s an electric or a magn etic eld of

,

force n o one wi ll be able to gi ve a satisfactory an swer We have .

th eo ries relating to these elds b u t we h ave n o idea whatever of

,

wh at they a r e i n t r i n sically no r even th e sl ightest idea o f the path

,

to follow i n order t o discover thei r tru e natu re A bove all other .

problem s wh ich are related to elds of force an d wh ich occu py ,

i n vestigators dail y we have therefore the problem o f elds of

,

force v iz the problem Of thei r true natu re

, .
, .

M y l ectu res wi l l not gi ve th e sol u tion of th is problem b ut I ,

sh ou ld be happy i f they should con tribute to a broaden i n g o f o u r

view of it .

W hat I wi sh to i n sist u pon especial ly is th i s B esides elec ,

.

tric an d magn etic elds th ere ex ist other elds wh ich have stri k
i n g ly an alogou s properties and wh ich h ave therefore exactly th e
, , ,

same cla i m to be cal led elds of force The i n vestigatio n of these

.

oth er elds side by side wi th the electric and magn etic elds wil l
be advantageous I th i n k i n b r oaden in g o u r view of the probl em
, , ,

especial ly as the true n atu re o f these other elds of force is per

2 F I EL DS O F F O RCE .

fec t ly plai n an d i n tel ligibl e as i n tel l igible at least as anyth i ng , , ,

ca n be i n the l i m ited state o f o u r power of u ndersta n d i ng .

Th ese other elds of force exist i n material m ed ia wh i ch a re

i n su i table states Of m otion Th ey are perfectly i ntell igible i n .

t hi s sen se that th ei r properties can be ded uced from th e pri n ciples

,

of dyn am ics F or the special case wh en th e material m ed i u m i s a

.

perfect u id th e properties o f th ese elds ha e been exten si vely

,
v

explored an d therefo r e ou r mai n su bj ect w ill b e t he i n vestigation

,
-

o f th e properties of hyd rodyna m ic el ds of force an d th ei r com

parison w ith elec t ric or m a gn eti c elds .

Th e resu lts wh ich I shal l bri ng before yo u were d isco vered

origi nal ly by my late father Profes or C A B J ER K N E S o f Chris ,
s . .
,

t ia n i a B u t I w i ll bri ng i n to appl ication h ere n ew m ethod s wh ich

.
,

al low u s to n d the resul ts wi th m u ch g reater gen eral ity an d at th e ,

sam e ti m e with greater facil ity .

*

M y lectu res wil l be d i vid ed i nto t w o parts The rst t w o lec .

tu res wi l l be devoted to th e developm en t o f the properties of hy

d ro d y na m i c elds by elem en tary reason i ng an d ex peri m en t ; the
followi ng l ec tu res wi ll gi ve the an alytica l i n vesti gation of th e sa m e
subject based u pon E U L ER S eq uation s o f motion for a perfect
,

u id an d M A ! W EL L S eq uation s fo r the electromagnetic eld

.

1 Fi el d vect or s
. Th e electric el d m ay be described i n th e
-
.

si mpl es t case by either o f t w o vecto rs th e el ec tric ne: (or d is ,

placem en t ) o r the electric eld i t en i ty (o r force) I n th e sam e

,
n s .

way the magnetic eld may be described by th e magnetic e (o r u ;

i n d uction ) or the m ag n et i c cld i n ten si ty (or force ) Th e ux an d

,
.

the eld i ntensity w i ll d i ffer from each other on ly by a co nst a n t

'

factor the el ectric o r th e magn etic i n d ct i v i ty of th e m ed iu m wh ich

,
u

suppo rts the eld the u x bei ng al ways the prod uct o f the eld
,

i nten si ty i n to t he i n d ucti vity .

t h h i t ri l d l p m t f C A Bj rk id Bj lm
F or e s o ca mp ev e o en o . . e n es ea s c o ar e r . er es

C A Bjer lm es, Ged ii cht n isar ed e geha lten i n d er Gesellscbq d er M ssen acha
'

en zu

r p r tr p
. .

Ch ist ia ni a a m A r i l, 1 9 0 3 Ge m a n a n s l a i o n , L ei z i g , 1 9 0 3 t Fo r t he d e
r r r r
. .

v elo pm e t o
n f t h e h eo y a cco d ng to C A t B je k n es

m e h o d s, i t a nd fo r m o e

p t ri pti i tr pr r
. .

co m le e d esc on of ns t
u m en s a n d e x e i m en t s, se e v Bje knes , Vor les u ngen -

r r r V I II
.

fi be hyd od yna m ische F er n/cr i m e n ach C A

'
Bjer knes Theo i e o ls a nd

ip i
. . . . ,

Le z g 1 90
,
00 2 .
 INV ESTI G AT I O N OF G E OME I R I C

P R O P ERT I ES . 3

On th e oth er h and the el d of motion i n any movi n g l iq u id

,

may al so be descri bed by either of two vecto r s wh ich are ,

related to each ot her i n the same way as th e u x and the el d

i n ten sity o f el ect r ic o r magnetic elds Th e rst of th ese .

vectors i s th e v eloci ty, an d the other the p r od uct of the veloci ty

i nto the d ens i ty A s to i ts dynam ical Si gn i cance th is vector i s
.
,

t he m omen tu m per u n it vol u m e o r th e sp ec i c m om e ntu m i n th e

m oving uid .

In hydrodyna m ics we th u s m eet with two vectors wh ich are

con n ected i n a si m ilar way as the u x an d th e eld i n ten sity i n th e
electric o r magnetic eld Th is pa r allelism a t once i n vi tes a com
.

pa r ison There i s onl y the question as to ho w the d i ffe r en t vec

.

tors shou ld be paired an d th is ca n be an swered on ly by a closer

,

an alysis O f their properties Th is bri ngs u s to t he question o f o u r

.

knowledge o f th e elds .

.2 Geom etr i c a n d Dy na m i c Pr op r ti es of the F i eld s The exten t e .

of ou r k nowledge of th e di fferent kin ds o f elds d i ffers greatly A ll .

the properties of the hyd r odynam ic elds fol lo w d i rectly from the
most trustwo r thy laws of n atu re that i s from th e p r in ci pl e of th e
,

con servation of the mass and from the pri nciples of dyn am i cs
, .

W ith reference to electric o r magn etic elds o n the con t rary we , ,

h ave on ly formal th eo r ies F irst we h ave a n extensi vely devel

.
,

oped g eom et r i c th o ry f the di str i b t i on i n sp a ce f the v ector s

e o u o

w h ich descri be th e eld A n d th en i n a m ore or less supercial

.
,

con n ection to th is geom etric th eory we h ave a very m uch less ,

developed t heory of the dyi a m i c p r op erti es f the eld s i o .

Tak i ng th e facts as they l ie before u s we shall be obl iged , ,

t herefore to gi ve to ou r theory a duali stic form compari ng

, ,

separately th e geom etric and the dy nam ic proper t ies o f the t w o

k i n ds o f elds It may be reserved for the futu re to penetrate to
.

th e ce ntral poin t w here th e geometry an d th e dynam ics o f the

,

q uestio n are perfectly u n ited an d th u s make th e comparison of ,

the t wo k in ds of elds perfectly eas y .

I n th is l ectu re we w il l consider the geom etric properties o f th e

elds .
4 F I E L DS OF F O RCE .

3 . P op rt i
r e es o c or s a t a S urfa ce of Sep a r a ti on
f the F i eld Ve t .

A characte ristic geometrical property of the vectors at a su rface o f

separation of two m ed ia shows at once h ow th e u xes an d eld
i nten sities shou ld be pai red w ith th e hydrodyn am ic vectors A s .

i s wel l k n own at a su r face of separation th e n orm al com pon en t

,

o f the u x i s al wa s con ti nu ous wh i le th e normal com pon en t o f

y
,

th e eld i nten sity is necessar ily discon ti n uous i f t he i nd uctiv ity ,

sudden ly changes at t he su rface O n th e other hand at any sur .

,

face o f sepa ration i n a mov ing l i qu id th e n orm al com ponen t o f th e

veloci ty is con ti n u ous correspon di ng to th e n ormal com pon ent of
,

the ux O th erwise we should ha ve at th e s rface either c reation

. u

o r an n ih ilation o f matter o r a b reak i n th e con ti n u ity

,
both o f ,

which we consider excl uded F ro m the conti n u i ty of the n ormal .

com pon en t o f the veloci ty fol lows the di scon tin u i ty o f th e specic
momen tu m fo r th e ca se wh ere the densi ty of th e u i d sudden l y
changes at th e su rface Th i s vecto r th erefore h as a disconti n u i ty
.
, ,

si m ilar t o th at of the el d i n ten sity an d i t fol lows at o nce that the ,

correspon dence o f the vectors is possibl e i f the veloc ity correspo nd

t o th e u x an d th e speci c m omen tu m to th e el d i ntensity Fu r .

th er as th e u x i s th e product Of the eld i n t ensi ty i nto th e i n d u c

,

t i v i t y it also fol lows that n ot the density b u t the reci procal of th e

, ,
.

den sity o r the s peci c vol u me corresponds to th e i nd ucti vi ty

, ,
.

J ust as t he density gi ves the m easu re o f the i n ert resi sta nce of
th e matter t o the motion the specic vol u me gi ves th e m easu re of
,

th e read in ess o f th e matter t o take motion The speci c vol u m e .

m ay therefore al so be term ed the mo bi li ty of t he u i d \Ve th us .

get th e corre ponden ce s

velocity ux ,

specic m omen tu m eld i nten sity ,

m obil ity . i nd uctivi ty .

W e have n ow to exam i ne more closely the conten t of th is

correspondence .

4 . C ha g ed r P rti cl
a e E xpa nd i ng or Co nt r ac ti ng P rticl
a e .

L et us start with th e si m plest O bj ec t m et w ith i n the rst i n ves ti

 E E R C P R O P ERTI S
I N V ES TI G A T ION OF G OM T I E .

g a t io n s f electricity n am ely w ith an elect r ically charged

o ,
par t icl e
, .

In the el d belonging to th i s pa r ticl e th e vectors a re

d irected
radial ly o twa rds if th e particle has a posi ti ve an d radially i a
u
,

wards i f i t h as a n egati ve charge and thei r i n tensi ty decreases as ,

the i n verse square o f the d ista n ce .

It i s seen at once that an ex pand ing particle wh ich is conta in ed

i n an i ncom pressi ble u id s ch as water w ill prod uce a el d of
,
u ,
-

exactly the sam e geometr ical n atu re as th e el d bel onging to th e

positi vely cha rged particle It wi l l produce a rad ial cur ren t .

di rected outwards i n wh ich as a con sequen ce of th e i nco m pres s i

, ,

b i l i t y the
,
elocity an d th erefore the specic m omen tu m w ill de
v ,

crea e as the i n verse square o f th e d ista n ce I n l i ke man n e r a co n

s .

tracti ng particle wil l be su rrou n ded by a cu rren t d irected radially

i n wards and wi l l thu s correspon d t o a n egatively charged particl e
,

(see F ig 4 a an d 6 below )
.
, ,
.

T h is com parison of a rad ial electric an d a rad ial hydrodynam i c

el d has o n e d i fcu lty howe ver The idea of an al ways expand
,
.

i ng o r Of an al ways contracti ng particl e is im possi b le Therefore

, ,
.

to m ake th e com parison possi ble n o t only for a momen t b ut for , ,

any l ength o f tim e we are obl iged to con sider a m otion o f pe r i

,

Od ic ex pansion s and con traction s o r a p lsa ting motion I n th is ,

u .

cas e there w ill be n o absol ute d i eren ce between a positi ve an d a '

n egati ve p ulsati ng body B u t two pu lsati ng bod ies may be i n

.

exactly the same m utua l relation to each other as a n ex pand ing

and a con tracting body F o r i f th ey are pulsati ng i n oppo .

site phase the o ne w il l al ways be expand ing wh il e the oth er i

,
s

con tracting an d v ice ve rsa \Ve can th en d isti ngu ish these t w o
,
.

pul sati ng b od ies from each other by opposite signs j st as we ,

u

d o two O ppositel y ch arged particles and we can represen t the ,

m ea n state of motion i n the su rro un ding rad ial el d by a vector

d irected outwards from the pulsating particle wh ich we call by ,

con vention positi ve an d in wards to th e pulsatin g particle wh ich

, ,

we call n egati ve .

5 . Comp lex Fi ld I f we consider two charged particl es

e s .

whose d im en sion s are su fci ently smal l i n com pari son to the d is
 F I E L DS O F F O RCE .

tance between them a el d is produced wh ich i s th e si mpl e resul t

,

of the su perposition o f the t wo rad ial el ds The l i nes o f force o f .

the com plex eld m ay be fo u n d by the wel l k no wn con struction s

s -

of superposition The resul ts are the wel l k now n cu rves r un n i ng

.

from one charged particle t o the other for the case O f Opposi te
ch arges an d th e d i vergi ng cu r ves wi th a n eu tral poi n t between
,

the two ch arged particles fo the case of ch arges of th e same s ig n

r

(see F igs 5 an d 6 below )

. .

In exactly the sam e way i f we co nsider t w o particl es wh ich

,

h a ve a m otion of ex pansion o r co n traction an d wh ich are s u f

c i en t l
y smal l i n com parison to th e d istance between th em th e ,

rad ial cu rrents prod uced by each wil l si m ply be su perposed an d ,

the cu rrent l i nes by wh ich the co m plex el d may be represen ted

, ,

can be fo nd by exactly t he same construction as i n th e case of th e

u

correspon d ing electric eld A nd th is resul t m ay be tran sferred

s .

at once to the case of vi b ratory m otion particles pu lsati ng i n the

ph ase ex pa nd in g si mu l t a neously a nd con tracting s nm u l
,

t a n co us ly w il l gi ve a el d correspondi ng geometri cally to that

,

prod uced by particles carry i ng ch arges of th e same sign a n d ,

o ppo i tely p lsatin g particles wi l l prod u ce a el d correspo n d i ng

s u
.

geo metrical ly to that prod ced b v particles wh ich carry Op posi te

u

cha rges .

J u st as we combi ne th e elds o f two charged particles we can ,

com bi ne the elds o f any n u mber Of charged particles a n d to a el d ,

o f a ny com plexi ty obtai ned i n th is way we can con struct a corre

s o nd i n
p g h yd rodynam ic eld obtai n ed b y t he com b i nation o f th e
,

elds of th e correspond i ng sy tem o f ex pandi ng an d con tracti ng s

particles or o f p ul sati ng particles for th e case o f v ibratory m otion

,
.

A n extensi ve geo m etric a nalogy be twee n hyd rodynam ic a n d elec

t o s t a t i c elds is th us fou n d
r .

6 I nt i ns i a ll g Po la r i d B od i es
. r c O c i llat i ng B o d i es
ze Wh at . s .

we have said of electri ed particl es and the elec tric elds prod uced
by th em m ay be repeated fo r magnetic poles and th e correspo n d
i ng magnetic elds B u t now the reservation m ust be made that
.
,

m agnetic pol es are i n reali ty mere ction s F or a d istribution o f .

 INV ESTI G A TI ON OFE O ET R I C P R O P ERTI ES
G M .

m agn etic poles we can ,

h owever su b stitute a state of
,
i n t ri nic s

po la r i a t i o n w h i c h m ay be con sidered as t he rea l origi n of t he

z ,
_

m agn et ic eld S uch states O f i n t r i n sic polarizati on are also met

.

w i th i n electrici ty Th s th e pyro electric crystal seem s to gi ve a

. u

perfect el ectric anal ogy to the perma n en t magnet .

L et us n ow for th e system o f m agneti c poles by wh ich a m ag ,

n et can be represen ted sym bol ical ly substit ute th e correspon d ing ,

syste m o f expand i ng an d con tracti ng particles I n th e region of .

th e u id wh ich corresponds to th e magn et th e tota l su m o f ex .

pan sion s a n d con traction s will be zero B ut the eld produced .

i n th e exterior space by th ese expan sion s an d con traction s may

also be produced by qu ite an other i nterior m otion i n vol vin g n o ,

expansion o r contractio n at all F o r con sider a closed surface

.

con sisti ng o f ui d parti cl es an d su rrou n di ng th e region o f the

,

u id wh ich corresponds to th e m agn et Th is material su rface has .

a certai n m otion it w il l advance o n that side wh ere th e ex pand

i ng particles are situat e d an d recede on that side wh ere the c o n
,

tracti ng particles are situated The resul t is a motion of th e su r

.

face as a whole di rected from th e region s o f con traction towa r ds

,

th e region s of expan sion A n d as th e su m o f the ex pa n sion s a nd

.
,

th e contracti ons is zero th e vol u m e w ith in th e su rface w il l remai n

,

u nchanged d uring th i s m otion .

N o w the motion prod uced ou tside th e su rface w il l be en ti rely

i ndependen t o f wh at goes o n wi th i n i t prov ided o nly that the ,

motion o f the su r face i tsel f remain s u n changed We ca n th ere .

fore d o away with th e ex pan sion s an d con traction s an d su ppose ,

th e vol u m e with i n the su r face l led with an i ncom pressi bl e u id ,

subject to the action o f forces wh ich gi ve these u id m asses a

m otio n con sis t en t w ith the requ i red motion o f th e su rface .

We h ave th us arri ved at the fol lowi ng resu lt a motion of i n

com pressible u id masses prod uced by s u itable forces can be
, ,

fou nd wh ich wil l set u p an ex t erior eld sim ilar t o that set u p by
,

a system o f expand ing and con tracti n g particles provided that th e ,

su m Of the expan sions a nd contrac t ions is ero A n d th is eq u ivale z .

correspond s exactly to th e equ i val en ce between th e representation

8 F I E L DS O F F O RCE .

of a magnet by a d istribut ion O f poles an d by a state of in trin sic ,

polari zation Th e hyd rodyn am ic model o f a body i n a state of

.

i n tri n sic polari zation i s therefore a body con si sti ng o f i nco m press i
, ,

ble u id masses m oved th rough the su rrou nd i ng u id by su itabl e

,

exterior forces (see F ig 8 b elow ) . .

W e have conside r ed h ere for si m pl icity on ly th e i n stantaneous

, ,

state o f m otion I n th e cas e of pe r iod ic m otion we get an eq ui v

.

alen ce between a system of op posi tely p l sating pa r ticl es an d a u

u id body w h ich takes forced oscil lation s u nder the i n uen ce of

su itable exterior forces .

7 F i elds i n I I i er g en eo us ZlI ed i a
. e o Th e resu lts al ready de .
-

v elo ed depend essen tially u pon t he supposi tion th at th e u id

p , ,

s u rrou n d ing th e movi ng bodi es is homogen eous and i n co m pres

sible Th e case w hen i t i s heterogen eous m u st be exam i n ed
.

separately That th e h eterogenei ty has a n i n uence upon the

.

geom etric con gu ration o f th e el d is obviou s F o r on ly when ,

.

the u id i s perfectly homogen eou s w i l l t h ere ex i st that perfect

sym m etry i n the s pace su rrou n d ing a n expand i ng particle wh ich ,

en ti tles u s to concl ude that a per fectly sy m m etric a l rad ial c rren t u

w i l l a ri se B u t i f o n o n side of the ex pa nd in g pa rticl e th ere ex

. e

i st s a region wh ere t he u id has a d i tferen t den sity t he sy m m etry i s ,

lost an d it i s t o be ex pected that the congu ration o f the eld

,

wi l l be i n uen ced by th i s fact O n th e other hand a s is wel l .

,

k n own any h eterogen ei ty o f the d iel ectric has a marked in ence

,
u

u po n the geom etric con gu ration o f the el ectric eld gi vin g ri se ,

to the ph en omen a of electri c ation by i n uence .

N ow w il l th e i n uence o f th e hete rogeneity i n t he two cases be

,

o f si m i lar n atu re ? To exa m in e th i s question we shal l have to

develop a very si m ple p r inci ple relati ng t o th e dynam ics o f u ids ,

ou r consideration s above havi ng been ba ed on l y o n th e pri nci pl e s

o f the con servation o f mass .

8 Pr i nc ip le of K i n et ic B oy a ncy
. Co n sider a cyl i nder wi th ax is
u
,

vertical con tai n i ng a body and apart from the b ody com pletely
, , ,

lled w ith water Th e cond ition o f equ i l ibri u m w i ll depe nd u pon

.

th e buoyancy accord i ng t o th e A rch i m ed ia n p r i n ciple If the bod y

,
.
 I N V ES TI G ATI O N OF G EO M T I E R C P RO P E RTI E S . 9

h as exactly th e den sity o f th e water the buoyancy wil l balan ce t he

,

weigh t o f t he bo dy an d i t w il l remai n i n equ il ibri m i n any posi

,
u

tion If it be l ighter i ts buoyancy wil l be greater than its weigh t

.
, ,

an d i t w il l ten d to move u pwa rd s If i t be h eav ier its buoyancy

.
,

wi l l be less than its weigh t and it w ill te n d t o m ove dow n wards

, .

Th us i f we have th ree cyl i nders each con tain i n g on e o f th ree such

, ,

bodi es th e l igh t body w il l ri se t o the top th e heavy body w il l

, ,

sin k to th e bottom an d the body o f th e sam e density as t he water

,

w i l l remai n i n any position .

Th is static buoyan cy depen ds u pon the actio n o f grav ity .

B u t th ere exists a correspond in g dynam ic buoyancy wh ich is ,

easily observed as follows : To do awa y w ith the i n uence o f

gr av i ty lay th e cy l inders w ith thei r a xes h ori on ta l an d let th e
,
z
,

bodies b e i n the m iddle o f th e cyl inders Then gi ve each cy l .

i n der a blo w so that they move suddenly ve o r ten cen ti meters

, .

i n the d irect io n of thei r axes Th e fol lowing resu lts wi ll th en be

.

1 .The body wh ich is l ighter tha n the water has m oved

towards t he fron t end o f its cyl in der an d th u s has had a m otion ,

th rough the water i n th e d irection of th e m otion o f th e water .

2 The body wh ich h as the same den sity as th e water has

.

moved ex actly th e sam edista nce as th e water an d th u s retain ed ,

i ts posi tion relative to the w ater .

3 Th e bod y wh ich is h eavier than th e water has moved a

.

sh orter d istance th an i ts cyl i nder an d th us has h ad a motion ,

th rough th e water agai n st the d i r ection of m otion of th e water .

I f we gi ve th e cyl i nders a series o f blows t he l igh t bod will ,

y

a d vance th rou gh the water u n til i t stops agai nst the fron t end The .

body of t he sa me den sity as the water wi l l retai n its place an d th e ,

h eavy body wi ll move backwards relati vely to the cyl i nder u ntil ,

i t stops a ai n st the end The effect is strik in gly anal ogou s to

g .

th e e ffect o f statical buoya ncy fo r the case of the cyl i nders with
verti cal a xes an d thi s an alogy ex ists even i n th e quan titati ve
,

laws o f the ph en om en on .

Th ese q uan ti tati ve laws are com pl icated i n case th e bod ies are
2
10 F I E L DS OF F O RCE .

free to mo e th rough the water bu t ex ceedingly sim pl e when th ey

. v
,

are h el d i n an i n variable position relati ve to the water by th e

appl ication o f su i table exterior forces .

Th is exterior fo rce i s n il i n th e case wh en the body h as the

sam e den sity as th e water The body th en fol lows the motion of
.

the su r rou nd i ng water masses su bj ect only to the force resu l tin g
,

from the pressu re exerted by them The motion of th e body i s .

su bject to t he fu ndam en tal law o f dynam ics ,

force mass x acceleration .

A s t he body has both th e accel eration an d the den sity o f the

su r rou n di ng water m asses th e fo r ce is equal to th e produ ct of th e
,

accel eration i n to th e mass of the water d isplaced by th e body .

A n d th is la w ev iden tly w il l be true even for the h eavy or th e

l igh t body p rovided on ly that they are hel d by su itable forces at
,

rest rel ati vel y t o the movi ng water F o r the state o f motio n o u t .
,

sid e th e body is then u nch anged an d th e pressu re ex erted by th e ,

water agai n st a n y surface does n ot at al l depe n d u pon the c ond i

tion s wi th i n the su rface Th us we n d th is general resul t wh ich
.
,

is perfectl y an al ogou s to t he A r c hi m ed i a n law

A ny bod y w hi c h p a r t ic ip a t s i n the t r n la to y m ot i on of a i d
e a s r u

m a ss i s s bject to a k i n et ic bu oy a n cy qu l t o the p r o du c t of the

u e a

a cc ler a ti on of the t r a n s la to y m ti o n m ltip li ed by the m a s s f w a ter

e r o - u o

disp l c d by the bo d y
a e .

Th is la w obv iously gi ves also the val ue of the ex terior force

wh ich m ust be appl ied i n o rder t o ma ke t he body fol low exactly
th e m otion o f t he u id j u st as the A rc hi m ed ia n law gi ves t he
,

force wh ich i n ecessary to preven t a body from rising o r si n k ing

s .

Th is force i s n il i f t he body has the sam e den si ty as the water i t

, ,

i s d i rected agai n st t he d i rection o f t he accel eration i f th e body i s ,

l igh ter an d i n t he d irectio n of th e acceleration i f the body

, ,

heavier A nd i f n o such force act we get the resu l t i ll ustrated

.
, , ,

by the experi men t that the l ight bod y moves faster tha n the
,

water a n d the h eavy b ody slower an d th u s relati vely agai n st th e , , ,

wate r .
 I N V E S TI G A TIO N OF E E R C P R O P ERT I ES
G OM T I .

9 . In
c f H te g n i ti es i n the E l c t ic
u en e o

ro Ilf a g n et i c a n d
e e e r or f

i n the A n a log ous H y d r od y n a m i c F i ld F rom th e p r i nci ple o f e .

k in etic b uoyancy we th us nd the obviou s law that i n a h ete ro , ,

g en eo u s u id masses of greater mobil ity take greater velocities

,
.

Th e m obil ity th erefore i n uences the distrib ution o f velocity j ust ,

as the i nd ucti vity in uen ces the distribu tio n of th e u x i n the

electric or magn etic eld F or at pl aces of greater i nd ucti vity we
,
.

have g r eater electric or m agn etic u x,

.

To consider a si m ple exam ple let u s place i n a bottle l led wi th ,

wate r a l igh t S phere a hol low cell u loid bal l for i n stance attached
, , ,

below w ith a ne stri ng A n d i n an oth er bottl e let u s suspen d i n a

.

si m ilar m an n er a lead bal l I f we shake th e bottles th e cel l uloid

.
,

bal l w il l take very l i vely oscillation s m uch greater than those o f ,

th e water w h il e th e lead bal l w ill rem ai n al most a t rest W ith

,
.

respect to their i nd uced osci llat ion s th ey behave th en exactly as , , ,

magn etic o r d iamagn eti c bodies beh ave w ith respect to t he in d uced
m agn etization wh en they are brought i nto a magnetic eld ; the
ligh t body takes grea ter oscillation s t han th e water j ust as the ,

m a gn etic body takes greater m agneti ation than the su rrou ndi ng z

m edi u m Th e heavy body o n the other h and takes smal ler o scil
.
, ,

la t i o n s tha n th e water j ust as the d iamagnetic body takes smal ler

,

magn etization than the su rrou nding medi u m A n d th us relati vely .

,

the heavy body has osci llation s Opposite to those of th e water j st ,

u

as the d iamagn etic has a relative polari ty opposite to that o f the

su rroun d ing m ed iu m .

1 0 R ef a c ti o n O
.
f the L i n es f F low
r The in uence wh ich th e o .

greater velocity o f the masses o f greater m o bil ity has upon the
cou rse of the tubes o f o w i s o b v ious A t places o f greater .

velocity the tubes o f ow n arrow an d at places of smal ler velocity ,

w iden They wi l l th u s be narrow at places o f g r eat a n d w ide at

.
,

places of smal l m o bili ty j ust as the tu bes o f u x i n th e electric o r

,

m agnetic eld are narrow at places o f great and w ide at places of ,

smal l i n d u d i i ty I f we l i mi t ou rsel ves to th e con sideration o t

v .

th e most p ractical case w hen the val ues o f the m obil i ty o r o f the
,

i nducti vi ty change abruptly at certai n su rfaces we can easily prove ,

12 F I E L DS o r F O RCE .

that the i n uen ce of t he h eterogeneity i n th e t w o k i nds o f elds

correspon ds n ot on ly q ua li t a t i v i t y but q uan titati vely .

We su ppose that the bod ies wh ich h ave oth er density than the
su rro u n d i ng u id are them sel ves u id It is on ly i n experi m en ts .

th at for practical reason s we m u st al ways use rigid bod ies A t th e

, , .

su rface of separati on between th e su rro u nd i n g u id an d th e u id

body th e pres u re m u st have th e same value o n both sides of the
s

su r face Th i s i s an i m m ed iate con seq u en ce of th e pri nci ple of equal

.

action and reaction F rom th e eq ual i ty o f the pressu re on both

.

side of the su rface i t fol lows that the rate of decrease o f th e pres
s
,

su re i n d irection tangential to the surface is also equal at adjacen t

poi nts on each sid e o f th e su r face B u t th is rate of decreas e i s th e
.

grad ien t or th e force per u n it vol u me i n the mov ing u id A n d

, ,
.
,

as th e acceleratio n pr o d uced by the force per u n it vol u m e i s i n

v er s ely proporti ona l to the den i ty we nd that the ta ngen tia l a o
s
,

celera t i o n o n t he two sides o f th e su rface o f separati on w ill be

i n versely proportional to the den sity O r what i s th e sa m e thi ng.

, ,

th p r o d uc t f the t a ng ent i a l a ccele t i o n i nto the d en sity w ill ha e the

e o ra v

n bo th si d es o
sa m e va lu e o
f the s u fa c r e .

F ro m th is res ul t th ere can no t at on ce be d rawn a gen era l co n

el usion o n the relation o f th e tangen tial com ponen ts of th e velocity ,

o r o f th e specic momen tu m F o r two adj ac en t particl es wh ich

.
,

are accelerated accordi n g to th is l aw w i l l at th e n ext m om ent n o,

longer be adjacent If howe ver the motio n be period ic so th at

.
, , ,

every particle has an i n va r iabl e mean position then adj acen t pa r ,

t i c les w ill remai n adjacen t particles a n d from the eq u al i ty o f th e

,

ta ngen tial com ponents o f th e prod ucts of the accele ration s i nto th e
den si ti es at on ce f l lows t he equal ity o f the ta ngen tial com po n ents
o

o f th e prod ucts o f the velocities i n to the den si ties Th u s .

,

I n the ca s f i brat o ry m ot i o n th e spec ic m o ment u m ha s con

e o v

t i n uo us ta ng ent i a l compon ents a t the s rfa c f s ep a r a t io n of tw o

u e o

m ed i a of d if er n t m o bi li ty
e .

The l aw for th e specic momen tu m i s th us exactl y th e sa m e

as for the electric o r m agn etic eld in ten si ti es wh ich h ave co n ,

t i n u o u s tangential com po ne n ts at the su rface o f separation o f t w o

 I N V ES TIG A TI O N on G EOM ET R I C PRO PERTI ES . 13

m ed ia o f d i fferen t i nducti v ity A s we h ave al ready fou n d

.

th e law fo r the veloci ty is th e sam e as for the el ectric o r the m ag

n etic u x We see th en th at the con d ition s ful l led at a su rface
.
,

o f separation by th e hyd rod yn am ic vectors o n th e o ne hand an d ,

by the electric o r magn etic vectors o n th e other are identical ly ,

th e same The l i nes o f o w an d the l i nes o f u x wi l l sh ow

.

exactly the same pecul iarity i n passi ng a su rface o f separation .

A nd as is shown i n a ll treatises o n electricity th is pecul iarity

, ,

consi sts i n a refraction o f the l i n es so th at the t a ngents of th e

'

a ngles of in cidence an d refraction are i n th e sam e ratio as the i nd uc

t i v i t i es on the t w o sides of th e su rface I n the hydrodynamic
.

case these tangen ts wi l l be i n the same ratio as the mob il ities on

th e two sides o f the su rface Th is refraction gi ves t o th e tubes o f
.

ow or o f u x the sudden change o f section wh ich corresponds to

the i n crease or decre ase o f th e velocity o r of the u x i n passing
from on e m ed i u m i n to the other .

Th is refr action of the hydrodyn am ic l in es o f o w accord in g t o

the same law as th at of the refraction o f th e electric or magnetic
l in es of force is a phenomenon m et with daily i n th e motion of super
i m posed l iqu ids of d i fferen t spec ic weigh ts I f I sudden ly move a
.

glass partly lled with m ercu ry a nd partly with wate r th e m ercury ,

ri ses alon g the rear wal l of th e glass wh i le th e water si nks i n front

,
.

D uring th e rst i n sta n t o f the motion before we get the oscillation s

,

d ue t o gravity the la w o f the refraction of th e tubes o f ow is ful

,

lled a t the surface o f sepa ration Vha t ev er be the cou rse o f the
.

tu bes of o w at a d ista nce fro m th e su rface at the surface they ,

w il l be refracted so that th e tangen ts o f the angles o f i ncidence

a nd of refraction are i n the ratio of the mobi l ities of th e mercu ry
.

a nd o f the water o r i n the i n verse ratio o f thei r den sities 1 1 3

, , .

We get the sa m e law o f refraction at the su rface o f separatio n

of water an d ai r the tangents o f th e angles bein g then i n th e
,

ratio 1 7 00 Th e acci den t of daily occu rren ce i n wh ich a gl ass

, .
,

o f wate r ows over as th e resu lt o f su dden motion i s th us the co n se ,

quen ce of a la w strictly a n alogou s t o that o f the refra ction o f th e

electric o r magn etic l i n es of force .
l4
. F I ELDS or F O RCE .

ll . c p er i m enta l h ave been abl e from

Ver ica ti o ns .

V
V
e

ki n em ati c and d ynam ic pri ncipl es of the si m plest n atu re to sh o w

th e ex istence of an ex ten ded analogy i n th e geom etri c properties o f
th e el ectri c o r magnetic and hyd rodyn am ic elds The dynam ic
, .

pri nci ples wh ich form the basi s of th is an alogy we have ill u s
t ra ted by ex pe r i men ts o f th e si m plest poss ibl e n atu re B u t even .

though we h ave perfect faith i n the tr uth o f th e resu lts i t i s ,

desi rable to see d i rect veri cation s o f th em S ome experi m en ts .

h ave been m ade towards nding verication s bu t n ot as man y , ,

however as m igh t ha v e been desi rable

, .

These experimen ts were m ade w i th water motion s o f v i bra

to ry n atu re prod uced by pulsati ng o r oscillatin g bod ies u si ng
, ,

i n stru men ts con structed m ai n ly for the in vestigati on of the dyn a

m ic properti es o f th e eld wh ich w il l be th e subj ect of th e n ex t
,

lectu re S uch pu lsation s an d osc illation s ca n eas ily be prod uced

.

by a pneu matic arrangemen t i n vol vi ng a generator wh ich pro

d uces a n al t ern ating cu rren t o f a ir .

12 The Ga ze a to
. A ge n e rator o f th is k in d con sists o f two
r r.

smal l a ir pu mps of th e sim plest po ssible con struction w i thou t ,

val ves To avoid m eta l work we ca n sim pl y use d ru m s

.
,

covered w ith rubber m em bra nes wh ich are a l ternately pressed i n ,

a n d d rawn out Th ese pu mps shou ld be arranged so that they

.

ca n work i n ei th er th e sam e o r i n op posite phase an d so that the ,

am pl itudes o f th e strokes o f each pu m p can be vari ed i n d epen

d en t ly o f th e oth er F o r con ven ien ce i t shoul d be possi ble to
.
,
.

reverse th e phase an d vary the ampl itudes w ithou t i n terru pti ng

the motion o f th e gen erato r .

I n F ig 1 i s sh own a generator arranged t o ful ll th ese c o n

.
,

d i tio ns I n a wood en base are xed t w o vertical steel or brass

.

spri ngs s w h ich are joi n ed by the horizon ta l con n ecti ng r o d l

, ,
-

,
) .

The u pper en ds o f these springs are con nected by th e pisto n rod s -

a t o t he pi s t o ns of the air pu mps wh ich are su pported o n a

'
-

, ,

woode n fram e i n such a way th at each is free to tu rn abo u t a

h orizon tal axis 0 passi ng th rough th e top o f the cor r espond i ng
, ,

spri ng perpe nd icu lar to th e piston rod T h us eith er pu m p ca n be -

.
 I N VE STI G A TI ON or GEOM E T R I C r n o r nn r m s
'
. 15

revolved th rough o r th rough a sm aller angle withou t ,

stopping the pu m ps Th e am pl i tude of th e strokes i n any posi

.

tio n is proportional to the cosi ne o f th i s angle si nce the com po ,

n en t o f the motio n o f th e top o f th e spri ng along th e ax is o f th e

cyl i nder is proportional to th is cosi ne A t 9 0 the am pl itu de is 0 .

,

an d the phase changes so that by a si m pl e rotation we are abl e to

,

reverse th e phase or vary th e a m pl itude o f either or bot h p um ps

, ,
.

The generator m ay be dri ven by a m otor of su itable n atu re ,

attached to th e frame A s shown i n th e gu re we may u se a

.
,

y wh eel d carrying a cran k wh ich dri ves the spri ngs usi ng an
-

, , ,

F IG . 1 .

electric m otor o r an y other su itable source for moti ve power

, ,
.

The use o f the cran k has the advan tage that th e am pl itudes o f t he
oscil lation s of th e S pri ngs are i n variabl e and i ndepen den t o f t he
resistance t o the m otion It sh ou ld be noted here th at wi th th e
.
, ,

cran k th e spri ngs may be used si m ply as rigid levers by loosen

, ,

i ng th e screws m wh ich h old t hem i n the base The spri n gs are

, ,
.

then free t o tu rn abou t a pivot j ust below the screws .

A hyd raul ic motor m igh t a lso be used to drive th e gen erator .

Two coaxia l brass cyl in ders open at the sam e end a re so a r

, ,

ranged that the i n n er projects sl ightly beyon d th e ou ter A r ubber .

me m bran e is stretc hed over th e O pen en ds o f th e two tubes so ,

16 F I E L DS or FORCE .

that water ad m itted to th e outer cyl i n der can not pass i nto th e
i n n er cyl i n der wi th ou t pressi ng o u t the m embran e U n der su ita
.

ble circu m stan ces th i s produces a v ibration o f th e m emb ra n e

, ,

FI G 2
. . F IG . 3 .

wh ich can be co m m u n icated to the pu m ps b y the con n ecti n g rods -

.

The peri o d wi l l depen d u po n the ten si on o f t he mem bra ne th e ,

 I NV E TI GA TI ON
S O F G EO M ET R I C T

I RO I E RT I E S . 17

s tiffn ess of the springs an d the l ength an d section of th e d i , s

charge pi pe A n electromagn etic vi brator is often con ven ien t for

-
.

dri v ing th e generator .

1 3 Pu lsa to r
. Osc i lla tor F or a pu lsating body we m ay u se
. .

an i n d ia rubber bal loon attached t o o n e en d o f a m e t a l tu be th e

-

other en d o f wh ich i s con n ected by a ru bber tube with o n e o f

th e pu m ps of th e g en erator A s th e bal loon often takes i rregular .

form s an d m otion s i t i s u sually m ore con ven ien t t o let the tube
,

en d i n a d ru m wh ich i s co vered o n each si de w ith a rubber

,

m em bran e A diagram i s given i n F ig 2

. . .

A con ven ien t form of oscil lator is sh own i n F ig 3 Th e o scil . .

lati ng bod y is a h ol low cel l uloid sph ere a m ade i n two hal ves , , ,

and attached to a tube of th e same m aterial I) wh ich reach es , ,

abo ve the su rface o f t he water A metal tube c con n ected w ith .

, ,
i

o n e pum p o f the gen erator su pports t he sphere by pivots a t h an d , ,

te r m in ates i n a heavy dru m d i n th e center o f th e sphere Th e

.

.
, ,

ru bber m embrane e is con nected wi th o ne si de o f the sphere by a

, ,

ro d, f so that th e alternati ng air curren t prod uces osci llation s i n

,

the sph ere an d i n the dru m The sph ere i s made as l igh t as po s .

si b le a nd th e d r m heavy so that wh i le th e former takes large

u
, ,

oscillation s the latter w il l take very smal l osci llation s because o f

,

its greater mass F o r con ven ience i n recogn izing the ax i s of

.

oscil latio n the two hal ves of the sphere may be pai n ted i n di ffer
en t colors so that at any mom en t th e ad vanci ng hem isphere is
, , ,

o n e color an d th e reced in g hem isph ere an oth er Th u s two o sc il .

,

lato rs con nected w it h pu m ps i n th e sam e phase h ave h em ispheres

of the sam e color advancin g si m u ltan eously .

1 4 I ns t r u m nt fo r the R g ist r i ng of lVa ter Os ci lla t i ons

. e e e .

W h en a p l ati ng o r a n osci llat ing body l i ke on e o f those j u st de

u s
,

scribed is placed i n th e water th e m otion prod uced by i t can not

, ,

be seen as an obviou s con eq uence o f th e tran sparency of th e

,
s

water Th is m otion can h owever be observed i ndi rectly i n

.
, ,

severa l ways F o r exam ple we can su spen d smal l particles i n

.
,

the wate r an d observe thei r m otion s an d we m igh t even succeed ,

i n getting ph otograph s of the paths o f osc illation o f th e su spended

3
18 F I ELD S on FORCE .

particles Th is m ethod has however n ever been u sed an d m ay

.
, , ,

i n vol ve di fcu lties beca use o f t he s m al l am pl itudes o f the osci l la

tion s.

A m ore m echan ical m ethod depend i n g u pon t he pri nciple of ,

k i n etic buoya n cy i s preferabl e A body wh ich is situated i n th e

,
.

oscil latin g masses of u i d w i ll be su bject to a period ic ki n etic

b uoyan cy wh ich t r i s t o set u p i n it osci llation s o f the sam e d irce
e

t ion as th ose o f th e water Th e am pl itudes of th e oscillation s .

prod uced wi ll however gen era lly be m in u te bu t th ey m ay b e i n

, , ,

creased by reson ance The body i s x ed n po n an elastic wire an d

.
,

t h e period of th e gen erato r varied u n ti l i t accords w ith the period

o f th e free vi brati on s o f th e body Th e am pl itude of th e osci lla .

tion s of the body is then greatly i n creased ;

Th e body i s made t o carry a hai r pe ncil wh ich reach es above th e ,

su rface o f the water O n e or two m il li meters a bo ve th e poi n t o f

.

th e brush i s placed a h ori on tal glass plate resting u pon spri ngs
z
, .

When t he body h as acqu ired la rge osc il lation s the glass plate may ,

be press ed dow n an d th e bfus h m arks a n i n k l i n e u pon i t Th e .

registe ri ng device i s the n m oved t o a nother place i n th e u id an d ,

the d irection o f th e water os c illation s at th i s place recorded o n th e

glas s plate and so on I n th is way com plete d iagram s o f th e l in es
,
.

o f osci l lation i n the u id are obta i n ed .

1 5 D ia g r a ms f I I y d o d y na m i c a n d Co r r esp o nd i ng hi a g n eti c
. o r -

F i eld s F igs 4 8 a give d iagram s o f hyd rodyn am ic eld s o b

.

, ,

t a i ned i n th is w a y wh i l e F igs 4 8 b gi ve th e d i a g ram s o f th e

,
.

, ,

co r res po nd i ng magn etic eld obtai n ed i n th e wel l k n ow n way s

,

w ith i ron l ings .

F ig 4 a gi ves th e rad ial l in es o f oscillation obtai n ed i n th e

.
, ,

space arou n d a pul sati ng bod y wh i le F ig 4 b gi ves th e corre ,

.
, ,

s o nd i n
p g m agn eti c l i n es o f force i ssu i ng from o ne pol e o f a lon g
bar m agnet .

F ig 5 a gives the l in es of oscillation prod uced i n th e u i d by

.
, ,

t wo bod ies pu lsatin g i n th e sam e ph as e Th ey represen t the m eet .

in g o f two radial cu rrents issu i ng from two cen ters F ig 5 . .

,

b gi ves th e perfectly an alogou s represen tation of th e magnetic l i n es

,

o f force issu ing from t w o magn etic poles o f t h e sam e sign .

 I NV ES TI GA TI O N OF G EO M ET R I C PROPE R TI ES . 19

,
f
f

l ,
I
I

f l l l \ \
I l l
t ; i
,
:
1 i
I ,

F IG . 4 .

F ig . gi ves the l i nes o f oscillation prod uced i n t he u id by

6, (1 ,

t wo bod ies pu lsati ng i n opposite phase The d iagram gi ves th e .

r epresentation of a cu rrent wh ich d iverges from o ne pu lsating body

20 F I ELDS O F FO RCE .

an d con verges toward the oth er F ig 6 6 gi ves the perfectly . .

, ,

analogou s represen tation of the magnetic l i nes o f force produced

by two magn etic poles of opposite sign .

l l l l i " li l '
i
l
' " l i ll l /
l
l l /
z
i
/ i n
l \ \
,
l /

0
/

l
/ l l
I t
l
l
l
l
i
'l
n "
i 'l
t
'
:

F ig . gi ves th e mo re co m pl ica ted represen tati on Of the l in e

7, a,

O f oscil lation prod u ce d i n the water by a co mbi nat ion o f th ree pu l

 I NVESTI GA TI ON O F G EOM ET R I C PRO PE RTI E S .

sati ng bod ies two pu lsating i n the same phase a n d o n e i n th e

, ,

Opposite and F ig 7 6 gi ves th e perfectly analogous rep r esen ta

,
.
, ,

tion f the magnetic l i n es Of force produ ced by th ree magnetic

o

poles o f wh ich two h ave the same sign an d on e th e Opposite

, ,
.

l \
I

F in al ly F ig
, . gi ves the l in es of osc i llation prod uced i n th e
8, a,

u id by an osci l lati ng body an d F ig 8 b the corre pond i ng l i n es

,
.
, ,
s

o f magn etic force p rod uced by a short magnet .

22 F I ELDS O F FORCE .

ll

tn

l l
l

FIG . 7 .
 I N V ESTI GA TI ON O F G EOM ET R I C PROPERTI ES . 23

Th ese gu res S ho w very fully th e an alogy i n th e geometry Of

th e elds produ ced o n th e o ne hand by magnetic poles o r magn ets
, ,

i n a su r rou n d in g h omogeneo u s m ed iu m an d o n t he oth er ha nd

, , ,

FI G . 8 .

by pul sati n g o r oscillating bod ies i n a su rrou n d i ng homogeneous

u id Th e experi me ntal demon stration Of th e analogy for the case
.
24 F I ELD S OF FO RCE .

when the m edi u m su rrou n d in g the magn ets and th e u id surrou n d

i ng the pulsati ng or oscil lati ng bodies con tai n h eterogen eities i s more
del icate I n th e hv d ro d y n a m ic ease th e heterogenei ties shoul d be
.

u id an d it is practical ly i m possi ble o n accou nt Of th e action of

, ,

grav i ty to have a u id m ass O f gi ven shape owi n g fr eely i n a

,

u id of oth er den sity If for the u id bod ies we substitute rigid

.

b od ies su spen ded from above o r anch ored from below accord i ng t o
, ,

th ei r den sity i t i s easi ly seen by mean s of ou r registeri ng device

, , ,

th at the l i nes of oscillation have a ten dency t o co n ve rge to w ard th e

l ight a nd to d i verge from th e h ea vy bodies B u t th is regi steri ng
, .
.

dev ice can not be brou gh t su f ciently n ea r these bod i es to S h ow

the curves i n th ei r i m med iate n eighborhood H ere the Observa .

tion Of the osci llation s Of small suspended parti cles wou ld p robably
be th e best method to em pl o y E x perim en ts w h ich we S hal l per
.

form later wi l l gi ve h owever i n d i r ec t p r oo fs that t he elds ha e

, ,
v

exactly the ex pected character .

1 6 On P os i ble E xten i o ns f the A na log y e h ave th s

Y
s s o u
.

fou nd by elemen tary rea so n i ng a very com plete analogy between

, ,

the geom et r ic properties Of hyd rodynam ic elds and el ectric o r

magnetic elds for th e ca se Of ta t i ca l phen omen a A nd t o somes .
,

extent we h ave ve r i ed th ese resul ts by experim en ts

,
.

I t is a natural qu estion th en d oes the analogy ex tend to elds ,

of greater general ity o r to eld of el ec tromagn etism of th e most

,
s

general n atu re ? I n d iscussin g th is q uestion fu rther a n i nt ro d u c

to ry rema rk is i m portan t Th e f rma l analogy wh ich ex i sts b e
. o

tween electrostat ic a n d m agn etic el ds has made it possi ble for

us to com pa r e the hyd rody na m ic elds con sidered with both elec

t ro s t a t i c an d magnetic e lds I f there ex ists a perfect hyd ro

.

dynam ic a nal ogy t o electromagnetic phen omena the h yd rody na m ic ,

elds con side r ed will presu m ably t u rn o u t t o b e an alogou s either

, ,

to electrostati c elds on ly o r to magnetic elds on ly but n ot to

, ,

bo th at th e sam e ti m e ? The qu estion th erefore ca n n ow be raised ,

wou ld o ur hyd r odynam ic elds i n a n eventual ly exte n ded analogy

correspond t o t he electrostatic o r th e m agn etic elds ? To th is it
m ust be answered it is very probable that on ly the a nalogy t o the
,
 I N V E STI G A TI O N OF G EO M E T R I C PROPERTI E S . 25

electrostatic elds will hold A s an o b v i o u s argu men t i t may be

.
,

em phasized that th e hydrodyna m ic elds have exactly the gener

.

al i ty of electrostatic elds but greater general ity tha n magnetic

,

elds Th e analogy to magn etism wil l take the righ t form on ly

.

w hen the restriction i s i n trod uced that changes o f vol u me are t o b e ,

excl uded O th erwi se we should arri ve at a theory of magnetism

.
,

w here i solated magn etic poles cou ld ex ist To th is argu m en t .

oth ers m ay be added later .

B u t i n spite o f th is the form al a n al ogy of the el ectric and mag

,

n etic elds makes i t possi bl e to formal l y compare hyd rodynam ic

el ds w i th magnetic elds A nd th i s w il l often be preferable for

.
,

practical reason s Th is wil l be the case i n th e follo wi ng d iscus

.

sion beca u se the i dea o f the el ectric curren t i s m uch more fam il iar
,

t o us th an the idea of the magn etic cu rrent i n spi te of th e formal ,

anal ogy o f these t w o cu rren ts .

L et u s com pare then th e hydrodyn am ic elds h itherto c o n s id

, ,

ered wi th m agnetic eld s prod uced by stee l magnets Th e l in es of .

force o f these elds al ways pass th rough the magn ets wh ich produce
th em j u st as the correspo nd i ng hydrody nam ic curves pass th rough
,

the mov ing bod ies wh ich prod uce the m otion Th e magnetic l in es .

o f force prod uced by electric cu rrents o n the other hand are gen er
, ,

al ly closed i n th e exterior space and need n ot pass at all th rough ,

th e con d uctors ca rryi n g the c r ren ts To take a si mple case th eu .

,

l i n es o f force prod uced by a n i n n ite recti l in ear cu rrent are ci rcl es

aro u n d th e cu rren t as a n ax i s .

I f i t shou ld be possi ble to exten d th e an a logy so as to i ncl ude

a lso th e si m ple t electromagnetic elds we wou ld h ave to look for
s , _

hyd rod y nam ic eld s w ith closed l ines o f ow wh ich do n ot pass

th rough the bod ies prod uci ng the m otion It i s easily preco n .

cei v ed that i f th e co ndi tion of the oscillatory n atu re o f the u id

,

motion he i n si sted u pon the requ i red motion can n ot be pro

,

d u ced by id pressure i n a perfect u id

u A cyl i nder fo r .
,

i n stance mak ing rotary osci llation s a rou nd its axi wil l prod uce
,
s

no m otion at al l in a perfect u id ! ui te the contrary i s true .

,

if th e u id be v isco s o r if it h ave a su itable tran sverse elasticity

u
, ,
26 F I E L DS O F FORCE .

as does an aqueou s sol ution o f gel atine B u t as we sh al l l i m it

.
,

ou rsel ves to the con sideratio n of perfect u ids we shal l n ot con ,

si der th e ph en omen a i n s uch m ed ia .

1 7 D ta c hed H y d rod y na m i c A n a log y t o the F ield s (f Stat i o na r y

. e

E lect o m ag n et i sm
r . A d i rect con ti n uati on of o u r analogy i s th u s

m ade i m possible It is a very remarkable fact however that

.
, ,

th ere exist hyd rodyna m ic elds wh ich are geom etr ically analogous t o
the elds o f stationary el ectric c u rrents B u t to get th ese elds
.

we m ust gi ve u p the cond ition u su al ly i nsisted u pon th at th e

, ,

motion be of oscil latory natu re W e th us arri ve at a n i nde

.

pen den t a nalogy wh ich has a con sid erable i n terest i n itsel f bu t
, ,

wh ich i s n o i m med iate contin uati o n o f th at co n sidered abo ve .

F IG . 9 .

Th is an alogy is that d iscovered by V H E L M H O L I Z i n h is .

research on th e vortex m otion of perfect ids A ccordi ng t o h isu .

celebrated results a vorte x c a n be co m pared w ith an electric cur

,

ren t a nd the u id eld su rro u ndi ng the vorte x wil l t hen be i n

,

exactly t he same relation to th e vor t ex as th e magnetic eld is

t o th e electric cu rren t w h ich prod uces i t .

To con sider on ly th e case o f rec ti li n ear vortices th e eld o f o ne ,

rectil i near v er tex i s represented by concen tric circles A nd t hi s

'

el d corresponds to t he magnetic eld o f a recti l in ear c u rren t .

Th e hyd rodynam ic el d o f two recti l i nea r p a ral l el vortices wh ich

 I N V E S TI G A TIO N OF GEO ME T R I C PROPERTI ES . 27

h ave th e same d i r e ction o f rotation i s sh own i n F ig 9 an d th i s .

,

eld is strictly an alogous t o th e magnetic eld o f two rectil i near

paral lel cu rrents i n th e sam e d irection F ig 1 0 gi ves t he hyd ro
. .

dyna mic eld o f t w o rect il i near paral lel vortices wh ich have
opposite direction s o f rotation an d i t is strictly analogou s to the
,

magnetic eld o f t wo electric cu rren ts o f opposite di rection .

F iel ds of this natu re can be easi ly produced i n water by rotat

i ng rigid cyl in ders a nd observed by the m otion o f suspen ded par
,

t i cles . A t the same ti me each cyl i nder form s a n obstruction i n

,

the eld prod uced by th e other If on ly on e cyl i nder be rotating

.
,

F IG . 10 .

th e l i nes o f ow prod uced by it wi ll be deected so that they r un

ta ngen t i al ly to the su r face o f the oth er The cyl i nder at rest th u s
.

i n uences the el d j ust as a cyl in der o f i n n i te d ia m a g net i v it y

woul d i n uence th e magn etic eld The rotating cyl in ders there
.

fore correspon d to cond uctors fo r electric cu rren ts wh ich are con ,

structed i n a material o f i n n i t e d i a m ag net i v i ty .

Th is analogy to el ectromagneti s m i s l im ited i n i tsel f apart ,

fro m i ts d i vergen ce from th e an alogy considered previously

'
.

The ex t rem e d i a m a g net i v i t y of the bodies is o n e l i m itation An .

28 F I ELDS O F F O RCE .

other l i m itation fol lo ws from H el mh oltz s ce leb rated theorem

,

th at vortices do n ot vary i n i nt en si ty Therefore ph en om en a

correspond i ng to th ose of el ectromagn etic i nd uction are excl uded .

W h ich ever V iew we ta ke o f the su bject the hyd rodyn am i c

,

anal ogies to el ectric an d magn etic phen omen a are th us l i m ited i n

exten t To get analogies of greater exten t it seem s n ecessary to
.

pass t o m ed i a with other properties than those o f pe r fect u ids .

B u t we wi ll not try o n th is occasio n to l oo k for fu rth er exten ~

sion s of the geo metric an al ogies We pre fer to pass to a n exa m i

.

n ation o f th e dynam ic prope rties o f the elds wh ose g eom etric

properties we have i n vestigated .
 II .

E L E M E N TA RY I N V E STI G A TI O N O F TH E D Y N A M I
C A L P ROPE RTI E S O F H YD RO DYN A M I C F I E LD S .

1 Th D y mi c f th E l t i c
. e na th Jif g
s o t i F i ld
e O
ec r or e a ne
/

c e .
ur

k n owledge of th e dyn am ics o f th e electric o r magn etic eld i s

very i ncom plete and wi l l presu mably remai n so as long as t he
,

true natu re o f th e elds i s u n k nown to u s .

W hat we kn ow em pirical ly o f th e dyn am ics of th e el ectric o r

magnetic eld is th is bod ies i n t he elds are acted u po n by

forces wh ich m ay be calcu lated w hen w e k now the geometry of

the eld Under th e i n uen ce of these forces th e bod ies may
.

take v isi ble motion s B ut we h ave n ot th e sl ightest idea o f th e

.

h idden dyn am ics u pon wh ich these v isible dyn am ic ph en om en a

depe nd .

F A RADA Y S idea fo r i nsta n ce of a tension paral lel t o an d a

, , ,

pressure perpend icu lar to th e l i nes of force as wel l as M AX W ELL S ,

mathematica l translation of th i s idea is m erely hypoth etical ,

.

A n d even though th i s i dea may con tai n more or less of th e

truth i n vestigators h ave at al l even ts n ot yet succeeded i n ma k
,

i ng this dynam ica l th eory a cen tra l on e from wh i ch al l the ,

pro pe rti es o f th e elds the geometric as wel l as the dyn am ic

, , ,

n atu rally d ev elo p ju st as for exa m pl e al l properties o f hydro

, , ,

dynam ic elds th e geometric as wel l as th e dy n am ic develop

, , ,

from th e hyd rody nam ic equations M A X W ELL h i msel f was very .

wel l aware of th is i ncom pleteness o f h i s th eory an d h e stated i t ,

i n t he followin g words

It m ust be careful ly born i n m i nd that we have on ly made
o n e step i n th e theory of the action o f the m ed i u m We have .

su ppo sed i t to be i n a state o f stre s bu t ha ve no t i n any way ao s

co u n ted for th is stress o r ex plai n ed ho w i t i s m ai n tai n ed

,
.

I h ave n ot been able t o make th e next step namely to ac , ,

29
30 F I ELDS O F FORCE .

cou n t by mechan ical considerations for these stress e s i n th e d i

el ectric .

I n spi te o f al l formal progress i n the domai n of M A X W ELL S

theory these words are as true to d a y as th ey were when M A !

,

W ELL wrote them Th i s circu mstan ce makes i t so m uch th e more

.

i n teresti n g to enter i nto the dynam ic properties of th e hyd ro d y

na m i c elds wh ich h ave sh own such remark abl e analogy i n thei r
,

geom etric properties to t he el ectric o r m agn etic elds i n order to ,

see i f w ith th e analogy i n the geom et ric properti es th ere w i ll be

associated analogies i n thei r d v na m ica l prope rties The q uesti on .

i s sim ply th is
C on sider an electric or magn etic el d an d the geometrical ly
,

correspon d in g hyd rodynam ic eld W il l t he bod ies wh ich pro .

d u ce the hyd rodyn am ic eld n amely the pulsatin g or th e o sci lla t

, ,

i ng bod ies or th e bod ies wh ich mod i fy i t such as bod ies of other ,

densi ty than the su rro nd i ng u id be su bject t o fo r ces si m i lar

u ,

to those acti ng on th e correspon d i ng bod ies i n the elec tric o r

magnetic elds
Th i s question can be an swered by a sim ple appl i cation o f th e
pri nci pl e of k i netic buoya ncy .

.2 R es u lta nt F orce a g a i n t a P uls a t i ng B od y i n a Sy nchr o n o us ly

s

Osc i lla ti ng Cu ent L et u s con sider a body i n th e cu rren t pro

rr .

d u ced by any syste m o f sy nch ron ously pul sati ng an d osci llati ng
bod ies I t wi l l be conti n ual ly subj ect to a k i netic buoya ncy pro
.

portion al t o the prod uct of the accel eration o f the id masses i nto u

the mass o f water d isplaced by i t If i ts vol u me be con tan t so

. s
,

that the displaced m a ss of water i s con stant th e force w il l be ,

strictly period ic w ith a mean val ue zero i n the period I t w il l

,
.

th en be b ro ugh t o nly i n to osc illation a nd n o progressi ve m otion ,

w il l resu lt .
.

B u t i f the body h as a variabl e vol u me the mass o f water d is ,

placed by i t wi l l not be con stan t I f the changes o f vol me co u

. u

sist i n pulsation s synch ron ous w it h th e pu lsations o r osci l lati on s

, , ,

o f the d istan t bodies wh i ch prod uce the cu rrent the d isplaced ,

mass o f water wi l l h ave a m ax i m u m wh en the acceleration has i ts

 I N VE STI G A TI O N O F DYNA M I CA L PRO PE RTI E S . 31

max i m u m i n o n e di rectio n a nd a m i n im u m wh en th e accel erati on

,

has i ts ma xi m u m i n th e opposite d i rection A s is seen at once .

,

the fo rce ca n th en no longer ha ve t he m ean va l u e zero i n th e period .

I t wi ll ha ve a mean val ue i n th e d i r ection o f th e acceleration at th e

ti me wh en th e p u lsati ng body has its max i m u m vol u me W e th u s .

n d the resul t
A p lsa t i ng bod y i n a sy nch r o n ou sly o sc illa t ing cu rr en t i s s bj ec t
u u

to th e a c t i o n of a r es lta n t f o r ce the d i r ec ti o n f w h i ch i s tha t of the

u ,
o

a cc el r a ti o n i n the c u rr ent a t the ti m e w hen the p lsa ti ng bo d y ha s i ts

e u

m a x i m u m v o lu m e .

3. J f tu a l A ttr a c t i on a nd R p u t i n betw n Two P uls a ti ng

'
u e s o ee

B od ies A s a rst appl ication of th is resul t we may con si der t he

,

case o f two syn ch ronou sly pu lsatin g bodies E ach o f them is i n .

th e rad ial curren t prod uced by the oth er an d we h ave on ly to ,

e x a m i ne th e di rection o f the acceleration i n th i s cu rrent E v i .

d en t ly th i s acceleration is d irected ou twards wh en the body pr o

,

d uc i ng it has i ts m i n i m u m vol u m e and is therefore about to ex pand

, ,

an d i s d i rec ted i n wards w hen t he body prod ucing i t has its m ax i

m u m vol u m e an d i s th erefore abou t to contra ct
,
.

L et us con sider rst the case o f two bod ies pu lsati ng i n th e

sa m e phase Th ey have then si m ultan eously th eir max im u m vol
.

u m es a n d t he accel eration i n th e radial cu rren t prod uced by t he

,

on e body w il l thu s be d i rected i n ward s as regards i tsel f when the , ,

other body has its m ax i m u m vol u m e Th e bod ies w il l t herefore .

be dri ven towards each oth er ; th ere w il l be an apparen t m utu al

attraction If on th e oth er han d the bodies pu lsate i n opposite
.
, ,

phase o ne w i l l h ave its max i m u m vol u m e when the other has its
,

m in i m u m vol u me A nd therefore on e wi l l h ave its max i mu m vol

.

u me w hen th e radia l acceleration is di rected ou twa rd from t he

other The resu l t th erefore wi ll be an apparen t m utu al repu lsion
.
, ,
.

A s the force i s pro portional to the acceleration i n th e radial cu r

r en t a n d as the accel eration wil l decrease exactly as th e velocity pro
, ,

portio nally to the i n verse sq uare of the d istance the force itsel f ,

will also va ry acco rd i ng t o t h is law O n th e other han d it i s .

,

eas i ly seen that the force m u t also be proportional to two param

s
 F I ELDS OF FORCE .

et er s, wh ich m easu re i n a proper way the i n ten sities o f th e pu l sa

tion s o f each body C al l ing th ese param eters th e i n ten siti es o f
.

pu lsation we n d th e fol lowi ng la w
,

B etw e en bod i es p u ls a t i ng i n the sa m e p ha se ther e i s a na ppa r en t

a tt r a ct i o n ; bet w een bo d i es p u lsa ti ng i n the opp osi te p ha se ther eis a n
a
ppa r ent r ep ls i o n the fo r c e bei ng p r op or ti on a l to the p r od c t of the
u ,
u

tw o i n ten s i ti es of p lsa t i o n a n d p r op o r ti o na l to the i n ver se s qu a r e f

u
,
o

the d i ta n ce
s .

4 D is c uss i on
. W e have th u s ded uced from the pri ncipl e of
.
.

dyn am ic bu oyanc th at is from o u r kn owledge o f the dy nam i cs

y
,

of the hydrody nam ic eld that th ere w i l l be a force wh ich m oves

,

the pul sati ng bod ies th rough t he el d j ust as th ere ex ists for , ,

reason s u n k n own to u s a fo rce wh ich m oves a ch arged bOd y

,

th rough the electric eld A nd the anal ogy i s no t l im ited t o th e

.

m ere ex istence of the force F or the la w en u nciated above h as .

exactly the form of C O ULOM B S l aw fo r th e action between t w o

el ectrical ly charged particl es wi th o n e strik i ng d i er ence ; t he ,

'

d i rection o f the f orce i n th e hyd rodynam ic eld is op posi t e t o that

of th e correspon d i ng force i n the el ectric o r magn etic eld F or .

bod ies pu lsati ng i n the same ph ase m ust be com pared with bod ies
cha rged with el ectricity of the sam e sig n ; an d bod ies pu lsati ng
i n the opposite phase m u st be compare d wi th bod ies charged w ith
opposite elec tricities Th i s fol lows i nevi ta bly from the geometrical
.

an alogy F o r bod ies pu l sat i ng i n th e sam e phase prod uce a eld

.

o f th e sa me geometrical con gu ration as bod ies cha rged wi th

the sa m e electrici ty (F ig 5 a a nd b); a n d bod i es pu l sati ng i n

.
,

opposite phase pro duce the sa me eld as bod ies charged wi th

opposi te electrici ties (F ig 6 a and b) .
,
.

Th is exce ption i n th e otherwise com plete an alogy is most asto n

i s hi ng . B u t we ca n n ot discover the r ea so n fo r i t i n th e presen t
l i m i ted state o f ou r kn owled ge We k now ver y wel l why th e .

force i n the hydrodynam ic el d m u st have th e d i rection i ndica ted

th is is a si m ple con sequen c e of the dyn am ics o f th e u id B ut .

i n o u r tota l ignorance o f the i nternal dyn am ics of th e el ectric o r

magnetic eld we can not tel l at al l why the force i n th e el ectric
eld h as th e d i rection wh ich i t has an d no t th e reverse ,
.
 I N VESTI GA TI ON O F DYNA M I CA L PROPER TI ES . 33

Th us taki ng th e facts as we nd them we arrive at the resu lt

, ,

that w ith the geom etrical an al ogy developed i n the preced i ng lec
ture there i s associated a n i n verse dyn am ical anal ogy
P uls at i ng bo d i es a ct upo n ea ch other a if they w er e electr i ca lly
, s

cha rg ed p a r ti cles o r ma g neti c p o les but w ith the d i r ence tha t ,

cha rg es o r p oles of the sa m e s ig n a tt ra ct a nd cha rg es o r p oles of ,

opp osi te sig n r ep el ea ch other .

5 P u ls a ti o n B a la nc e
. I h order to veri fy th i s resul t by experi
.

m en t an arran gemen t m ust be fou n d by which a pu lsati ng body

has a certai n freedom t o move Th i s m ay be obtain ed i n d ifferen t
.

ways Thus a pu lsator m a y be s spen ded as a pend ul u m by a

. u

long i nd ia ru b ber tube through wh ich th e a ir from the gen erator

-

i s brough t O r i t may be i n serted i n a torsion balance m ade o f

.
,

glass or m eta l tubi ng an d suspen ded by an i nd ia rubber tube which

,
-

br i ngs t he ai r from th e generator an d at th e same ti m e serves as a

torsion w i re These sim ple arrangem en ts h ave at th e sam e ti me
.

the ad vanta ge that th ey al low rough quantitati ve measu rements of

th e force to be made Fo r good q ual itati ve demon stration s th e
.
-

fol lo w i ng arrangemen t w il l gen eral ly be fou n d preferabl e .

The ai r from the gen erator comes th rough th e horizon tal m etal
tube a (F ig
, ,
wh ich is xed i n a su pport Th e a i r chan nel
. .

con tin ues vertically th rough th e m etal piece b wh ich has the form ,

o f a cyl i nder with vertical axis A t th e top of th is metal piece

.

a nd i n the ax is there is a con ical h ole a nd the lower su rface ,

is sph erical with th is hole as cen t er Th e m ovable part o f th e .

i n strumen t rests on a n adj ustable screw pi voted i n th is hole Th i s ,

.

screw carr ies by m eans of th e a r m d the l ittl e cyl i n der 0 th roug h

, , ,

wh ich the vertical air chan n el co n ti n es Th e upper su rface of th i s u .

cyl i nder is sph erical wi th the poi n t o f the screw as center The
,
.

two spherical su r faces n ever tou ch each other b u t by adj stmen t ,

u

of the sc rew they m ay be brough t so n ear each oth er that n o sensi .

bl e loss o f ai r takes place To th e part o f the i n stru men t c d

.

,

whi ch gives freedom o f m otion th e pulsator may be co n u s eted by ,

th e tube f the cou nter weigh t m ain ta in ing th e equ il ibri u m By

c
,
-
.

th i s arrangemen t th e pu lsati n g bod y i s free t o mov e on a sph erical

,

5
34 F I ELD S or FO RCE .

su rface wi th th e pi vot as center a nd the equ il i bri u m wi l l be neu tral

,

for a horizon tal m otion an d stabl e fo r a vertical m otion

, .

6 E xp er i m n ts w i th Pu ls a t i ng B o d i es
. e H av in g o ne pu lsator

i n th e pu lsation bal ance take an other i n the h an d a nd arran ge the

, ,

Fm . 11 .

generator fo r pulsation s o f th e sa m e phase an d we see at on ce th at

,

th e two pu lsating bod ies attract each oth er (F ig 1 2 a ) Th is .

,
.

attraction i s easily seen w ith d ista n ces u p t o 1 0 1 5 cm o r m ore .

, ,

an d i t is observed that th e i ntensity of th e force i ncreases rapidly

Fm . 12 .

as the d ista n ce d i m i n i shes Th e m omen t th e relati ve phase o f t he

.

pu lsation s i s ch an ged the attraction cea sesfa nd an equal ly i n tense

,

repu lsion appears (F ig 1 2 b) \Vith th e t orsion balan ce i t may

.
,
.
 I N V STI G A TI O N
E OF DYN A M I CA L PROPERTI E S . 35

be show n w ith tol erable accu racy that t he force varies as th e i n ,

vers e sq uare o f the d ista nce a nd i s proporti on al t o two parameters

, ,

th e i n te nsities o f pul sation .

In th i s ex peri men t th e mean val u e on ly of the force an d the

progressi ve motion prod uced by i t are observed By usi ng very .

slo w pu lsation s w ith great am pl itudes a closer an alysis o f the ph e ,

n o m en o n is possi ble It is then seen that th e motion is no t a

.

si mple progressi ve o ne bu t a d issym metric v ibratory m otion i n

, ,

wh ich the oscil lation s i n the o n e di rection al ways exceed a l ittl e

the oscillation s i n the other so that th e resu lt i s th e observed
,

progressi ve motion .

. 7 A ct i o n of a n Osc illa t i ng B o dy up o n a Pu lsa t ing B od y .

T w o opposite ly pulsati ng bod ies prod uce geometrical ly the same

el d as t w o opposi te magnetic poles G eom etrical ly the el d is .
,

that o f a n elemen ta ry magnet Into the el d o f th ese two oppo .

s i t el
y pu lsati ng bod ies we ca n bri ng a th ird pu lsati ng body .

Then i f we bring in to appl icatio n the l aw j ust fou n d fo r t he

,
-

action between two pu l satin g bod ies we see at once that the th i rd ,

pu lsating body w il l be acted u pon by a force opposite i n d i rec ,

tion to th e correspon d ing force acting on a magnetic pol e i n

the eld o f an ele m en tary magnet I n th i s resul t noth i ng wi l l .

be changed i f for th e two Oppositely pu lsati ng bod ies we substitute

, , ,

an osci llating body F o r both prod uce the sam e eld an d th e

.
,

actio n on the pul sating body wil l evidently depend on ly upon th e

eld p rod uced and n ot u pon th e m an n er i n wh ich i t i s prod uced
,
.

We th u s n d
A n oscilla ti ng bod y w ill a ct up o n a p u ls a ti ng bod y as a n ele
m en ta ry ma g n et up o n a ma g n et i c p o l b t w i th the la w of p o les e
,
u

r evers d e .

Th is resul t m ay be veri ed at once by ex peri men t I f we take .

a n osci llato r i n th e h an d and brin g i t n ear th e pul sator wh ich i s

,

i n serted i n the pul sation balance we n d attraction i n th e case

-

(F ig 1 3 a ) when th e osci llati ng body approaches th e pul sating

.
,

body as i t expands a n d recedes fr om it as i t contracts B u t as .

soon as the oscil lating body is tu rn ed arou nd so that it approach es ,

36 F I ELDS O F FORCE .

wh il e th e pu lsa ti ng bod y 1 8 con tracti ng an d reced es wh ile i t i s

expand ing (F ig 1 3 b) the attraction changes to repulsion
.
, , .

To show h ow the an alogy to m agn etis m goes even i n to th e

smal lest detai ls the osci llati ng body m ay be placed i n th e pro
lo n g a t i o n o f the a r m of t he pul sation balance so that i ts ax i s
-

of oscil lation i s perpendi cula r to th is arm The pul sati ng body

.

w il l then m ove a l ittle to on e side an d com e i n to equ i l ibri u m i n a

d issym metric position o n o n e side o f the attractin g pol e (F ig .

1 3 c)
, . I f th e oscillatin g body he tu rned a rou nd the posi tion o f ,

equ il i bri u m w i l l be o n the oth er side E xactly th e sa me smal l

.

la t eral d isplac em en t is ob served wh en a short magn et is bro ugh t

i nto t he tran sverse p osition i n the n eigh bo rh ood o f th e pol e o f
a long bar mag net wh ich h as the same freedom to m ove as th e
pulsating body .

8 F o r ce a g a i ns t a n O c i lla t ii ng Bo d y
.
.
s I f i n th e preced i ng

,

ex peri men t we take t he pul sating bod y i n the h an d a nd i n sert th e

,

osci llati ng bod y i n the balan ce we can n ot con cl ude a p r i ori that
,

the m otion s o f the osci llati ng body w il l prove the ex iste nce o f
a force equ al an d opposite t o th at exer ted by the osci llati ng body
u pon the pul sati ng body The pri ncipl e o f eq ual actio n an d t e
.

actio n is em pi rical ly val id for th e co m mon action s at a d ista nce

between two bod ies B u t fo r th ese a ppa r ent action s at a distan ce
.
,

where n ot o nly the two bod i es bu t also a th i rd one th e u id are , ,

engaged n o gen eral concl u sion ca n be d rawn

,
.
 I NV ES TI G A TI O N O F DYN AM I CA L PROPERTI ES . 37

To exam i n e th e act ion to wh ich th e oscil lati ng body i s su bject

we m u st therefore go back to th e prin ciple of ki neti c buoyan cy .

The k i netic bu oyan cy wi l l gi ve n o resu ltan t force agai n st a body

o f i n variable vol u me wh ich oscillates between two places i n
,

th e u id w here the motio n i s th e sa me F o r at both ends o f .

the path th e body wil l be subject to the action o f equ al an d Oppo

site forces B u t i f it oscillates between places where th e m otion
.

i s somewhat d i fferen t i n d irection a nd i n ten sity th ese t w o forces

_ ,

wil l n ot be exactly equal an d opposite Th e d i rectio n o f the .

accelerati on s i n the osc illatin g u id masses is al ways tangen t ial

t o the l i n es of osc illation I f the eld be represented by the e
. s

l i n es an d i f th e absol ute val u e of the acceleration be k now n at

,

every poi n t o f th e u id at an y
tim e th e force exerted o n the
,

osci l latin g bod y at every poi n t

of i ts path may be plotted a nd ,

the average val ue fou n d A s .

we desire on ly qual itative re c

s u lt s
,
i t w il l be sufcien t t o
con si der th e bod y i n th e two
extreme position s on ly wh ere ,

we have to do w ith th e ex F 14 ro . .

treme val u es of th e force .

Let then th e co nti n uou s circl e (F ig 1 4 ) represen t th e o scillat

, , .

i ng body i n o ne extrem e posi tion and th e dotted circle the sa me

,

body i n the other extreme position an d let the t w o arrows be pro

,

po rtion al to th e acc el eration s wh ich the u id has at th ese two places

at th e co rre spon d ing ti mes The com position o f these two al ter
.

n a t ely acting forces gi ves th e average resu ltan t force L et us n ow .

su bst itute fo r th e osc illating body a cou pl e of opposi tely pul satin g
bod ies on e i n each extreme posi tion of the osci llati ng body an d
, ,

let us d ra w arrows representi ng the a verage forces to wh ich th ese

t w o pulsati ng bodies are su bj ect We then g et arrows located
.

exactly as i n th e preced ing case A nd we concl ude therefore

.
, ,

that i f we on ly adj ust the i n tensi ties o f pulsation properly the ,

38 F I ELD S or FORCE .

two oppositely pu lsati ng bod ies wil l be acted u po n by exactly th e

same average resul tan t force as the oscil lati ng body F rom th e .

resu lts fou nd above for the action agai nst pu lsati ng bod ies we can
then con cl u de at once
A n osc illa ting bo dy i n the hyd r o d y na m i c eld w ill be s u bj ect to the
a c ti o n o a fo r c e s i m ila r to t ha t a cti n
f g up o n a n l em nta r y ma g net e e

i n the m a g n et i c ld the o n ly lie en ce bei ng the d if er enc e i n the

e ,
( r

s ig ns o
f theforc es whi ch follo w s f r o m the Opp osi te p ole la w -
.

9 E xp r i m en ta l I n vestig a t i o n o f the F orc e ex er t e d by a F a tsa t

. e

i ng B od y up o n a n Os c illa ti ng B o d y L et us now i n sert the .

osci llator i n the bal ance an d tu rn it so that th e ax is o f osci l lation

,

i s i n the d irection of i ts free m ove m en t I f a pu lsa to r be taken .

i n the h and i t wi ll b e seen tha t attractio n ta kes place when th e

,

pulsati ng body is made to approach o n e pol e of the osc i llati ng

b o dy (F ig 1 3 a ) an d repulsion i f i t is m ade to approach th e
.
, ,

other po le (F ig 1 3 b) A nd as i s evide n t from com parison with

.
,
.
,

th e preced i ng case the force acti ng on t he osc i l lati ng body is a l

,

ways o pposi te to that acti n g o n th e pu l sat i ng body We h ave .

equal ity o f action a nd reaction j ust a s i n the case o f m agn etism ,

.

The analogy w ith m agn etism ca n be fol lo wed fu rther i f th e

pul sati ng body be brought i n to th e prol onge d arm o f th e osci lla
tion bala nce The osci llati ng body wil l then take a short late ra l
.

displacemen t so that its attracti ng pole comes n earer to the pu l

,

sati ng body (F ig 1 3 ) I t i s a lateral d isplacem ent correspond

.
,
c .

i ng exact ly t o that ta ke by a n el em en tary magnet u nder th e i nu

ence of a magnetic pole .

1 0 E xp er i m enta l I n es t ig a ti o n f the M u tu a l A ct i o ns betw een

. v o

Tw O c i ll a t i ng B odi s
o s The pu l ator h eld i n the han d m ay n o w
e .

s

be repl aced by an oscil lator wh il e t he oscil lator i n serted i n th e ,

balance is left u ncha nged so that i t is sti ll free to m ove along i ts ,

axis of oscil lation \Ve may rst bring the oscil lator h eld i n th e
.

han d i nto the positio n i n d icated by the gu res 1 5 a a nd b so that , ,

the a xes of oscil lation lie i n th e sam e l i ne The ex peri men t w i ll .

the n correspon d to that with magn ets i n lon gitud i n al position We .

get attraction i n th e case (F ig 1 5 a ) wh en th e oscill ati n g bodi es , .

, ,
 I N VE STI GA TI ON OF DYNA M I CA L PRO PERTI E S .

a re i n opposite phase Th is corresponds to the ease i n wh ich th e

.

magn ets ha ve poles of the sa m e sign tu rned towards each other .

I f th e osc illato r h el d i n th e ha nd he tu rn ed arou nd so that the ,

t w o bod ies are i n th e sa m e phase the resul t wi l l be repul sion (F ig

, .

1 5 b ) wh ile the correspond i ng magnets wh ich h ave opposite

, , ,

pol es facing each other wi l l attract each oth er F i na lly the o sci l
,
.
,

lator may be brough t i n to the posi tion (F ig 1 5 e)i n wh ich i t o sc i l .

,

lates i n th e d i rection o f th e prolonged arm of the oscillation

F ro . 15 .

balan ce Then we shal l agai n get th e smal l lateral displacemen t

.
,

wh ich brings th e attractin g poles of the two osci llati ng bod ies n ear
each oth er .

Th e oscil lato r i n the balan ce may n ow be tu rned arou n d so

that i ts osci llation i s at righ t angles t o the d irection i n wh ich it is
free t o mo ve I f both bod ies osci llate n ormal ly to the l i ne joi n
.

i ng th em we get attraction wh en th e bod ies osci llate i n the sam e

,

phas e (F ig 1 5 c) an d repu l sion when th ey oscill ate i n the oppo

.
, ,

site ph ase (F ig 1 5 d ) Th i s correspon ds to th e attraction an d

.
,
.

repulsion between parallel magn ets except that the d irection of th e ,

40 F I ELDS OF FO RCE .

force is as u sual the reverse th e magn ets repel l ing i n the case of
, , ,

si m i lar and attracti ng i n the ca se of opposite parallel ism If

,
.
,

n al ly we pl ace t he osci l lator i n the prolonged arm o f th e bal

,

an ce w ith i ts ax is of osci llation perpen d icu lar to th i s arm (F ig .

1 5 f ) we agai n get the sm al l lateral d isplacem en t described

, ,

above exactly as wi th m agn ets i n th e correspo nd in g position s bu t

, ,

i n the opposite d irection .

W e h ave con sid ered here only th e m ost i mport an t position s of

th e t w o osci llati n g bod ies a nd of th e co rrespond i ng magnets B e .

tween th ese pri nc ipal posi tions w h ich are a ll d isti ngu ished by cer
'

tain properties o f sym metry there is an i n n ite n u m ber o f d is ,

sym m etric position s I n all o f th em it is ea sily sh ow n that th e

.

force i n versel y corresponds to that between t w o magn ets i n th e

correspond i ng posi tions .

1 1 R ela t i o n s of the Osc illa t i ng B o d y

. \Ve h ave co n sidered .
-

h itherto on l y th e res l tan t fo rce o n th e oscil lati ng body B t i n

u . u

general the t w o forces acti ng at th e two ex treme position s also for m

a co up l l i ke th e two fo rces acti ng on t he two poles o f a mag
e
,

n et Th e rst e ffect o f th is cou pl e is t o rotate the ax is o f o sc i l

.

lati o n o f the body B u t i f t h i s ax i s of oscillation h as a xed

.

d irecti on i n t he body as is th e case i n o u r ex peri ments th e body

, , ,

wi l l be obl iged to fol low the rotation o f th e ax is o f osci l lation .

To sh ow th e e ffect of th is cou pl e experi mentally the oscillator

may be placed d irectly i n th e cyl i n de r 0 (F ig 1 1 ) o f t he pul sa .

tion balan ce I t i s then free t o tu rn abou t a vertical axis passin g

-
.

th ro gh th e pi vot If a pul sati ng body be brough t i n to th e neigh

u .

b o r hoo d o f th i s oscillati ng body i t i m m ediately tu rn s abo u t its ,

ax i s u nt il th e position o f grea tes t att raction is reach ed an d as a ,

consequen ce o f i ts i nertia it w il l gen e ral ly g o th rough a series o f

osci llation s abou t th is position o f equ il i bri u m I f th e ph a se o f .

the pu l sation s be cha nged th e osci llati ng body w ill tu rn a rou n d

,

u n ti l i ts oth er pol e com es as near as possi bl e t o th e pu lsati ng bod y .

A part from th e d i rection o f th e force th e ph enom ena i s exactly ,

th e an alogu e of a suspend ed n eed le acted u po n by a magn etic po le , .

Th e pu lsating body m ay n ow be replaced by an osci l lating body .

 I N V STI GA TI O N
E O F DYNA M I CA L PRO PE RTI E S . 4]

E xcept fo r th e d i rection of the force we shal l get rotation s corres ,

po ndi ng t o those o f a com pass n eedle u nder t he i n fl uence o f a

magnet The position o f equ il i bri u m is al ways t he position o f
.

greatest attraction (F ig 1 5 a c ) the position of greatest r epul

.
, , ,

sion being a position o f u n stabl e eq u il i bri um If the xed o scil .

l ati ng bod y oscil lates paral lel to th e l i ne d raw n from i ts cen ter to
that o f th e bod y i n the balance th e position o f stable equ il ibri u m
,

w i ll be th at i nd icated i n F ig 1 6 b an d i f i t oscil lates at righ t

.
, ,

angles to th is l i n e i t w i ll be t he position i n d icated i n F ig 1 6 d

,
.
, ,

w h i le th e i ntermed iate d issym metric position s o f th e xed o sci l

lator gi ve i n term ed iate d issy m metric positions o f equ i l ibri u m o f

th e movabl e osc il lati ng body It i s easily veri ed that the posi
.

F IG . 16 .

tion s o f equ il i bri um are exactly th e sam e as for th e case of two

m agn ets except fo r th e di fference wh ich i s a con sequen ce of th e
,

opposi te pole law ; the positio n of stable equ i l ibri u m i n the m a g

-

netic ex peri men t i s a po si tion o f u n sta ble equ il ibri u m i n the

hydrodyna m ic ex pe r i men t and v ice versa,
.

1 2 F or ces A na l og o us to Thos e of Temp or a r y Ma g n et i s m

. .

We h ave al ready co n sidered th e forc es between bod ies wh ich are

themselves the primary cau se o f th e eld na mely th e bo d ies ,

w h ich have forced pul sation s or oscil lation s B ut as we h a ve .

,

shown bod ies wh ich are th em sel ves n eu tral bu t wh ich h ave
,

another den si ty tha n that o f the u id also exert a m arked i nu

ence u pon th e con gu ration o f the eld exactly analogous to that ,

exerted by bodies of d i fferen t i nd ucti vity u pon the con gu ration

o f th e el ectric eld This action o f the bod ies u pon th e g eo m et
.

r i es l congu ration o f the eld is i n th e case of electr i city o r mag

,

6
42 F I E L Ds O F FORCE .

accom pan ied by a m ec han ical force exerted by th e eld

n et i s m ,

u pon the bod ies We shal l see h ow i t i s i n th i s respect i n th e

.

hyd rodynam ic eld .

A s we concl uded from th e pri nciple o f k i netic buoyan cy a body ,

wh ich is l ighte r than th e wa t er is brought i n to oscil lation w ith

greater am pl itudes than those of th e water ; a body o f the sa m e
den si ty as th e water w il l be brough t i n to oscil latio n w ith exactly
th e sa m e ampl itud e as th e water ; a nd a body wh ich has greater
den si ty than the water w il l be brough t in to oscil lation w ith smal ler
ampl i tudes than those of th e water F rom t h is w e concl ude.

that d u ri ng th e osci llation s th e body of t h e same den sity as th e

water w i ll be al ways con ta i n ed i n the sam e mass o f water B u t .

both th e l igh t an d th e h eavy body w i ll i n the two extreme posi

tion s be i n d i erent masses o f water and i f these have no t exactly
'

F IG . 17 .

the sa m e motion it wi l l be su bject i n th ese t w o position s to k i n etic

,

buoya ncies n o t exactly equal and n ot exactly opposite i n d i rec

tion Th e m ot ion can n ot th erefore be strictly period ic A s a
. .

con sequence of a feeble d issym m et ry th ere w il l be su pe rposed

u po n th e osci llati o n a progressi ve m oti on .

That th e a verage force wh ich prod uces th i s progressi ve m otion

is strictly a nalogou s to the force depend ing u pon i nduced magnetism
o r electri cation b y i n uen ce i s easily seen
,
A s we have a l ready
.

sh ow n i n th e preced i ng lecture th e i nd uced oscil lation s correspo n d

,

exactly to th e i nd uced states o f polari ation i n the el ectric or th e

z

magnetic eld F urther the forces ac ting i n the t wo extrem e po si

.
,
 I NVESTI G A TI O N O F DYNA M I CA L PRO PERTI E S . 43

tion s o f oscillation are i n th e sam e relation to t he geometry of th e

eld as the forces acting on th e poles of th e i nd uced magn ets ; th ey
are d i rec ted alon g the l i nes o f force of the eld an d vary i n i n t en
,

s it
y from place to place accordi ng to the sam e law i n th e two ki n ds
Of el ds except th at th e d i rection o f th e force is al ways opposi te i n
,

the two cases F ig 1 7 a sho ws these fo rces i n th e t w o extreme

. .
,

position s o f a l igh t body wh ich oscil lates with grea t er am pl itudes

,

than the uid an d F ig 1 7 b sh ows the correspon d ing forces acti ng

,
.
,

o n th e two poles of a m agn etic body Therefore i n th e hydro .

,

dynam ic eld the l igh t body wil l l)e subj ect to a force opposi tely
,

equ i valen t to th at to wh ich the magn etic body i n the correspon din g
magn etic el d i s su bject F ig 1 8 a sh ows the forces acti ng o n
. .
,

the heavy body i n its two ex trem e posi ti on s th e oscillation s r epre ,

sen ted i n th e gu re being those wh ich i t m akes r ela ti vely to th e

F IG . 18 .

u id wh ich i s the oscillation wh ich bri ngs i t in to water masses

,

wi th d i fferen t motions F ig 1 8 b shows the co rrespon ding forces

. .
,

actin g o n th e pol es o f an i nd uced magn et o f diamagnetic polarity .

A n d as is ev iden t at on ce from th e sim ilarity of these gures

, ,

th e heavy body i n the hydrodynam ic eld w il l be acted upon by a

force wh ich oppositely corresponds to th e force to wh ich a d i a m ag
n etic body i s subj ect i n th e magn etic eld .

The w el l known laws for the motion of magn etic an d d ia m ag

n etic bod ies i n the m agneti c eld can there fore be tran sferr ed at , ,

on ce to the motion of the l igh t a nd h eavy bod ies i n th e hyd ro

d y na m ic eld Th e most con ven ien t of these laws is that o f
.
44 F I ELD S O F FO RCE .

F A RA D A Y wh ich con n ects the force with th e absol te i nten sity

,
u ,

or to the en ergy of the eld Remembering the reversed d i rec

,
.

tion o f th e force we concl ude that

,

The tig ht bo d y w i ll m ov e i n the d i r ct i on of d ecr eas i ng t he hea y

e ,
v

bo d y i n the d i r ect io n f i n cr e s ing energ y of the fi ld

o a e .

1 3 A tt r a cti on a n d R p u ls i o n of L ig ht a n d H ea vy B o d i es by a
. e

P lsa ti ng or a n Osc ill ti ng B ody I f the el d be produced by

u a .

onl y o ne pul sati ng o r o n e oscillati ng body th e resu lt i s very ,

si m ple F o r th e energy of the eld has its m ax i m u m at the su r

.

face of the pul sati ng or osci llati ng body an d wi l l al ways decrease ,

w ith in crea ing d ista n ce Th erefore the l igh t body w il l be re

s .
,

e lled an d the h eavy bod y attracted by the pul sati ng o r t he o sc i l

p ,

lati ng bo dy .

To m ake th is ex peri men t we suspen d i n th e water from a cork

oati ng on the su rfa ce a h eavy body say a bal l o f seal in g wax ,
.

I n a si m ilar m a n ner we m ay atta ch a l ight body by a th read to a

si n ker wh ich eith er sl ides with a m i n i m u m pressu re alon g th e
,

bottom of th e tan k or wh ich is itsel f h el d u p i n a su i table man ner

,

by corks oati ng on the su rface It i s i mportan t to remark that .

th e light body should n ever be fasten ed d i rectly to th e si n ker bu t ,

by a th read o f sufc ien t length to i n su re freedom o f m otion .

O n bringi ng a pu lsato r u p to t he l igh t body i t i s se en at on ce ,

t o be repelled If o ne i s s f cien tly n ear t he smal l i nd uce d

. u ,

oscillations of th e l ight body may also b e Observed I f th e pu l .

sati ng body he brough t n ear th e h eavy bo dy an attraction of s im i ,

lar i nten sity i s observed I n both cases i t i s seen th at the force

.

dec reases m uch mo re rapidly with th e d ista n ce tha n i n all th e

prev iou s ex peri m en ts th e force decreas ing as i s easily p roved
, , ,

as the i n verse fth po wer o f the d istance wh ich i s th e sam e law o f ,

d istance fou n d for the action between a m agnetic pole and a p iec e
o f i ron .

I f fo r the pu lsating body we substitu te a n osc il l ati n g body th e ,

same attract ion s an d repu lsion s are observed B oth poles o f th e .

oscillati ng body exert exactly the sa me attraction on th e h eavy

body and exactly the same repu lsio n o n the l ight b o dy and even
, ,
 I N VESTI GA TI ON OF DYNA M I CA L PRO PERTI E S . 45

the equ ato rial parts o f th e oscil la ti ng body exert th e sam e attract
in g or repel l i ng force thoug h to a less degree A s i s easily seen
, .
,

we h ave al so i n th is respect a perfect analogy t o the action o f a m ag

n et o u a piece o f soft i ron o r o n a piece of bi sm uth
, .

1 4 S i mu lta neo u s Per ma nen t a n d Temp o r a ry Fo r c e

. A s th e

force depend i ng u pon the i nduced pu l sation s osci llation s o r m ag , ,

n et i z a t i o n s decreases more r ap idly with i ncreasi ng d i stance tha n

,

the force depend ing u pon the permanent p ulsations oscil lation s o r , ,

magneti ations very stri ki ng e ffects may be o b tai n ed as th e resu l t

z
,

o f the si m ultan eou s actio n of forces of both ki nds A n d th ese .

e ffects o ffer good evidence o f th e true n ature o f the a nalogy .

F or on e o f th e sim plest magnetic experi m en ts we ca n take a

strong an d a weak magn et o ne of wh ich is freel y suspended A t a
,
.

distan ce th e poles o f th e sam e sign wi l l repel each oth er B u t

,
.

i f they be brough t sufcien tly near each oth er th ere w il l ap pear ,

an attraction depend ing u pon th e i n d uced m agn eti ation Th is z .

i n duced magn eti ation i s o f a strictly tem porary n atu re for th e

z ,

ex peri men t may be repeated any n u m ber of ti mes .

l v e ca n repeat th e expe r i men t usi ng the pulsation balance an d -

two pu lsato rs gi vi ng the m oppo si te pu lsation s bu t wi t h very di f

,

feren t am pl i tudes . A t a d ist ance they wi l l repel each oth er b u t

-

, ,

i f they be brough t suf cien tly n ear together th ey wi l l attract I t,

.

i s th e attraction of one b ody co nsidere d as a n eu tra l b ody heavier

,

th an the water by an other wh ich has i n tense pul sation s

, .

M any experi men ts of th is natu re w i th a force cha ngi ng at a

critical po i n t from attraction to repulsion m ay be made al l sh ow

, ,

i ng i n the most stri k i ng way the analogy between th e magn etic

an d th e hydrodyn am ic forces .

15. Or i e ntat i o n f Cyli nd r i ca l B o d i s

o The most com mon
e .

method of testi ng a body wi th respect to magnetism or d iamagnet

i sm i s to suspen d a long n a r ro w cyl indrical piece o f the body i n
the n eigh borhood o f a su fciently powerfu l el ectromagnet The .

cyl i nder o f th e magnet ic body then takes th e longi tu d inal an d ,

the cyl in der of th e diamagnetic body the transverse position .

The correspond ing hydrodyn am ic ex perim en t is easi ly made

4G F I E L DS O F FORCE .

Th e l igh t cyli nder i s attached from below an d t he heavy cyl i n der

fro m abo ve an d o n bri ngi n g n ear a pul sati n g or an osc il lati ng
,

body i t is seen at on ce that the light cyl in der wh i ch correspon ds

, ,

t o th e m agn etic body tak es th e tra nsverse and the h eavy cyl i nder
, , ,

wh ich corresponds to th e d iamagnetic body th e longitud inal position ,

.

1 6 Ne t r a l B od i es A ct ed Up o n by Tw o o r [Mor e P ulsa ti ng or
. u

O c i lla t i ng B o d i s
s The force exerted by two magnets on a piece
e .

o f i ron is general ly n ot the resu ltan t fou nd accord ing to the paral

lel g r a m law fro m th e two forces wh i ch each magn et woul d exert

o

by i tsel f i f the other were rem oved F or the d i rectio n of th e .

greatest i n crea se o r decrease O f th e en ergy i n the eld d ue to both

magnets i s i n gen eral al togeth er d i fferen t from the paral lelogram
resu lta n t of th e t wo vec to rs wh ich give t he d i rection Of th is i ncrease
or decrease i n the eld s Of the two magn ets separately It i s there .

fore n ot aston i sh i ng that we get resul ts wh ich are i n the m ost

stri ki ng con t rast to th e p r i nci ple O f th e parall el ogra m o f forces ,

con sidered it m u st be em ph asi zed as a ph y ical pri ncipl e n o t

, ,
s ,

m erely as a math ematical pri nci ple ; i e as a m eans O f th e . .

,

abstract represen tation of o n e vector as the s u m Of two or more

other vectors .

I n th i s way we may m eet wi th very pecul iar ph enomena wh ich ,

have great i n terest here beca use they are wel l s u ited t o sh ow
,

how the an alogy between hyd rodyn am ic a nd magnetic ph enom en a

goes even i nto th e most m i n te detai ls We shal l co n sider here
u .

o n ly the s implest i nstance Of a ph enomen on Of th i s k i nd .

Let a piece of iron be attach ed to a cork oati ng o n th e su r face

of t he water I f a magn etic n orth pole he placed i n the water a
.

l ittle below the su rface th e piece o f i ron w i ll be attracted to a

,

poi n t ve r tical ly above the po l e I f a sou th pol e be placed i n the

.

same vertical sym m etri cal ly above th e su rface noth i ng pecu l iar i s ,

Observe d ; the pi ece o f i ron is held i n i ts position Of equ il ib ri u m

m ore strongl y than before B u t i f the se co n d pol e be a n orth pole
.
,

th e iron wi l l seem to be repel led fro m th e poi n t wh ere i t h ad pre

v i o u sly stable equ il ibri u m It wil l m ove o u t t o some poi n t on a
.

ci rcle the dia meter Of wh ich i s abo ut 1 76 Of the d istan ce between th e

,
 I N V STI GA TI ON
E O F DYNA M I CA L PRO PERTI E S . 47

poles I f t he sa me ex peri men t were made with a piece of hi s

.

m u th and su fciently strong magn etic pol es the force woul d be ,

i n every case the reverse It would have u nstabl e equ il ibri u m i n

.

the cen tra l poi nt between two poles Of Opposi te sign an d woul d ,

seem to be repel led from th is poin t B u t i f the two poles were .

Of the sam e sign the bism uth wou ld see m t o be attracted t o th e

,

poi n t wh ich previously repel led it an d it wou ld be drawn to th i s ,

poi n t from any poi n t w ith i n th e circl e m entioned above O n .

the ci rcl e i tsel f it would h ave u n stable equ i libri u m a n d outside ,

it wo ul d be repel led .

These pecu l ia r phenomena are at on ce u n derstood i f we r e

member th at the cen tral poi n t between two poles o f the sam e
sign i s a neutral po in t wh ere the energy Of th e eld h as a m i n i
,

m u m (F ig 5 b) and that the b is m uth m ust move to wards th is

.
, ,

po i n t th e i ro n from i t
,
.

TO make th e correspond ing hyd rodynam ic experi men t t w o pu l

sa t o rs may be placed on e vertical ly above the other an d a l igh t ,

body (Fi g 1 9 a ) or a h ea vy body (F ig 1 9 b) brough t between

.
,
.
,

them Then i f th ey pul sate i n Opposite phase th e ligh t body wi l l

.
,

be repelled from and th e h eavy body attracted to the cen tral poi n t
,

between the t w o pul sati ng bod ies B ut i f the ph ase be changed so .

,

th at the two bodies pul sate i n the sa me phase the l ight body wi l l ,

be attr acte d to th is central po i nt fro m al l poin ts i n side a c i rcl e

whose d iameter is abou t T76 O f th e d istan ce between the pulsati ng
bod i es A t al l po ints ou tside O f th i s ci rcle i t wi l l be repel led The
. .

he a vy body o n the oth er han d w il l be repel led fr om t he center to

, ,

some poi n t o n th e ci rcle but attracted from any poi n t ou tsi de th e

,

ci rcle so that it wi l l be i n stable eq u i l ibri u m o n th e c ircle

,
.

17 . lf ut ua l R ea ct i ons bet w een B o d i es w i th I nd uc ed I l a g n eti z a

i

t i on s o r w i th i n d uc ed Osc i lla ti on s B esides the d i rect action s of

.

magnets on a piece Of soft i ron we have also action s between an y ,

two pieces of soft iron wh ich are acted upon by a magnet Th is is .

o f special i nte r est because i t is u pon th is that th e form ation of the

,

represen tation s Of fi elds of force i n the cla sica l experi men t w ith s

i ro n fi l i ngs depend s ; T h e i ro n li n gs l y i n g i n t h e same l i ne o f

48 F I ELDS or FORCE .

force acqu i re pol es of Opposite sign faci ng each oth er an d therefore ,

chai n together Iron li ngs ly ing n ear each oth er o n a l i n e n or

.

m al to a l i n e of force h ave o n th e oth er hand pol es of th e same

, ,

sign faci n g each other a nd therefore th e chai n s formed m utual ly

,

repel each oth er so th at they becom e separated by d istin ct i n ter

,

val s It i s wo r th men tion i n g th at i f t he sam e ex perim en t cou l d

.
,

be made with l i ngs o f a diamagnetic body such as bismu th t he , ,

cha i n wou ld be form ed i n t he same way F or wh en th e poles o f .

F IG . 19 .

all the l i ngs are changed at the same ti me the di rection Of th e ,

forces between them w ill be u nchanged .

S i m ila r action s w il l be observed between particles w h ich take in

d uced oscil lation s i n th e hyd rodyn am ic eld except for the d i ffer ,

ence resulti ng from the d i rection Of th e force wh ich i s Oppos ite i n ,

every case Th e particl e therefore wil l chai n togeth er norm ally

.
s
, ,

to th e l i nes Of ow i n th e u id ; they wil l arrange them sel ves as

layers wh i ch fol low th e equ ipoten tial su rfaces a nd wh ich as a con , ,

sequence Of m utual repulsion a re separa t ed from each o ther by

,

em pty spaces It is i ndifferen t w hether fo r th e ex peri men t we

.
 I N VESTI GA TI O N OF DYNA M I CA L PRO PERTI ES . 49

take a l ight powder wh ich wou ld correspon d t o th e i ro n li ngs or

, ,

a heavy powder wh ich woul d correspond to the bism uth l i ngs

, .

F o r practical reason s i t i s preferable to u s e a h ea vy powder

, ,

wh ich i n order that the ex peri ment su cceed n icely m ust be

, ,

fai rly homogen eo us A good powder mav be Obtai n ed from co m

.

m o n red lead if both the nest a n d the coarsest particles be r e

,

moved b wash i ng Th is is d istribu ted o n a glass plate d i rectl y

y .
,

above wh ich i s placed for a f w secon ds a pu lsati ng or a n o sc illa t

e

i ng body with very i n tense pulsation s or oscillations The powder .

i m med iately arranges i tsel f al ong th e ex pected c u r v

F IG . 20 .

F ig . gi ves the ci rcles of a section th rough the S pherical equ i

19
poten tial su r f aces su rroun d i ng a pulsati ng body an d F igs 2 0 , .

a n d 2 1 gi ve the more compl i cated cu r ves O f plan e section s th rough

the equ ipoten tial su rfaces prod uced by two b od ies pu lsati ng i n the
sam e a nd i n Opposi te phase respectively In a si m ilar way F ig
,
. .

2 2 g i es a section th rough th e system O f equ i poten tial s ur f aces

v

arou n d a n osci llatin g b ody A s is easily seen the cu r ves th u s

.
,

Obtai ned are normal to the l in es Of force o r of ow represen ted by

F igs 4 8
.

.

7
 50 F I ELD S 0 1" F O RCE .

It i s worth remark i ng th at th e dyn am ical pri nc ipl e wh ich ex

plai n s th e formation o f these gures is th e sam e as that wh ich
ex plai n s th e format ion Of K UN DT S d ust g ures i n th e classical
-

-

ex peri men t for the m easurem ent Of th e velocity Of sou n d i n gases .

O ur gu res also show a stri ki ng l i keness to the ri pple m arks formed

i n the sand along th e shores b y th e waves A nd even th ough th e
.

dynam ica l pri ncipl e devel oped here does n ot ful ly accou n t for th e
pecul iari ties o f these ripple marks e pecial ly when th ey have
,
s

great d im en sion s i t i s certa i n ly th e pri nci ple wh ich accou nts fo r

,

th e begi n n i ng of thei r formation Th e fossi l ri pple mark s w h ich

.
,

are wel l k nown t o the geologists then prove that th e laws Of hydro
,

dyn am ic elds O f f orce w h ich I devel op before you i n th i s l ecture

, ,

were the sam e i n previo us geological periods as they are t o day -

.

18. Vo r t i ces a nd E lect r i c Cur r ead s

-

W e have Obtai n ed the

m ost com plete analogy possi ble Of hyd rodynam ic phenom ena t o th e
phenomen a o f electrostatics or Of magn etism the on l y d i fferen ce ,

bei ng th at depen d i ng u pon th e i n verse pole law -

.

O u r i n vestigation Of th e geometr y Of the eld showed us

 I N VESTI GA TI ON OF DY NA M I CA L PRO PERTI ES . 51

that we meet with difcul ties if we try t o exten d the an alogy

beyond th i s poi nt The d isco very O f a com pl ete dyn am ical analogy
.

to the phen omen a O f electromagnetism th erefore n ecessari ly su p

poses a more o r less com plete m od icat ion O f th e views wh ich h ave
led us to the d i scovery Of th e partial an alogy al ready developed .

TO prepare for a discovery o f th is k i n d we can hardly d o better

than to d iscuss the oth er condition s wh ic h lead to a partial
analogy wh ich i s related to th e analogy wh ich we h ave developed ,

al though i t does no t form a n i m mediate con ti n uati on Of it .

F IG . 22 .

A s we remarked when we d iscu ssed the geometry o f the elds ,

th ere is an analogy d i covered by V H ELM HOL T Z between the

,
s .
,

magneti c elds Of electr ic cu rrents a n d hydrodyna m ic elds de

pendin g u po n vortex motion Th i s geom etric an alogy very nearly
.

f rm s a conti n uation Of th e a nalogy wi th wh ich we h ave been

o

m ostly occ u pied th e on ly reas on why i t can not form a perfect

,

con ti n uat ion bei ng that the u id vortex m u st always go arou nd

i n the same d irection so that a v e r tex o f v ibratory n ature i s i m
,

possible B u t ta ki ng th i s a nalogy as i t i s detached from the pre

.
,
52 F I ELDS O F F O RCE .

ced i ng a nalogy we wil l exam i n e wh eth er i n th is case al so there

,

ex i sts a n analogy between t he dy nam ics of the two system s .

L et us rst consider a recti l in ear cyl i n d rical vor t ex i n th e

m iddle Of a t n k which is itsel f at rest Th e motion Of ci ren
a ,
.

lation arou nd the vortex wh ich corresponds to the magn etic el d ,

arou nd th e correspon d in g electric cu rren t w il l be perfectly sy m ,

m etrical The di stribu tion f th e pressu re w ill therefore al so

. o , ,

be sym metrical a n d there w il l be n o resu ltan t force agai n st th e

,

vortex No r wi l l any such force appear i f a com m on m otion Of

.

tran slation be com m u n icated to the tan k and t o the vortex .

O therw ise i t would be possible t o d i scover b v a n ex peri m en t Of

th is k i n d th e m ot ion Of the ea rth .

B t no w let u s su ppose th e motion o f tran slati on to be gi ven to

u

the tan k only w h i le the vortex o r a rotati ng rigid cyl i nder sub
, ,

stituted fo r th e vortex be hel d still Th ere wi ll then be a d is

,
.

s y m m et ry i n the d istri b tion Of th e m otion n th e two sides f th e

u o o

rotati ng cyl i nder ; o n ne side the motion O f translation wi ll be

o ,

added t o o n the other si de su bt racted from th e m otion O f ci rc u lat io n

, ,

arou nd the cyli n der A s we have i n th i s case a station ary m o t ion

.
-

dependin g u po n a po tential th ere wi l l be i n t he id a di m i n ution

,
u

of the pressu re pro portional to t he ki netic en ergy i n th e u id

mo tion an d th e r e fo re a n excess o f pressu re o n the side wh ere
,

there i s a n eutral i ation O f the t w o motion s Th e cyl i nder there

z .
,

fore is driven transve rs ely th rough the eld i n th e d i recti on

, ,

i n wh ich there i add ition Of th e velocities Th is correspon ds

s .

exactly to the tran sverse m otion O f a n electric cu rren t th ro ugh a

h om ogeneo s magn etic eld bu t w ith the sam e d i fference of sign
u
,

as before ; th e electr ic c u rren t i d ri ven i n th e d irection i n wh ich s

th e eld i n te n i ty d ue to the cu rrent is n eu tral i ed by that due to

s z

t he homogen eous eld .

The rectil i near cyli n d r ical vortex wh i h we h ave con sidered may c

n ow be a n elemen t Of any vortex Th ere f re we m ay d ra w th is . o

general concl usion th e ele m ents of any vortex wh ich is stat ion -

ary i n space w ill i n the h yd rodyn am ic el d be s u bj ect to a force

, , ,

Oppositely correspond i ng t o that t o wh ich the elemen ts O f the corre

 I NVE TI G A TIO N O F
S DYN A M I CA L PRO PER TI ES . 53

s
po n d i ng electric current are subject i n the correspond i ng m agn etic
eld A s special con sequen ces, we ded uce , for example ,
. that par
allel vortices wh ich rotate i n th e sam e sen se an d wh ich correspo n d ,

th us to curren ts Of the same d i rection w il l repel wh ile vortices , ,

rotati ng i n th e Opposite d i rectio n w ill attract each other .

A s i s seen from th i s ded uction the con d i tion that th e vortices

,

shou ld be stationary i n space i s essential I f the elements Of th e .

vortices participate i n th e motion o f th e surrou nd ing eld we come ,

back to the case wh ere the rectil i n ear vorte x h ad the sam e motion
as the tan k an d i n th is case there was no force Th e analogy
,
.

wh ich we ha ve fou n d i s therefore strictly l i m ited to the case Of

stationary electromagnetism Th u s for two reason s th i s rest r i c
.

tion i s i m posed u pon th e analogy A s we saw i n th e i n vestiga

.

tion o f the geometry of t he analogy th e constan cy O f th e vortices ,

m akes h ydrodyn am ic ph enomen a correspond ing to th e i nd uction

o f curren ts i mpossible . N o w we see that th e m echan ical forces
h ave val u es analogou s to th ose actin g agai nst the electric cu r
ren ts on l y when th e vortices wh ich correspon d t o the electr ic
,

cu rrents are perfectly stationary i n space The analogy there .

,

fore is a l i m ited o ne ; but even i n its li m ited state i t may gi ve u s

,

suggestion s .

1 9 E xp er i m en ts w it h R ota ti ng Cylin d er s
. S im pl e cases of th e .

resu lts developed may easily be t sted experi m enta lly B y m ean s
e
.

Of turbi n es d ri ven by ai r jets we m ay set m etal cyl inders i n to r o

-

t a t i o n wh ich i n turn prod uce th e requ ired circulation Of the s u r

,

rou nd i ng water m asses i n con sequen ce Of fr iction O ne such .

cy l inder may be held i n th e hand by m ean s o f a su i tabl e s u pport .

A nother may be i n trod uced i n to t he in stru men t prev iously u sed as

a p ulsation o r osci llati on balan ce -
I t i s necessary h owever i n
.
, ,

order to preven t th e cyl i nder i n th e balance from takin g by i tsel f

a tran slatory m otion through th e u id al ways to use two Oppo ,

s i t ely rotating cyl i nders wh i ch are a rranged sym metrically abou t

a vertical ax is th rough the pi vot (F ig .

W i t h th is i nstru m en t i t i s easi ly sho wn th at cyl i nders rotatin g

,

i n the sam e di rection repel an d that cyl i n ders rotatin g i n the

,

Opposite d irection attract .

54 e ff ects the
o n rotati n g
cyl i nder
Observed l so th at
a n
-

cyl i nder Of
We h ave a
eld j us t as a
hydrod y nam ic ,

con guration
 I N V ESTIG A TI ON O F DYNA M I CA L PROPER TI ES .

i n n ite d iam ag n et i v i ty effects the m agn eti c eld (I

,
E ven
th is geo metric analogy is accom pan ied with an i n verse dynam ic
an alogy ; i t i s easily seen th at th e rotati ng an d th e resting cy lin
der attract each oth er j ust as a wire carryi ng an electric cu rren t
, , ,

a nd a d iamagn etic body repel each oth er .

 TH E GE OM E T R I C PROPE RTI E S O F E L E CT RO
M A G N E TI C F I E LD S A CCOR D I N G TO
M A ! W E LL S T H E O R Y
.

1 . C A Bj e kn es
. . r
P roble m the phen om en a
s a nd JlI el lt o d s .
A ll
i n vestigated i n th e preced i ng l ectu res by elem entary reason i ng
an d experi men t were fou n d origi nal ly th rough m ath ematical
analysis by the late P rofessor C A BJ ER K N E S \Vhi le search i ng . . .

fo r phenomen a o f hyd rody nam ics w h ich shou ld ha ve th e appear

an ce Of action s at a d istance h e sol ved th e problem o f th e sim ul
,

t a neo us m otio n of any n u m ber Of sphe r ica l bod ies i n a l iqu id .

Th e d iscu ssion of th e sol utio n led h i m to resul ts wh ich b e veri ed

later by a series of experi ments o f wh ich I ha ve show n yo u t he ,

most i m porta n t u si ng however i n stru m en ts of i m proved con

, , ,

struction .

W e appa ren tly dev iate from the h istorica l m ethod i n ta k i ng th e

elemen tary reason i ng an d ex pe ri m en t rst and then p roc eed ing to
the m ath ematical theory B ut th is deviation may i n som e sen se
.

he more apparen t tha n real F or the phen o mena to be exam i n ed

.

certai n ly had i n th e m i nd o f th e d iscoverer the form Of i dea l

experi m en ts lo ng before th eir n al mathematical sol ution was
Obtai ned A n d th e exact calcu latio n s were i n pa rt at l ea st pre
.
, , ,

ceded by elem en ta ry reaso n i ng wh ich was n ot al ways co rrect ,

perha ps a n d of wh ich th e grea t er part was lost after th e exac t

math ematical sol ution was fou nd e may therefore h ave good .
r

reason to bel ieve that sta rti ng as we have don e wi th ele m entary
,

reason i ng a n d ex peri men t we have i n some sen se restored the

,

origi nal method o f the d iscoverer i m proved accordi ng t o o u r ,

presen t exact k nowl edge Of th e su bj ect .

2 The Pr o bl m f A n a log i
. e o P roce ed i ng n ow to the mathe
es .

m a t i ca l th eory we shal l also in o ne sen se dev iate con siderably from

, ,

56
 G EOM ET R I C EQUA TI ON S O F ELECT ROMAG N ETI C F I ELDS . 57

the origi nal m ethod fol lo wed by th e d iscoverer A t the begi n .

n i ng th e sol u tion f th e problem Of spheres was certai n ly t he m ost

o

natu ral way o f subm itti ng the vague anti ci pation s to a rigorou s
test for th i s was th e ti m e wh en t he th eory of the actio n at a di s
,

tan ce was predom i nant a nd the discovery of the si mplest an d most

,

stri king in stances Of appa r en t act ion s at a distance was the m ost
fascinating resu l t fo r a m an Opposing t his t heo ry to stri ve for .

B u t ti m e h as changed Th e doctri n e Of action at a d istan ce

.

h as been gi ven u p an d it i s the a i m o f no natu ral p h ilosoph er t o

,

oppose i t Th e ti me o f elds Of force h as come an d it i s o u r ai m

.
,

now t o w iden an d deepe n ou r k nowledge Of these eld s Th e .

hyd rod yn am ic phenom en a d iscovered by C A BJ ER K N ES were . .

el d phenomena an d thei r analogy to elec t rica l phen omena are

,

even still more strik ing accord ing to o u r n ew views B u t th e .

change O f V i ew also suggested a qu ite n ew method Of developing

the resul ts w ith u n expected facil ity and gen eral i ty O f cou rse i f
,
.
,

there ex ists a clo se an alogy between hyd rodyn am i c and elect ro m ag

n etic eld s th is an alogy m u st be contai ned i mplicitly i n th e fu nda
,

mental equation s o f th e two kinds Of elds n amely i n the hyd ro ,

dyn am ic equation s Of motio n on the on e hand and i n M AX W ELL S ,

equation s of the electromagn etic eld on the other A n d th is is .

exactly wh at I am going t o show yo u n amely th at th e an alogy , ,

may be devel oped d i rectly fro m these two sets Of equ ation s .

The method th us i nd icated is i ndeed perfectly pl ai n an d easy

-

, , .

There i s no d iffi cu lty i n nd ing the properties of hyd rodynam ic

elds an d th e on ly real difcu lty wi th wh ich we meet ari ses fro m
,

the i m perfection o f o u r knowledge of electromagnetic elds To .

lay th e safest possibl e fou ndation for o u r research we h ave rst to

analy ze careful ly o u r knowledge Of these elds Th is wi ll be the
i
.

Obj ect o f t he lec t u res O f to day an d to morrow

- -
.

3 M a x w ell s Theo r y O u r k nowledge Of electromagn etic elds

. .

i s con tain ed i n what i s general ly cal led M A X W ELL S th eory Th is

.

th eo ry does not tel l u s wh at electromagnetic elds are i n their true

n atu re It is a fo r m a l theory beari ng u pon t w o aspects Of the
.
,

prope rties o f the elds Wh at are general ly cal led M AX W ELL S

.

8
58 F I ELDS OF F O RCE .

eq uation s gi ve a very ful l descri ption Of th e variation from ti me

to ti m e Of th e geom etric con gu ration o f electromagn etic elds .

To th is geom etric theory i s on ly feebly l i n ked th e m uch less devel

oped th eory o f th e dynam ical properties Of these elds .

M A X W ELL S th eory ha s a cen tral core gen eral ly called the

,

equation s f r th e free eth er relati ng to wh ich there is good

o
,

agreem en t a mong d i ffe r en t writers B u t th is agreem en t ceases .

wh en we pass to th e equati on s fo r pon derable bod ies and fo r m o v

i ng m ed ia a nd as w il l be seen the ful l d iscussion O f th e analogy
, , ,

wi l l depen d u pon ce rtai n deta i ls Of the th eory fo r th i s general

case Proceedi ng to ou tl i n e th e th eory I shal l fol lo w pri ncipal ly
.
,

O L I V ER H EA V I S I DE w ho m I h ave fo u n d to be m y safest gu id e
,
*

i n th is depa rtm en t Of ph ysics for several reason s O f wh ich I w il l ,

em ph asi e two ; that h e uses a perfectly rationa l system Of u n its

z ,

an d that h e takes in to con sideration m ore ful ly than oth er writers

the i m pressed forces w h ich play a great part from a certai n poi nt
, ,

Of v iew even th e g reatest part i n the theory t o be developed B u t ,

.

i n stead o f H E A V I S I D E s I shal l use my own notation ch osen partly

,

t o econ om i e lette rs partly that analogies an d con trasts i n t he

z ,

th i ngs shal l be reected i n anal ogies an d con trasts i n the

n otation .

I n th us outl i n in g M AX W ELL S theory I wi sh t o empha ize that

s

I do no t i n trod uce anyth i n g n ew W hat I i n trod uce I have fou n d .

i n other authors w ho were perfectly u n i nu eneed by th e search

,

for th e hyd rod yn am ic anal ogy The guara ntee for an u npreju .

d iced test o f th is an alogy is therefore so far as I ca n see perfect , , , .

4 I n d ct i i ty
. u To a m aterial med i u m we attrib ute two c o n
c .

s t a n t s de n i n g i ts speci c properties i n relati on to th e two k i nds

,

of elds These t w o con stan t s de n e so to speak th e read in ess

.
, ,

Of th e m ed i u m t o l et el ectric o r m agnetic l i nes Of i nd uction pass ,

a n d may be cal l ed th e electric i n d ucti vity an d the magn eti c i n ,

a
,

d uct i v i t y B ,
.

\Ve do n o t k now th e exact n ature Of th e properti es den ed by

th ese consta nts Th ev can therefore n ot be determ in ed i n a bso
.
, ,

*
Oli r H ve i i d E l tr m g ti Th ry V l I L d 1 89 3
ea v s e, ec o a ne c eo . o . . on o n, .
 G EOM E T R I C EQUA TI ONS O F ELECT ROD YN A M I C F I ELDS .

l ute measure What we can measu re are only th eir ratios for
.

any two m ed ia
3
19 0

If and 6 be th e con stan ts Of the free ether these ratios are

a
o 0 ,

called the speci c i nd ucti ve capacities el ectric an d m agn etic ,

resp ecti vely of th e medi u m wh ich has th e i n d ucti vities

,
a

an d B .

W hen we con sider th u s th e properties Of an y m ed i u m i n rel a

t io n to the elds as de ned by on e el ectric an d by on e m agnetic con
stan t on ly we l im i t ou rsel ves t o th e con sideration of strictly iso
,

tropic su bstances wh ich remai n isotro pic even wh en strai n ed as

, ,

i s th e case for i nstance with l iqu ids B u t any degree o f hetero

, ,
.

g en ei ty may be al lowed Th ese su pposition s gi ve to th e elds

.

exactly th e general ity wan ted for o u r pu rpose .

.5 E lectr i c a n d Jll a g n ti c Vecto rs W e wil l con sider i n th i s

e

l ectu re th e geom etric descri ption o f electromagn etic el ds T0 gi ve .

th i s description a series o f special el ectric an d special magnetic vec

,

tors has been in trod uce d .

We bel ieve that these vectors represen t real physical state s ex ist
'

i n g i n or real physical processes going on i n the m ed iu m w hlch

,

i s the seat Of th e eld B ut the nature Of these sta tes o r processes

.

i s perfectly u n kn own t o u s I Vha t stil l gi ves them relati vely

.
,

s pea k in g a di ti nct physical mean i ng is as we sh al l show more

,
s ,

com pletely in the nex t lectu re that certa in ex pression s form ed by

,

the u se o f th ese vecto rs rep resen t qua ntities such as en ergy force , , ,

acti vity etc i n the com m on dynam i cal sen se Of these words
,
.
,
.

Th ese quan tities can be measu red i n absol ute measure B u t th eir .

expression s as fu nction s Of the electric o r magneti c vectors con tai n

al ways two quan tities O f u nk n ow n physical nature t en once .

th e d i scovery Of a n ew law of n atu re al lows us to write an oth er

i n depen dent equ ation con tain in g the sam e u n k no wn qu an tities we ,

shall be able to dene perfectly th e n atu re o f the electric and m ag

n etic vectors and subm i t th em to abso l ute measu rem ents i n th e real
,

sense o f th is expressi on Provisional ly we can on ly do exactly

.
,
 F I ELDS O F FO RCE .

th e sa m e as does the mathematician i n problem s wh ere h e h as m o re

u n k nown s than equation s v i con ten t ou rsel ves w ith relati ve
,
z , .

determ i nation s con sideri ng provi sional ly o n e o r oth er o f th e u n

,

k no wn quan tities as if i t were kn o wn B u t we retai n th e sym bols .

for th e u n k nown q uan tities i n al l form u lae beari ng u pon th e pu re

th eory Of electromagnetic ph en omen a for th is wil l be the best ,

preparation for the nal sol u tio n of th e problem .

Th is i m perfect k nowledge is of cou rse al so th e reason wh y , ,

o u r theory o f el ectromagnetic elds is spl it i nto t w o di fferent ,

loosely con nected parts ; rst the geo metric th eo ry of th e elds

, , ,

where th e relation O f th e vectors to ti me a nd s pace is con sidered

i ndependen tly Of every q uestion Of th e physical sen se of th e
vectors ; and second th e dyna m ical theory of th e elds wh ere
, ,

th e question of the n atu re O f the vec tors is taken u p bu t on ly ,

i m perfectly sol ved .

.6 C las ica t i on of the Vec to r s

s Th e vectors i n trod uced to -

descri be the elds may be d i vided i nto classes d i fferi ng from each
oth er i n th eir m athematical properti es o r i n the physical facts to ,

wh ich th ey relate .

O n th e o n e hand the electric as wel l as th e magnetic vec tors

,

are d i vided i n two clas es designated general ly as fo r ces an d x es

s ,
u .

A s th e forces can n ot be pro ved to have anyth in g t o do with forces

i n the classical dyna m ical sense o f th e word a m ore n eu tral n a m e ,

w ill be prefe rabl e I wi ll th erefore u se th e words eld i n tensi t i es

.

and u x e B etween eld i n ten sities a nd u xes there i s th is r e

s.

lation : by t he m ul ti pl ication Of a eld i nten sity by th e i n d uc

ti v i ty of t he m ed iu m a correspon di ng u x i s form ed .

F ield i n ten sities a nd u xes are vec to rs Of d i fferent physical

n atu re They ca n n ot therefore be ad ded together Th is i s a n
. .

i m portan t remark F or acc ord i ng to previo us i m perfect views O f

p

.
,

the electromagnetic proble m th is d istin ction was n ot m a de an d, ,

m uch con fusion was ca used by the l u mpi ng together Of h etero

g en eo u s qu an titi es B ut i n the case Of electric ity as wel l as i n
.
,

magn etism a ny two eld i ntensi ties m ay be added together l i ke

, ,

w ise any two u xes .

 G EO M ET R I C EQUA TI ONS O F ELEC T ROM AGNE TI C F I ELD . 61

Taking now an other poi n t O f v iew we ca n d i vi de th e eld in

,
'

ten sities i nto i n d uc ed and i mp r essed or energ eti c ld i ntens i ti es an d

,
e ,

the u xes l ikew ise i nto i n d u ced an d i mp r essed o r en erg eti c flames
,
.

The th eory of i nd uced u xes an d eld i n t en si t i es we h ave to som e

ex ten t real ly mastered M AX W E LL S eq uation s are the laws pri n ci
.

pal ly obeyed by these vectors B u t i n order to com plete the sys

.

tem formal ly th e im pressed o r energetic u xes a n d eld i n ten sities

,

are i n trod uced Th ey repres en t certai n states or processes u nder

.
, ,

certai n ci rcu m stances ex isting i n o r going o n i n th e m atter an d

, , ,

wh ich are u ltim ately the origi n Of every electric or magneti c phe
n o m eno n. Th e i ntri n sic po lari ation i n th e perm anen t magnet
z
,

o r i n the pyroelectric crystal is th erefore represen ted b v vectors

,

Of th is class They a r e i ntrod uced fu rther as au xi l iary vectors

.

fo r th e represen tation Of th e c reation Of electric en e r gy by con tact

electrici ty i n t he th erm opi l e or i n th e voltaic battery A s the
, ,
.

ex iste nce or th e suppl y o f electric o r magn etic en ergy i s related

u l ti mately to states or p rocesses represented by th ese vectors I ,

h ave term ed the m energetic vec tors a n a m e gi ven origin al ly by C

,
.

A B J ER K N ES t o the correspon di ng hyd rodynam ic vectors

. .

F rom th e fun da men ta l vec to rs th u s den ed we may form new

o nes by the addi tion Of vectors Of th e sam e k i nd Th u s th e a d .

d ition o f th e i ndu ced a nd the en ergetic eld i nten si ties gi ves th e

to ta l o r a c tu a l eld i n t ensi ties an d the addition Of the i nd u ced an d
,

th e energetic u x gi ves the tota l o r a ct l u xes We have th us ua .

i n trod uced si x el ectric a nd si x magnetic vectors B ut i n each .

g rO tt p O f si x vec to rs o nlv two are real ly i n dependen t O f each other ,

a nd th us on ly two a re real ly n eeded for the fu l l desc ri ption of th e

el ectri c or the m agnetic eld Wh ich pai r O f vectors i t wi l l b e
.

con ven ien t to choose as i ndepen den t w i ll depen d po n th e nat u r e u

Of th e p roblem to be treated B ut a cer t ai n pai r Of vecto r s seem s

.

i n the majori ty Of cas es t o tu rn ou t as th e most con ven ient ; th is

i s th e a ctua l ux: an d th e i nd uc ed ld i ntens i ty These we there
e .

fore distingu ish beyo nd th e others c a l l ing th em S i m ply the u x

, ,

a nd the eld i ntensity i n every c a s e when th ei r qual i ties as actual

,

u x and i nd uce d eld i n ten si ty n eed n o t be specially emphasi ed z .

 F I E L DS OF FO RCE .

7 . N o ta t i o n is very con ven ien t for o u r pu rpose t o i n tro

.
It
d uce such n otation as to mak e i t at once ev iden t to w h ich class or
grou p the vector bel ongs To atta i n th is I denote u xes w i th capi
.

tals and eld i nten si ties wi th the correspond i ng smal l let t ers O n .

t he other hand actual i nd uced an d en ergetic vectors are d es ig

, , ,

mated by the su bscri pts a i b ut wi th th e exception th at the l etters

, ,
e
,

designati ng th u x an d the eld i n te n sity accord i ng to th e d e ni

e
,

tion s above are d isti ngu ish ed by the om ission o f subscri pts
,
.

F i n ally fo r th e el ectric vectors I u se the rst a nd for th e magn etic

, ,

vecto rs th e sec on d letter of th e L ati n al ph abet correspond i ng to ,

th e rst an d seco nd l etter o f th e G reek al ph abet i n trod uced above

t o represen t the i nd ucti vi ti es .

Th e system of n ota tion is con tai ned i n the fol lowi ng schem e

E lec t r i c . M a g net i c .

F lu x . F i eld t
i n t en si y . F l u x l Fi eld
. i n t ens i t y .

At c ua l

I nd u ced

E n erg e ti c

El ec t r
i c i n d uc i v i y t t a . t t t
M ag n e i c i nd u c i v i y .

Bet w een each group of six vecto rs th ere are accord ing to what ,

i s stated abo ve fou r relation s n amely

, ,

A = aa

By di fferen t el i m i n ations we ca n o f cou rse gi ve d i fferen t form s

to these eq uation s o f con nec t ion \Vhen we agree t o u se the u x .

a n d the eld i n ten s i t y as the fu ndamental vecto r s we n eed th e ,

equation s o f con n ection especially i f ve ctors of the en ergetic grou p

,

have to be in trod uced A s we prefer gen eral ly i n such ca ses

.
 GEOMET R I C EQUA TI ONS OF E LECT ROMAGN ETI C F I ELD S . 63

to i n trod uce th e energetic u x we shal l usually h ave to em plo y ,

th e fol lowing form of the equ ation s o f con n ection ,

(6) A = aa + A e,

I a m aware of course that the m ul ti pl ication o f system s o f

, ,

n otation al ready t oo n u merou s m ay be objection abl e B u t it wi l l

, , .

serve for my excu se I hope that suggesti ve n otation s are perh aps
, ,

n owhere of greater i m portan ce than i n researches of a com parati ve

n atu re T he q uestion of a system of n ota tion at th e sam e ti m e
.
,

si mple a n d suggesti ve w ith referen ce to th e wh ole o f theoretical

,

physics w ill I th in k n ecessarily ari se sooner o r later

, , ,
.

8 Co nd u d i v i ty Ti m e of R ela x a ti o n
.
,
Besides th ei r electric

a n d magnetic in d ucti vities som e or most m edia ha ve sti l l an i a,

t r i n s ic proper ty thei r electric con ducti v ity

,
The con sta n t best .

s u ited to rep r esen t th is property i n the fu ndamental equation s is

th e ti me o f relaxation i n trod uced rst by E CO HN I f an elec
,
. .

tric eld i n a co n d ucti ng med i u m be l eft to itsel f its electric ,

energy w il l be trans f rmed i nto heat an d the elec tric el d wi l l

o ,

d isap pear Th i s may happen so that th e congu rati on o f t he el d

.

i s le ft u nal tered d u ri ng th is process o f relaxatio n The ti m e i n .

w h ich the electric vec to r d uri n g th i s process d im i n ishes t o the

, ,

fractio n l /e of its i n itial val ue (c bei ng th e base of the n atu ra l

logar ith m s) is the relaxatio n tim e T Thi s is a real i n tr insic co n .

sta n t o f the m ed iu m measu rable moreover i n absol ute m easu re

, ,

and therefore i n th eo retical research es to be preferred t o th e co n

d uc t i v i t y 7 to wh ich i t is related by the equati on
,

(a )
A co rrespond in g magnetic con ductivity and ti me o f relaxation
i s no t k n ow n It is con ven ien t howeve r i n order to obtain a
.
, ,

pe rfect sym metry o f the form u l ae to i ntrod uce sym bo l s even for ,

these cti tious qua n tities say x fo r magn etic con ducti vity an d T
,

for th e co rrespo n di ng ti m e o f relaxatio n

B
[C
 F I ELD S O F FO RCE .

9 . I nteg r a l F o m r o
f i nd uced
the F un d a m en ta l L a ws Using
eld i nten sity actual a n d en erget ic u x we h ave al w a v s to r e
, , ,

m em ber rst the equation s o f con nection

A = aa + A e,

()
a
B _
Bb + B
e
.

A set o f cross con n ection s between electric u x an d magn etic

el d i n ten sity an d v i ce v ersa between m agnetic u x an d electric
, ,

el d i nten sity is con tain ed i n th e t w o ci rcu ital laws t o u se
, ,

H E A V ISI D E S ex pression
To n d th e mathematical ex pression s
.

o f these laws we con sider a su rface bordered by a closed cu rve In .

case th e m ed i u m i s mo ving the su rface shou ld al so m ove follow , ,

i ng exactly th e material particles w ith w h ich it coi ncid es at the

begi n n ing To coord i n ate th e posi ti ve side o f the su rface w ith
.

th e positive di rection o f ci rculation on th e borderi ng curve we

u til ize the positi ve screw ru le D en oti ng by r th e radi us vector
-
.

from a xed o rigi n to a po in t o f th e clo ed cu rve by J r the vector s ,

l i n e elem en t o f th e cu rve b y d s the vector su rface elem en t o f the

,
-

su rface th e t w o ci rcu ital l aws may be written

,

f A

3t
1
-

cls +
f1 -

, ; B ds =
-

The su m o f the su rface i ntegral s of the rst eq uation is generally

cal led th e el ect r i c cu rren t through th e su rface the rst represen t ,

i n g the d isplacem ent cu rrent i n th e widest sen se o f th is w ord a n d

-

th e secon d the co n d uction cu rren t I n th e same way th e su rface .

i n teg rals o f the seco nd equat ion represe n t th e magnetic cu rren t ,

t he secon d term wh ich represents t he m a gnetic co nd uction cu r

,
-

ren t bei ng m erely ctitiou s Util i zing th ese expression s th e core

,
.
,

of o u r kn owledge of th e prope rties o f el ectro magnetic elds i n

relati on t o ti m e an d space m ay be ex pressed i n the fol lowi ng

p roposition s .

The el ct r i c c u r r en t th r o ug h a m o v i ng ma ter i a l s u rfa c e q a ls the

e e u
 G EO ME T R I C EQ UA TI ONS OF ELECT RO MAGN ETI C F I ELDS . 65

p os iti ve li n e i n teg r a l of the m a g n eti c ld i

e n ten s i t
y r ou nd the b or d er
o
f the sw f a c e .

The m ag n eti c cu r e nt throug h r a ovi ng m a ter ia l su rfa ce equa ls

m
the neg a ti v e li ne i n teg r a l of the elec tr i c eld i n ten s i t
y rou n d the
bo r d er f
o the f
s u r ac e .

To these equation s con tai n i ng the two fu nda men ta l laws we

, ,

have t o add t w o equ ation s contai n in g th e de n itio n Of t w o i m

po rta nt a u x i l iary quan ti ties the electric an d t he magn etic m ass o r
, ,

equ i valen tly th e electric an d the magn etic den si ty Cal l ing E th e
electric an d J
.
,

th e magn etic den si ty then th e electric or the mag ,

n etic m ass con ta i n ed wi th i n a closed su r f ace i s th e vol u m e i n tegral

respecti vely Of E o r JV I with i n th e su r t ace These masses are d e .

n ed as fu nction s Of th e uxes by the equations

(17 bein g the elemen t of volu me Th us the mass w i th i n a su rface .

i s de ned by th e to tal u x th rough th e su rface .

I t m ust be em phasize d that th ese equation s are from o u r poin t

,

Of view on ly equation s Of den ition not laws of n atu re Th is

, ,
.

assertion is no t con trad icted by th e h istorical fact that the notion

o f mas ses was rst i n trod uced and later th e vectors de ned by
,

u se Of th e m asses wh i l e we n ow con sider the vectors as th e

,

fu nda men tal qu anti ties an d de n e the masses by th e vectors I t

,
.

seem s to be a n em pirical fact however that n o magn etic mass ex , ,

i s t s an d th i s assert ion th en con tai n s a l aw Of n atu re to wh ich the

,

magn etic u x is subject an d wh ich l i m its th e general ity O f th e

,

magn etic eld B u t fo r the sake o f analytical gen eral ity an d th e

.

advan ta ges Of a co m plete sym metry i t wi l l be con ven i ent to retai n

th e sy m bo l I
,

for m agn etic den sity i n o ur form u l ae .

To these fun dam en tal equation s a system of supplemen ta ry con

d i t io ns i s u sual ly to be added Th us it i s gen eral ly con sidered
.
,

th at the val ues o f each ind uctiv ity a an d an d th e relaxation , ,

ti m e T are know n at al l poi nts Of th e eld The sa m e sup posi tion .

9
66 F I ELDS O F F O RC E .

i s gen eral ly made for th e energetic u xes an d for th e el ectric ,

an d magnetic densities I n th e case O f con d uctors a k n owl ed ge Of

.

th e tota l electric m as s o nly for each con d uctor is wan ted Th is .

sort Of speci al k n owledge is wanted on ly for material bod ies an d ,

n ot fo r the free ether F o r it is gen eral ly ad m itted that h ere the

.

i nd ucti vi ties ha ve con stan t val ues a nd

3 th at th e relaxation
,
1
(
0, 0,

ti me is i n n i te l / T = O an d that en ergeti c vectors and el ectric o r

, ,

m agn etic den siti es do n ot ex ist A B 0 E = llI = O These , , . , ,

.

cond i tion s very m u ch sim pl i fy th e problem s .

1 0 D iffer t i a l F o rm of the F u nd a m enta l E qu a ti on s

. en F rom

th e i ntegral forms a bo ve we ca n by a wel l k n own m ath ematical

,

process pas s t o th e d i fferen tial form O f th e sam e equation s an d

, ,

th us a rri ve at the form Of the syste m o f el ectromagn etic equation s

general ly m ost con ven ien t f r practical u se o .

Th e equation s Of con nection O f cou rse retai n th ei r form

A = aa + Ac ,
()
a
B _
Bb + B

The equations ex pressi ng th e two circu ital laws may be written

i n the fol low i ng si m pl e forms ,

C cu r l b ,
6
( ) 1
k cu r l a ,

wh ere th e au x il iary qua n ti ties c an d k are the el ectric an d

magn et ic cu rren t den sities respecti vely the ful l expression s ,

wh i ch are
1
c rl (A u x V) (d i v A)V T
A ,

l
cu rl (B x V) (d iv B)V 7 7,
1
B,

V bei ng the velocity O f the m ovi ng m ed i u m an d a/Ot t he loca l ti m e ,

d i eren t i a t o r wh ich i related to the i n di i d a l tim e d ifferen tiator

'

s v u
,

used above by th e E ulerian relatio n

(l 0
Br ea
s
t ?
 G EOME T R I C EQUA TI O NS OF ELECT ROM AGNE TI C F I ELDS . 67

The seco nd equation contai n s two term s wh ich represen t m erely

ctitiou s quan ti ties na mely (d i v B ) V wh ich represents the mag
, , ,

n etic con vection curren t and l / T B wh ich represen ts the mag

-

,
'

n etic con d uction cu rrent .

The equation s Of de n ition o f the electric a nd mag netic densiti es

n ally take th e form
(0 )

To these fu n damental rel ations we add th e equation s wh ich gi ve

the spec ial featu res Of th e free ether n am ely , ,

a =a E : O,

1
, JV = O,
T

wh ich are satised i n all space ou t ide th e bo d ies s .

1 1 Stat i o na r y Sta te
. The pri nci pal featu re of el ectrom agneti c
.

elds as expressed by the equations above is th is every vari a

, ,

t ion i n ti m e o f a n el ectric eld is con n ected w ith th e ex istence o f

a magn etic eld o f a certai n geometric q ual ity ; a nd v i ce v er sa .

every va r iation i n ti me Of a magnetic eld i s con nected w ith th e

existence Of an el ectric el d Of a certa i n geo metric qual i ty .

Th i s cl ose cross con n ection Of electric an d magnetic ph enomen a

i s red uced to a feeble l i n k i n the case Of stationary ph enom ena ,

a nd d isapp ears com pletely when we pass to static phenom en a .

TO co nsider sta tionary elds that is elds wh ich d o n ot vary i n

, ,

ti me let the m ed iu m be at rest V 0 an d let th e vecto rs A a nd

, , ,

B have val u es wh ich are at every po i n t o f space i n depen den t Of

th e ti me The expressions (1 0 6 ) fo r the two cu rren t den si ties
.
, 2

redu ce t o
68 F I ELDS O F FORCE .

Th e rst Of these equations is th e m ost gen eral expression for

O HM S law for th e con d uction cu rren t wh ich i s th u s th e on ly
'

cu rren t ex isti ng u nder stationary cond i tion s The second equa .

tion gi ves th e correspon din g law for the cti tious m agnetic c u r
ren t Th e cu rren ts are t he q an tities wh ich Con nect th e elec
. u

tric elds with th e magnetic elds an d v i ce v er sa B u t u tili i ng

,
. z

th e i n vari abil i ty Of th e cu rren t we can n ow si m ply con si der t he

,

d istribu tion o f th e cu rren ts i n th e conducti ng bod ies as given ,

a n d th u s treat the two sta ti onary elds sepa ra t ely w ith out any ,

reference to each oth er .

W ri ti ng th e equation s o f the two station ary elds we have ,

A = aa + A B = Bb + B

cu rl a = k, cu rlb = c,

div A = E ,
d i v B = fl] ,

where the c u rren t den sities c an d k are n ow amon g t he qu an ti

ties general ly co n idered as gi ven To th ese fu ndam en tal eq ua
s .

tion s the con di tion s fo r th e free ether m ust be added The .

con d iti on th at th e free eth er has no con ducti vi ty i m pl ies n o w

that n o cu rren t whatever ex i sts i n i t ; th ese con d ition s ca n be
w ritten

for the two elds respecti vely .

E ach Of th e t w o system s Of equation s contai n s o ne ctitiou s

quan tity Th e equation s for t he elec tric el d contai n th e sta
.

t i o n a r y magnetic cu rren t densi ty k a nd the equation s fo r t he el ec

,

tric eld con ta i n th e den sity Of m agn etism JII both Of wh ich are ,

ctitiou s .

1 2 Sta t i c Sta t e
. .
I f i n th e equation s for stationary eld s we
, ,

su ppose the cu rrent den si ty t o be every wh ere n i l we get the ,

 G EO M ET R I C EQUA TI ONS OF ELEC T RO M AG NE TI C F I ELDS
-

. 69

equation s fo r static elds ,

B = Bb +
curl a = O ,
cu r l b = 0,

d IV A = E ,
d IV B = AL

w ith th e con d ition s for th e free ether ,

1
( :

These sta tic elds exi st i ndepen den tly Of each oth er the l i n ks ,

wh ich i n th e gen eral case con n ect the o ne k in d Of el d to th e

, ,

oth er n amely the cu rrents bein g n i l

, , , .

1 3 The E nerg y I n teg r a l

. A research relatin g to th e com
.

plet eness Of th e descri ptio n wh ich t he precedi ng eq ation s gi ve of u

th e geometry Of the elds wil l be of fundam enta l i m portan ce i n

the search for th e analogy Of these elds to oth er elds A s an .

i n trod uction to thi s research we wil l exam ine from an an alytical

,

poi n t Of vie w a n i n tegral th e physica l sign i cance Of wh ich wil l

,

occu py us i n th e n ex t lec tu re na mely th e i ntegral expressi ng th e

, ,

electric o r the m ag netic en ergy Of the eld .

Th e ex pression for the electric energy ca n always be written

()
a cp
if A a dr ,
-

where th e i n t egration is exte nded t o al l space N ow i n the case .

o f perfec t isotropy the actual eld i n ten sity is related to the u x

si m ply by the relation

6
() A aa
a

and therefore we ha ve the equ i val en t express ions

, ,
fo r the en ergy

IW I
70 F I ELD S OF FORCE .

No w let us w rite th e vector factor -

A ,
Of th e scalar prod u ct ,
in the
form
a v t
c cu rl G,

ex pressi ng i t th s by a s calar potential d) an d a vec t or poten tia l

u

G as i s possible w ith any vector

, The i ntegra l may then be .

written
n v d
I l
.

i a c r l Cd r
d
-
u
'
r.

To a void c i rc u m lo o u t i o n we sh all su ppose th at there ex ists i n

th e eld n o real d iscon ti n u ity every appa ren t su r face of d isco n
,

t i n u i ty bei ng i n real ity a n ex trem ely th i n heet i n wh ic h th e s ,

scalars o r the vectors O f the el d change thei r val u es at an exceed

i ng ly rapid rate b ut al ways con ti n uou sly
,
F u rther we su ppose .
,

th at the el d d i sappea rs at i n n ity B oth i n tegral s ca n be t ran s .

formed th e n accord ing t o wel l k nown form u l ae gi v i ng for the en ,

erg y th e n ew ex pressi o n

d
() (I)
1.f 4 d iv A d
) T
if s
cu r l a d
d r
'
.

N ow d i v Ais th e density Of true electrication wh ich exi sts ,

on ly i n material bod i es I t wil l be su f c ien t therefore to apply

.
, ,

th e rst i n tegra l to material bod ies on ly a nd n ot t o the su rrou nd ,

i ng ether If we spl it th e actual eld i nten sity a i n to its i nd uced

.
,'

a nd energetic parts we get ,

cu rl a
c u rl a cu rl 3;

H ere , accord ing to th e fun dam en ta l eq uation s cu rl a r epre ,

sen ts th e magn etic cu rren t k By an alogy cu rl a ca n al so he

.
, ,

said to represen t a magnetic cu rren t k By th is cu rren t th e i n g

.

t r i ns i c pola rizatio n say i n a tu rmal in e crystal ca n be represented

,
-

, ,

i n the sam e way as th e i n trin sic m agneti zation can be rep r esen ted ,

accord ing to A M PERE S theory b y a d istributio n of el ectric c u r

,

ren ts .

N o w i n the case o f a station ary eld th e cu rren t c url a ca n

on ly ex ist i n m aterial bodies n ot i n the su rrou nd i ng ether A nd
,
.

th e c u rren t c url a o r the vector a = 1 / A fro m wh ich it i s

c
a

 G EOM E T R I C EQUA TI ONS OF ELECT ROMAGN E TI C F I ELDS . 71

deri ved n ever ex ists outside material bodi es (1 0 d ) Th erefore

, ,
.
,

i n th e case Of a stationary eld it wil l be su f c ien t to apply the

second i n tegral i n (d ) to material bod ies on ly .

F rom the sym metry Of th e t w o sets o f equ ations i t is seen at

once that the i ntegra l e xpressi ng t he energy o f th e magnetic eld ,

na m ely ,

W sf
b d rB ~

a
'

ca n be t ran sformed to a form correspon d in g to (d ) n a mely ,

l i f ?d i v Bd sf H eu r l b d r,
f '
r
- -

i n vol vi ng th u s the true den si ty O f magn eti sm di v B an d th e , ,

electric cu rren t cu rl B wh ich is m ad e u p Of th e tru e electric cur

, ,

ren t cur l b an d the c t itiou s curren t cu rl b by wh ich accord

, , , e, ,

ing t o A M PERE S th eory the in tri n sic m agneti ation can be repre
'

,
z

sen ted N o w u nder stationary con d ition s th e true current cu r l

.
,

a on ly ex ists i n ma terial bod ies n ot i n the ether a n d th e quan titi es

, , ,

d i v B an d c url b n ever ex ist except i n m aterial bod ies

,l
.

We ca n therefore assert that th e energy o f th e stationary eld ,

wheth er it be electric or m agn etic can be ex pres ed by i n tegrals ,

s

wh ich apply to m a t erial bod ies on ly n ot t o th e su rrou n ding ether ,

.

15 . Con d iti ons f o r the Va ni s hi ng of the Sta t i o na r y F i eld L et .

u s con sider n o w the station ary electric el d i n th e case where

there ex ists no tru e electri cation d i v A = 0 n o en ergetic eld , ,

i nte n si ty a O an d n o tru e cu rren t cu rl a 0 W e shal l th en

, t, , , .

ha ve
d iv A 0 cu r l a 0 , c ,

a nd u nder the se ci rcu mstan ces the en ergy Of the eld disappears
co m pletely a is see n from th e ex pression (1 3 d ) B u t accord
,
s
,
.

i ng to th e ex pression (1 3 c ) for th e sam e en ergy wh ich i s th e

, ,

su m o f only posi ti ve el emen ts the u x A m u st d isappear i n every

,

par t Of the eld B t when both the u x A an d t he en ergetic

. u

el d i nten si ty d isappear i t i s see n fro m th e eq uation s of con nec

,

tion that th e i nd u ced eld in ten si ty w i l l al so d isappear and there ,

72 F I ELDS O F FO RCE .

w il l ex i st n o electr ic el d at all I n th e case Of th e magnet ic

.

eld perfectly paral lel concl usion s ca n be drawn Th u s .

If ther e ex i sts n o t r u e electr i ca t i on n o en erg eti c u x a n d n o , ,

ma g net i c c u r r ent ther e w ill ex i st n o s ta t i on a r y electr i c el d

,
.

If the r e ex i sts n o t r u e m a g n et i s m n o en erg eti c flu x a n d n o elec

, ,

t i c c u r r en t ther e w i ll a s t n o s ta ti o na r y m ag n eti c eld

'

r c n .
,

1 6 Un i qu e D et er m i n a ten es s of the Sta t i on a r y F i eld

. F rom th i s

resu lt a n ew on e ca n be d rawn at once L et u s con sider t w o .

elds represen ted by the vectors A a a n d A a both subj ect to

, , ,
'

the condition of havi ng th e same d istr ibu tion O f th e en ergetic

u x A o f th e m agnetic cu rre n t k an d of th e true electrication
6, ,

E . The eq uation s of the two elds wi ll then be

cu rl a k, cu rl a '

k,

A = E di v A =E
'

l ,
.

L etu s con sider n ex t th e eld represen ted by the d i fferen ce of th e

vectors of t he t w o elds i e the fi eld ,
. .
,

As is seen at once th is eld w i ll

,
be subject to th e con d ition s
A = aa
,

I t w ill th u s be a eld h av in g n o energetic ux n o m agn etic cu r ,

ren t an d n o true el ectri ca tion an d i t w i ll d isappear com pletely

, ,

accord ing to the resul t above Th u s t h e elds A a an d A a.

, ,
'

,
'

ca n not d i ffer fro m each other .

Perfectly paral lel d evelopm en ts ca n be gi ven for th e magn eti c

eld an d we arri ve th us at th e fol low in g paral lel resu l ts
,
 G EOM ET R I C EQUA TIO NS O F ELEC TR O M AGN E TI C F I ELDS . 73

A ccord in g t o o ur syste m Of equation s th e sta ti ona r y electri c eld

,

i s u ni qu ely d et er mi n ed by the d i stri bu t i on of tru e elec tr ifica ti on of ,

er g eti c electr i c
u x a nd of mag n et i c cu rr en t ; an d the sta ti on a r y
,

m a g neti c fi eld i s u n i qu ely d eter m i n ed by the d is tr ibu ti on of t r u e

m a g n et ism of en erg eti c m a g n et i c u te a n d of elec tr i c cu rr en t
, , .

Th ese theorem s sh o w the amou n t o f kn owl ed ge o f th e geom etry

o f the stationary elds wh ich is laid dow n i n th e equation s 1 1
( ,

They con tai n i n th e most con den sed form possibl e o u r whol e kn owl
edge O f th i s geom etry A nd the i m portance of th ese th eorem s
.

for ou r p u r po se is per fectly cl ear : if we succeed later i n represen t

i ng th e hyd rodyn a m ic eld by a si m ilar system Of equation s there ,

wi ll u nder si m ilar con di ti on s be n o chance fo r d i fference i n th e

, ,

geo metric properties Of the hydrodyn am ic eld and the stationary

,

electric o r m agn etic eld .

B u t before we proceed to the i n vestigatio n of the hydrodyn am ic

eld we have t o con sider th e dyn am i c pro perties of the el ectric a n d
the magnetic eld .
TH E DYN A M I C PROPE RTI E S OF E L E CTRO M A G
N E TI C F I E LD S A CCOR D I N G TO
M A ! W E LL S T H E OR Y
.

1 . E l ct r i c
e d ll g t i E
an I gy aThe M A X W ELL equation s
ne c n er

gi ve as I have em phasi ed on ly a geom etric th eory beari ng u pon

,
z , ,

th e distrib ution i n space of a series o f vectors wh ose physica l

m ea n i ng is perfectly n k nown to us To gi ve th is theory a phys
u .

ical con ten t a n add ition al knowledge i s wanted an d th i s i s afforded ,

by ou r experien ce rel a ti ng to the tran sformation s o f en ergy i n th e

electromagn etic eld .

The safe t w ay i n o u r presen t state o f k n owledge Of establ ish

s , ,

i ng th is dy na m ica l th eory Of th e electromagnetic eld seem s t o ,

be th is ; start wi th th e expres ion w h ich is bel ieved t o represent

s

th e energy of th e electric an d O f th e magnetic eld and bri ng ,

i n to appl ication the u n i versal pri nci ple Of the conservation Of

en ergy .

Th e gen e ra l feat u re Of t he m eth od t o be u sed is th us perfectly

clear ; neve rth eless t he de t ails w il l be Open t o d iscus ion F i rst
,
s .

Of al l there i no perfect accordan ce bet ween th e d ifferen t writers

,
s .

w ith regard to th e t r ue expression o f t he en ergy of the el ds .

A ll a uth ors agree t hat i t is a vol u m e i ntegral i n w h ich th e fu n c

tion to be i n tegrated i s t he hal f scalar prod uct of a u x and a el d
i n tensity B u t Opin ion s seem to d i ffer as t o w h ether it shoul d be
.

th e actua l uxes and eld i n ten sities o r on ly the i n duced on es F ol .

lowi ng H EA V ISI DE I su ppo e that t h a t a l xes an d eld i n t en

,
s e c u u

si ties a re th e prope r vectors fo r ex pressing t he en ergy an d th u s ,

wri te the ex pressi on fo r th e total en ergy Of t he el ectromagn etic eld

-

b dr .

H ere , the rst i n tegral gi ves t he am ou n t o f t he electric and the ,

74
 DYN A M I C EQUA TI O NS OF ELECT RO MAGN ETI C F I ELDS . 75

secon d th e a mou n t of the magnetic energy th e i n tegration s bei ng ,

exten ded over the whol e eld .

2 L oca li a ti on a nd Co nti n u i ty of E n erg y

. z S tarti ng w ith th is .

expression for the energy Of th e eld a nd bri ngi ng i n to appl icati on

th e principle o f the co n servation Of energy we can Of cou rse de ,

d uce only res ul ts strictly i n acco rdance w ith th e ex perien ce wh ich

led u s to th is form O f expression for th e en ergy We are able .

t hen t o deri ve the a mou nt of mechan ical work don e a nd cou se ,

quently th e forces doing i t for th e case when th e d i fferent bodi es

,

i n the el d are displaced relati vely to each oth er .

B u t fo r the sake Of th e probl em before us i t i s very desirable ,

t o go a step further to determ i ne not on ly th e resu ltan t forces

,

acti ng aga inst the bod ies as a wh ole bu t al so th e system Of ele ,

m en tary forces wh ich act u pon th e elements o f vol u m e of the

,

bod ies an d Of wh ich the resu ltan t forces are composed O f th ese
,
.

elemen tary forces we have on ly a very l i m ited experi mental

k nowledge an d to deri ve them add itional kn owledge is n eeded
, , ,

wh ich is not con t a i ned i n the m ere statem en ts Of the form Of th e

en ergy in tegral a nd of the princ ipl e Of th e conservat ion of en ergy .

\Ve do n o t possess th is i n u n i versal ly accepted form b u t we ad m it ,

as wor king hypoth eses the fol lowi ng two p r in ciple s

F i rst we su ppose that i t is al lowabl e to speak n ot onl y Of

,

a m o u n ts O f energy bu t also o f a d i st r i b ut i o n o
, f ener g y i n space .

That t his sho uld be so is a p ri or i n ot at al l cl ear Th e un i

, ,
.

versal pri nciple of the con servation Of en ergy relates only to

a mou n ts of energy A nd i n the m odel scien ce relating t o energy
.
,

abstract dynam ic the n otion O f a certai n d istribu tion o f en

s
,

er
g y i n S pace see m s to he oft en of rath er q uesti on able c learness
a nd u ti l ity B u t stil l it may have a m ore or less l i m ited u sefu l
.

ness A ssu m i ng th is we ad m i t as a worki ng hypoth esis th at

.
, ,

th e energy in tegra l n ot on ly gi ves th e total amou nt of electri c

a n d magn etic energy b u t also th e d istri bu tion of th is energy
,

i n space the amo u nt Of en ergy per u n i t volu m e i n t he eld being

,

iA aa + iB t
. -
.
a
76 F I ELDS OF F O RCE .

TO th is pr i nci ple of th e loca liz a t i on of en erg y we add the secon d ,

the pri nciple Of th e conti n u i ty of en erg y wh ich is th is : energy can

,

not en t er a space w ithou t passi ng th rough th e su rface surrou nd ing

th is space Th is pri n ci ple forces u s to adm it a m ore o r less de
.

t er m i ned m ot i o n of the energ y wh ich i n con nection w ith the tran s

,

formation s o f the en ergy regulates the distri bu tion Of th e el ectro

magnetic en ergy i n space TO th is pri nci pl e we may make si m
.

i la r obj ection s as t o th e previous one . The idea Of a determ i nate

m otion o f the energy does no t i n abstract dynam i cs seem to be
al ways very cl ear o r u seful even th ough i t may seem t o h ave
,

i n th is bran ch o f physics al so a certai n l i m i ted m ean ing A n d .

even th ough con siderabl e doubt m ay fal l u pon these two su pposi
tions con sidere d a s u n i versal prin cipl es n o decid i ng a rgu m en t can
,

be gi ven at presen t a g a i ns t thei r use t o a l i m ited exten t as work

i ng hypoth eses .

3 E lect r i c a n d M ag n et ic A cti i ty
. v . To th e se abs tract an d
-

gen eral princi pl es we have to add de n ite su p position s suggested

more or less by ex peri m en t The rst i s thi s th e rate at wh i ch
.

th e electric o r magnetic en ergy i s created by th e foreign so u rces

O f energy i s gi ven per u n i t vol u me by th e scalar product of the

en ergetic eld i n ten sity i n to the correspo nd i ng cu rren t Th is .

pri nciple was original ly suggeste d by th e Observation th at the rate

Of doi ng work by th e vol taic battery was th e prod uct Of i ts i n
t ri n sic el ectromotive force an d th e cu rren t prod uced by it A nd
.

i t is general i ed by i n d u cti ve reason i ng so that it i s made to i a

z

cl ud e every i mpressed o r en ergetic force an d el d i nten sity every ,

curren t electric o r m agnetic con d uction cu rrent o r d ispla cem en t

, , ,

cu rren t.

S ta rting th u s w ith M A X W ELL S eq uation s for th e general case

Of a m ovi ng m ed i u m

we can at on ce n d the ra t e at wh ich energy i s su ppl i ed per uhi t

vol um e by the foreign so u rces o f energ y F o r m ul tiplyi n g
.
,
 DY N A M I C EQUA TIO NS O F ELEC TROMA GN E TI C F I ELDS . 77

th ese equation s by th e en e rgetic eld i nten sities an d add in g we get ,

()
a a
e
-
c -

i b
-

e
-
k = a
c
-
cu r l b
b
-
cu rl a .

The left hand m e m ber gi ves the ra t e at wh ich th i s en ergy is su p

pli ed The d iscussion Of th e righ t b a nd mem ber therefore w i ll
.

Sho w ho w the energy su ppl ied i s stored tran sformed o r m oved t o , ,

other places I n th is d i cussion we sh al l follow th e m eth od in d i

. s

ca ted by H EA V I S I DE
*
.

4 Stor ag e Tr a nsfor m a t i o n a n d M oti o n of the E n erg y

.
,
To ,

exam in e th e righ t h an d m em ber o f the equation we express th e

energetic el d i n ten sities a s the d i fferen ces o f th e actual an d th e
i nd uced eld i n ten si ties ,

b a
r bl (
b .

The equatio n of acti vity then takes th e fo rm

()
a a
e
-
c bc k = -

a
a
-
c u rl b ba -
c rl a
u a -
c u rl b b -
cu rl a .

F or th e last two form s we w rit e, accord i ng to a well kn own vec

to r form u la ,

(b) a b)
.

I n the rst term o n th e righ t han d side Of equ ation (a ) we i a

trod uce fo r cu rl b th e developed ex pressi on f or the electric cu rren t ,

(III 1 0 .
,
Th us ,

6 A 1
(c) aa ~
c ur l b= a
a
'

at
+ a

Remem bering that A out

,
we nd easily ,

6A 6a
55 at

or nall y
*
0 H E A V IS I DE : On t h e fo r ces , s tr esses a n d u x es o f en e r
gy i n t he elec tr
o

r tr i
.

m a g n e i c eld t T a n sa c ti o ns o f t he R o ya l Soc i ty
e L o nd o n , 1 8 9 2 E lec ca l

ppr p
. .
,

a e s, Vo l I I,
. . 521 .
 F I E L DS OF F OR CE .

No w we h ave i n general (III .

,
1 0 , b3 )

6a da
_
V Va
Tt
.

at (

A nd i f we su ppose that t he m ov i ng i ndi v id ual elemen t does n ot

change the val ue o f i ts i nd ucti vi ty as a con seq uence o f the m o
tion we h ave d a /a t O an d
,

,

d ot
V Va .

at
A nd th erefore
8A 6
< )
c
cA e
) v eazw
-
.
.
a, , u

Passi ng t th e n ext term i n (c) we ca n tran sform i t by th e vec

o ,

to r form u la (b) w riti ng a for a an d A x V for b Th us

,
.

a
a
~
cu rl
(A x V =di v [a x (A x
) Ax c ur l a
a

u

I n th e rst righ t h an d term we i n terch ange cross an d d o t an d ,

change the order of factors by cycl ic perm u tatio n I n th e secon d .

te r m we develope the tri ple vector product ac co rd i ng t o the wel l

known form la ; we ha ve then u

(c a
-
cur l(A x V)= V
(c rl a )x A + d i [(a u

v A )V -

(a a
V)A]

S ubstitu ti ng (c )and ( ) i n ( ) we get a

c
,
c

a l
a
cur lb
a; ( A a)
A '
a V .

{(d )
lv A a
a
T a a

i di v { (A a )V (a
a V a
(cu rl a) x A} ~

I n exactly th e same way i ntrod uci ng the ful l ex p re ssio n for the ,

magnetic cu rren t we h ave ,

a 1
b '
cu r l a = (g B b
J '

) B b '
V { (d 1 v B )b
a
fit a
T a a

sb gv (cu r l b ) x u
B} di v b )Va (b u
 DYN A M I C EQUA TI ON S OF ELEC T ROMA GN E TI C F I ELDS . 79

The developm en ts (d ) a nd (e) are now i n trod uced i n (a )

,
.

S u itably distri buting th e term s w e get ,

(f ) +v .

{(di v A )a % i
a v a
(
n
cu r l a x A}

+ v { (d i v E n
.
) shi m ? (c r l b ) x
,
u
u
B}

di v { a x b % (A a B b )V } ~

a
-

+ div l ( V)A % (A . ) (b . V )B J= 13
(
'
a
.
a V 2

wh ich i s the comp letel y developed form of th e equation o f acti vity .

Th e rst m e mber gi ves as we ha ve said th e rate of supply o f

, ,

electromagn etic energy per u n i t vol u m e an d th e secon d m em ber ,

sh ows h o w th e en ergy su ppl ied is u sed Tak i ng o n e term after .

the other i n each l i n e th e com mon i n terpretation o f them is th i s

,

Th e rst term
a
{ %A a %B ba }
l

at a

gi ves th e part o f th e en ergy su ppl ied w h ich i s si m ply stored as

el ec tric a nd magn eti c en ergy i n th e u n it vol u me The secon d term .

1 1
A -
ba
T

gi ves th e part o f the en ergy suppl ied wh ich i s waste d as heat ,

ac cord i ng to J O ULE S law the waste d ue to th e ctitiou s m agn etic

,

con duction cu rren t being also formal ly in cl u ded .

The fol lowi ng t w o term s con tai n the velocity V o f th e m ovi ng

m ateri al elem en t of vol u m e as a scalar facto r A s the equation i s .

a n eq uation o f acti vity th e oth er factor m u st n ecessarily be a

,

force i n th e com mon d y n am ic sen se o f th is word referred to

, ,

u n it vol u m e of the movi ng particle These factors are then th e .

forces exert ed by th e electromagnetic system a gai n st the exterio r

80 F I ELDS O F FO RCE .

forces th e factor of the rst term being th e mechan i cal force de

,

pend i n g o u t he el ectr ic eld a nd the factor o f the second term

,

being the force depen d ing u po n th e magn etic eld ,

it (d iv A )a
a % va a (cu rl a
n )x A ,

(9 ) f (div B)b a bi v 8 (cu rl b )x .

B

T he rst o f the two terms o f (f ) wh ich have th e form o f a d i

vergen ce gi ves acco r d ing to the com m on i nterpretation that pa r t
, ,

o f th e energy su ppl ied wh ich m oves away Th ere are two re a son s .

for th i s m otion of en ergy rst th e radiation o f ene rgy gi ven by

, , ,

th e Poyn ti ng ux -

and seco nd the pu re con vection

,
of el ec t romagnetic en ergy gi ve n ,

by the vector
3, (A -
a
n
B b )V,
-

wh ich is si m ply th e prod uct o f th e en ergy per un i t vol u m e i n to

th e velocity .

F i n ally the last term gi ves acco rd i ng to th e com m on i n ter pr e

, ,

t a t i o n that part of th e en ergy su ppl ied wh ich i n term s o f the

, ,

th eory of the m otion o f en ergy moves away i n con seq u en ce o f th e

,

stress i n th e m ed i u m wh i ch i s th e seat of th e eld th e u x o f ,

en ergy depend ing u po n th is stress bei n g gi ven by th e vector

(
a V)A as a
>v (b . V>B 503 l av ,
- -
O

. .

wh ose d i vergen ce appea rs i n th e equation o f acti vi ty F or th is .

u x o f en ergy may be co n sidered as th at d ue to a stress th e co m .

pon en t o f wh ich agai n st a pla ne wh ose orien tation i s gi ven by

the u n i t n orm al N is
M A N) (E
rA M B N)'

(e MN
7

Th is stress spl i ts u p i nto a n electric an d a m agn etic stress A nd .

,

i n th e case o f i sotropy wh ich we assum e th e rst o f these

, ,

stresses consists o f a ten sion pa ral l el to an d a pressu re perpen ,

 DYNA M I C EQUA TI ONS O F ELE C TR O M A G NE TI C F I ELD S . 81

d i c u la r to the l i nes o f electric force i n am ou n t equ al to th e elec ,

tric en ergy per un it vol u m e ; the secon d con sists o f a ten sion an d
pressu re beari ng the sam e relation to th e m agn etic l i n es o f force
an d magn eti c en ergy per u n i t vol ume Th i s i s seen when the u n i t .

n ormal N is dra wn rst paral lel to a n d then n ormal to th e corre ,

s o nd in
p g l i nes o f force .

Th e th eo ry th us developed m ay be gi ven w ith somewh at greater

general i ty an d w ith greater ca re i n th e detail s Th us th e an i so .

tropy o f the medi u m al ready ex isti ng o r produced as a co n se

, ,

q u enc e o f the m otion can be ful ly taken i nto accou n t as wel l as

, ,

t he chan g es pr o d u ced by t h e m ot i o n i n the val ues o f th e i nduc

t i v i t i es an d in th e val ues o f th e energetic vectors O n th e oth er .

hand th ere ex ist d i fferen ces o f opi n ion wi th reg ard t o th e details
,

o f th e theory B u t setti ng th ese aside and con sidering th e ques

.

tion fro m the poi n t o f v i ew o f prin ci ples is th e theory safely ,

fou nded If we knew th e rea l physica l sign ican ce o f th e el ectric

an d m agnetic vecto rs shou ld we th en i n th e d ev elo pem en ts above
,

m eet n o co ntr ad iction s ?

Th is question m ay be d i f cul t t o an swer The theory m ust .

n ecessari ly con tai n a core o f truth The results w h ich we can .

deri ve from it a nd wh ich depen d sol ely u pon th e pri nciple o f th e

,

cons er at i on o f en ergy an d u po n the expression o f th e electro

v

m agnetic en ergy so far as th i s ex pression is em pi rical ly tested

, ,

m ust of cou rse be true B u t fo r th e rest o f th e t h eory w e ca n

.

on ly say th at it is th e best th eo ry o f the dynam ic properties of

,

the el ec tromagn etic eld that we possess .

5 The F orc es i n the E l c t r om a g n eti c F i eld

. e \Vha t particularly .

i n te r ests u s i s the ex pression for th e mechan ical forces i n th e el d ,

( 4,
A s th e ex pr es sion s fo r th e electric an d the magnetic force

h ave exactly the sam e form i t w il l be su ffi cien t to con sider on e

,

o f them .Let u s take the magnetic force ,

f (d iv B)b a bv (curl b ) x u
B .

Th is i s a force pe r u n i t vol u m e and i f o u r theory i s correct th is

, ,

ex pression should g i ve the true d istribution o f th e fo r ce acti n g u po n

 82 F I ELDS O F FO RCE .

th e el emen ts of vol u m e a nd n ot m erely th e true val ue of t he r e

,

s u lt a n t force u pon the whol e body The sign i cance of each term
.

i s ob viou s The rst term gi ves the force u po n th e true magn et

.

i sm i f th i s ex ists It h as th e d i rection o f th e actual el d i n ten si ty

, .
,

an d i s equal t o th is vector m ul tipl ied by the m agnetism Th e .

seco nd term depends u pon th e h eterogen eity o f the bodies an d ,

gi ves therefore the force depen d in g u pon th e i nd ced magnetism

, ,
u .

Th e elem enta ry force wh ich u n derl ies th e resu l tant forces observed
i n th e ex perimen ts o f i n d u ced m agn etism shoul d therefore be a
force wh ich h as the d i rection of th e gradient V 8 o f the i n d uc ,

, ,

t i v i t y B and wh ich i s equal i n am ou n t to the prod uct o f th is gra

,

d ien t i n to th e magnetic energy per u n it vol u m e W hen we con sider .

a body as a whole the grad ien t o f en ergy wi ll ex ist pri n ci pally i n th e

,

layer between the body and the su rro un d ing m ed i u m It w i ll po i n t .

ou twards i f the body has greater i nd ucti vity tha n th e m ed i u m ,

bu t i ts average val u e fo r th e wh ole body wi l l be n il i n every d i rce

tion B ut th e force wh ich is th e prod u ct o f th is vector i nto half
.
,

the square o f the eld i n t ens i t w i l l therefore have greater aver

age val u es at th e places of great absol u te eld i nten sity qu ite ,

i rrespecti ve of i ts d i rection H en ce th e body wi l l move i n the

.
,

di rection wh ich the i nd ucti vity g radien t h as at the places o f th e

grea test absol u t e tr ength o f t h e eld i e the body wil l m ove
s ,
. .
,

i n the d i rection of i ncreas ing absol ute strength of the eld A nd .

,

i n the sam e way i t i s see n that a body wh ich h as smal ler ind uc
,

t i v i ty t h a n the su rrou nd i ng el d w i ll move i n th e d i rec ti on o f

decreas ing absol ute strengt h o f th e eld Th e ex pression th u s .

con ta i ns F A RA DAY S wel l k n own qual itati ve law for the m otion of

m agn etic o r diamagnetic bod ies i n the magnetic eld .

Th e th i rd term o f the equa tion con tai n s t w o d isti nct forces ,

wh ich ha v i ng the sa me form are com bi ned i nto on e S pl itting

, ,
.

the actual eld i n ten sity i nto i ts i n d uced an d en ergetic parts an d

treating th e cu rl o f the vector i n the sam e way w e get ,

cu rl b a
cu rl b curl b
= c c
where c is the t r ue electric cu rren t ,
an d c
,
the cti ti ou s cu rren t by ,
 DYN AM I C EQUA TI ONS O F ELECT RO M AGN E TI C F I ELDS . 83

wh ich accord i ng t o A M PERE S th eory th e perma n en t magn etism

,

,

may be represented The last term o f the ex pression for th e force

.

therefore spl its i nto two ,

wh ere the rst ter m i s the wel l kn own ex pression for the force per
u n i t vol u m e i n a b o dy carryi ng a n electric c urren t o f den sity c .

Th e second term gi ves the force u pon perman en t magnetization ,

a n d accord i ng to the th eory de veloped th i s fo r ce shou ld be th e

,

sam e as th e force u pon th e equ i valent d istrib ution of electric

cu rren t .

6 The R es u lta nt F orc e

. A s we h ave remark ed o u r develop
.
,

m en ts may po ssibly conta i n errors wh ich we ca n not detect i n th e

presen t state o f o u r k nowledge The val ue foun d for th e elemen
.

tary forces ma y be wrong B u t h owever th i s may be we k n ow this

.
,

with perfec t certai n ty ; i f we i n tegrate th e elem en ta ry forces fo r

th e whol e vol u m e o f a body we sh al l arri ve at the tru e va lu e of
,

th r esu lta nt force t o wh ich th e body a s a wh ole i s subject

e Fo r .

calcu lati ng th is resu lta n t force we come back to th e resul ts o f

,

th e observation s wh ich for m the em pi rical fou ndation of o u r

k n owledge o f the dy na m ic properties o f the electro magnetic eld .

A perfectly safe resul t o f o u r th eory w il l th erefore con sist i n the

fact that the ex pression
b )x
()
a F
an B)b d 7 a f b i v d r
f (c rlu
a
E dr ,

wh ere the i n tegration is ex tended over a wh ole body gi ves th e tru e ,

value o f th e res lta n t force u pon the body By a whol e body

u .
,

we u nderstand a n y body su rrou nded by a perfec tly h omogeneous

g aseou s o r u id d ielectric of the con stant i nd ucti v ity B wh ich i s 0,

i t sel f not th e seat o f a ny m agn etism Ill of any en ergetic mag ,

n etic fl u x B o r o f an y el ectric cu rren t c To avoid m ath e

8 ,
.

m a t i ca l prol ix ity we su ppose that the properties o f the b o dy

change contin uou sly i n to th ose o f th e ether th e layer i n w h ich ,

th ese changes ta ke place bei ng al ways con sidered as belongi n g to

t he body Th us at its u rface th e body has al l the properties o f
. s
84 F I ELDS OF FORCE .

th e ether B y th is supposition we S hall avoid th e in trod uction

.
,

o f surfac e i n tegrals w h ich u sual ly appear when tran sformation s of

,

vol u me i n tegral s are made .

By tran sform ation s o f th e in tegral s we ca n pass from t he abo ve

expressio n for th e resul ta n t force to a seri es of equ i valen t ex
pression s To n d on e o f th ese n ew ex pression s we spl i t th e
.

actual eld i n ten sity i n t o i ts t w o parts ,

m =b + b
an d we get
m b M
(6) F
f (d i v B)d f l b s dT -

f e ) " L
wh ere
J f(d i v B)b c
l
( r
'

f (b b

)v 8 d r
,
'

f b fV 18 d T f( cu r lb )x E d
'
T
.

To reduce th e ex pression for J we cons ider the rs t term .

T ran sform i ng accord i ng to wel l k n ow n fo r m ulm we get ,

f div m ad ? v b dr
c
'

f Bb v d r -

f (cu r l b
) x E dr .

S u bs tituti ng , we get J red uced to th ree term s

(b ) J f Bb e v d r
f (b b e)d
- -
r
f gb v dr -
.

I n trod uci ng in th e rst of th ese i n tegrals B Bb 8h we g et

f Bb v d r
e
'
:
-
r

i n wh ich we have to remem ber that the ope rator v w orks only
u pon th e vec t or i m m ed iately prec ed i ng i t I n th e rst o f the .

t wo i ntegrals of the right hand mem ber we j oi n th e sca lar factor B

w ith th e vect r b u pon wh ich v works remembering 6b B
o
, , , .

A term co ntai n i ng v 3 m u st th en be subt r acted Th e se con d .

i nteg ra l we ca n ch ange l ett i ng the o perato r v work u pon both

,

factors Then .
 D YNA M I C EQUA TI ONS OF ELECT ROMA GN E TI C F I ELDS . 85

F i nal ly i n tegrati ng th e last term by parts an d remembering th at

,

b e
d isappears at the su rface o f th e body ,

f Bb v d r
e
-

f us v d f
e f a) s
e w /saw [ shi v /ad
. v.

S ubsti tu tin g th is i n we get si m ply

(If ) J
b ,
v dT .

Th i s leads to the expression

()
0 F
f( di v B )b CZ
f( )cuTrl b x B d b v (i
-
r
,
f

for th e resu l ta n t force The four term s give th e forces depend i ng

.

Upo n th e true mag netism th e i nd uced m agn etism th e electric cur

, ,

rent di stribu tion an d the perm an en t magnetization respecti vel y

,
.

The resu l ta nt fo rce i s represen ted h ere by a system of ele m entary

forces gi ven by
,

f (d iv B )b gm
2 s b B x7 (c rl b ) x B
e
u .

These elem entary forces m ust be con si dered as cti tious i f t he

expressi on fou n d abo ve represen ts th e true val ues of th e ele
m entary forces B ut i f ou r developmen ts h ave n ot been a l togeth er
.

trustworth th e reverse m igh t also be th e case or else n on e of

y
, ,

them may give th e true val ues o f t he elem en tary forces wh i le bot h ,

of them gi ve th e true val ues o f th e resultan t forces .

7 Other F o ms f o the R esu lta n t F or c e

. r rI n writin g th e ex .

pression for th e res ul ta nt force we h ave h itherto used scal ars an d

vec t ors o f a fu ndamental n atu re By the i n troduction o f certai n
.

au x i l iary scalars o r vectors the expression fo r th e resultan t force

may be brough t to form s o f rem arkable S i m pl ici ty B u t as th i s .

i s obta i n ed at the cost o f the i ntrod uction o f arti cial qu an ti ties ,

the possibi l ity that the expression s u nder th e i n tegra l sign s repre
sen t th e real elemen ta ry forces is lost .

Th e transformation to th ese si m ple form s of th e expression for

the resul tan t force depen ds u pon the i ntrod uction o f a vecto r B,
d e ned by the eq u atio n
W) B = Bw+ s p
86 F i E L Ds O F FO RCE .

Th i s has th e form o f th e t ru e equation o f con n ection except th at ,

the con sta n t i nd ucti vi ty 8 of th e ether i s i n trod uced i n stead o f

1
0

th e true i nd ucti vi ty o f th e body BI is therefore a v i rtual en er .

getic u x t o com pen sate for o u r l eaving o u t o f con sideration th e

,

variation s of th e i nducti vity Th is is th e wel l kn ow n artice of

.

PO ISS ON S theory of i n d uced magnetism wh ich enabl es u s to treat

,

th e i n d uced m agneti sm as i f it were perma n en t .

To in trod uce th is vecto r i n to th e ex pression for th e resu lta n t

force we rst remark that i n th e secon d i ntegral of th e ex pression
(6 c) we can wri te 8 B i n stead o f B P erform i ng th e i n tegra
, 0
.

tion by parts th roughou t the wh ole vol u me o f the body an d rem em

beri ng that B B d isa ppears at the su rface of the body we get
o ,

f f BOW
2
sb s d T
% b v (8 ?

f % (8 8 0 )V b d 7
2

s s pa w n .

In li ke man n er the tra nsformation by par t s of th e i n tegral i n th e

,

expression (6 c) expressin g th e fo rce u pon perman en t magnetism

,

gi ves
b c r
f ab v d
r .

Th e i ntegral for the tem po ra ry a nd the perm a nen t force may now
s

be added an d remark ing that eq uatio n (a ) i n con n ec tion w i th

, ,

th e fu ndam en tal eq uation o f con n ec tion gi ves B/ (B B )b B , o a

we get
f gb v
2
BJ r
b
v d1 fa r m s .

Th e su bstitution o f th is i n (6 0 ) g i ves the follo wi ng more com

,

pact form o f the ex pressio n fo r the resultan t force

(6) f( )
F di v B b d f jB b v d cu
f( )
r rl b x E d '
r T.

H ere th e resultan t force seem s to com e from an elemen tary force

,

f3 (di v E )h b v (cu r l b ) x B .
 DYNA M I C EQUA TI ONS O F ELEC TR O MAGN E TI C F I ELDS . 87

A sti l l shorter form o f th e resu ltan t force an d of the corre

5 pon di ng ctitiou s elem entary force m ay be fou n d as fol lows .

A ccord ing to a wel l k nown vector form u la we can write ,

f d r
f B V bd r
/
'

f( cu r l b) x B ,
dr '
.

Tran sform i ng th e rst i n tegral of th e secon d m em ber accord ing

to a wel l k now n form ula an d rem em beri ng that B = O at th e f

su rface of the body we get ,

f b v d7 = f(d iv 13d
f( cu r l b) x c lr
-
.

I n trod uci ng th is ex pression an d remark i ng th at accord in g to (a ) , ,

d i v B = d i v b d i v B we get
o

s F s f (cu rl b )x se
o f (di v b )b d 7
o
-
r
,

wh ich is the most co ncise form of th e ex pression for t he resultan t

force It is ex pressed h ere by a ctitiou s elemen tary force
.

f, Bo (di v b )b 60 (cu rl ) b xb .

The di vergence o f the el d i n ten si ty wh ich appears h ere is , ,

cal led t he fr ee den si ty o f magn eti sm Th e force u pon true m ag .

n et i s m u pon permanen t magn etic pol arization an d upon i nd uced

,
'

m agnetism ca n be con den sed i nto on e ex pression an d th e w hol e ,

fo rce is ex pressed i n a n exceed ingly sim pl e way by th e el d i n ?

ten sity i ts d ivergen ce i ts cu rl a nd th e i nd ucti vi ty o f the su r
, , ,

roun d i ng med i u m .

8 R es m
. uI t w i l l be con ven ien t on accou n t o f the fol lowi ng
lectu res t o su m u p th e fun dam en tal equations for th e stationary
el ectri c a nd th e stationary magnetic eld U si ng for th e d esc r i p
,
.

tion of the elds th e vecto r s o f schem e I II an d i n some cases .

,

even the articial vectors A, or B, (I V 7 a ) we have rst a set .

, , ,

o f equation s o f con n ection by use o f wh ic h we i n trod uce i n the

,

fu n dam en ta l equation s the vector wan ted for any special pu rpose .

O f these equation s of co n nectio n we n ote th e fol lowi ng referring ,

for more special cases to th e com pl ete system (III 7 a ) .

, ,
.
88 F I ELDS OF FO RCE .

aa A .

a a
o
A

The n we ha ve th e proper equation s o f the elds wh ich express ,

the relation between th e el d i nten si ty an d th e cu rren t densi ty ,

(B ) cu rl a cu rl b 0 .

F i n al lywe have the equation s of den ition for the den sity
,
o f
el ectrication o r o f magnetism
, ,

(0 ) d iv A = E ,
d iv B = M .

To com plete th e geometric desc ription of the eld we have nal ly

a n u m ber of special co nd i tion s wh ich are full led i n the free ether ,

na mely ,

(0 1) a B n ,

(D z) M = 0,

(B a) 0 0,

(D , ) B. 0 .

Th is set o f eq uati on s gi ves i n the sen se o f th e theorem s (I I I

,
.
,

a co m plete description of th e geo m etry o f th e elds .

O u r k nowled ge o f the dy nam i cs of th e eld is les s com plete .

A ccord i ng to th e an alysis o f H E A V I S I D E we h a ve r e
aso n to bel ieve ,

that th e elem en tary force i n th e eld per u n i t vol u me is gi ven by

the ex pression

'
f (d iv A )a d i aEV a (c u r l a)
xA . ,
E )
b v 8 + (curl b) x B
I
f (di v B)b a
.

B ut other form s a re no t excl ud ed an d we may h ave

,

(di v A )a ga (cu rl a) x A

ft , 2 v a aA V
e ,

di v (cu l b) x
i
f, ( B )b {h s v /8 r B b Bc v .
 DYN A M I C EQUA TI ONS O F E LECT ROM A G NE TI C F I E LD S . 89

O ur rel iable k nowl ed ge i s red uced to th i s we get o n i nt eg ra t

i ng a ny o f these forces for a w hol e body th e resultant fo rce wh ich
prod uces the motio n of the w hole body The sam e val u e of t he .

resu ltan t force m ay al so be fou n d from other pu rely arti cial d is

t r i b u t i o n s o f the elementary force for example , ,

fa 3 (d iv A)a A awf (cu rl a ) x A ,

f, (d iv B)b Bl (cu rl b ) x B,

ft , 4
a
0(
d i v
)
a a a
0 (cu r 1 a ) x a ,

fm , 4 B0(d i v b )b Bo(c u r l ) b xb .
 V .

G E O ME TR IC AND DYN A MI C PRO PE RT I E S OF TH E

H YD RO DYN A M I C F I E LD G E N E RA L D E M .

O NSTRA T I O N O F T H E A NAL O G Y TO
TH E S T A TI O N A R Y E L E CT RO
M A G N E TI C F I E LD S .

1 . P lim i ry R m r k O prel i m i n ary i n vestigations

re na e a s .
ur
,

based o n elementary reaso n in g an d experi m en t h ave al ready ,

gi ven th e gen eral featu re of the a nalogy wh ich we are no w goi ng ,

to exam i n e more cl osely A ccord ing to these prel im i n ary resu lts
.
,

we h ave n o reaso n t o look for a n an alogy ex te n di ng beyon d th e

phenomen a termed stationary The m ai n featu re o f t he analogy
.

i s gi ven by the correspondence

fl u x veloci ty .
,

el d i n ten si ty specic m omen tu m ,

i nd ucti vi ty m obi l ity (specic vol u me ) .

To facil itate th e com pari so n of t he elds I shal l den ote th e

hyd rody nam ic qua n tities b y the sam e letters as t he correspondi ng
electrica l quan ti ties Th e sy m m etry i n th e properti es of the el ec
.

tric and magn etic elds will make it possible to pass at once from
th e co m pariso n wi th t he electric eld to the com pari so n w ith th e
magn etic eld .

2 . The H yd r od y na m i c E q t i on s ua The basis o f o u r i n vesti

ga tion w i ll be the hyd rod y n am ic equation s of wh ich th ere are ,

two ; th e scal ar equation for th e con servation o f the m a s gen eral ly s ,

cal led t he equation o f con ti n ui ty a nd t he vector equation o f m otio n

,
.

a bein g the specic vol ume o f th e u id A the vector vel oc ity , ,

and d /d t represen ti ng the i nd i vid al t ime d i fferen tiation the equa

u -

tion o f conti n ui ty may be written

1 da
1
( dt
= d1V A .
 PROPERTI ES O F T HE H YDRODY NA M I C F I ELD . 91

The rst m em ber is th e velocity o f ex pansion per u n i t vol u m e

of th e mo i n g u id particle expressed th rough th e e ff ect of th i s
v
,

expan sio n u pon the specic vol u me or th e vol u m e o f u n it mass

,
.

Th e seco n d m ember i s th e sam e veloci ty o f expansion expressed

th rough th e d i stribu tion o f velocity i n the u id Th e equal ity .

o f these two ex pres sions of th e sam e velocity o f ex pa n sion i n su res

th e conservation o f the m ass d u ri ng th e motion of th e u id .

N o w I bei ng th e ex terior fo r c e actin g per u n i t volu m e o f the

movi ng u id masses a nd p the pressure i n the u id the vector
, ,

eq uation of motio n may be wri tten

1 (ZA
6
() =f
Vp
(It
.

The rst m ember i s the prod ct o f th e den sity l / of the movin g

u ,
a
,

particle i nto its acceleration i A/t lt an d the secon d mem ber gi ves the
,
c
,

vector su m o f the forces per u n it vol u m e act i ng u pon i t These -

.

forces are th e exterior force f a n d th e force du e to th e pressu re

, ,

v p gen erally called the grad i en t

,
.

In th e use of these equation s i t is al ways to be remem bered that

the i nd i vid ual d i ff erentiati ng sym bol l/d t i s related t o the l ocal
(

d i fferen tiating sym bol a/ t by the E UL ER I A N expan sion

d 8
dt 55 + AV '

Th ese equation s do n ot gi ve the geomet ry an d the dyn am ics o f

the hydrodynam ic eld as separa te theories Th ey con tai n th e .

pro perties o f th e el ds viewed from on e cen tral poi n t from wh ich ,

thei r geom etric and dynam ic properti es seem perfectly u n ited It .

wil l be ou r p roblem t o a rti cial ly separate from o n e an other cer

tai n geom etric a nd certai n dynam ic properties i n order t o be ,

able t o ca rry out the com pari on w ith those othe relds wh ich we
s

k now only as th e resu lt f an in spection from w i t hou t a n i n s pec

o ,

t ion wh ich has allowed u s on ly t o recogn ize t w o sepa rate sides

o f th eir p r operti es,
w ithout any dee per i nsigh t i n to thei r t r ue
relati on s.
92 F I ELDS OF FO RCE .

3 . E qu a ti o n f
o Co nti n u i ty E qua ti o n for the D en s i ty f
o E lectr i
Th e equ atio n o f con ti n u ity has th e form of on e of th e
ca ti o n .

fu n damen tal equation s o f the electric eld To sho w th is we have .

on ly to represen t the velocity o f ex pa n sion per u n it vol u me ,

l / d /d t by a si ngle l etter E a n d Obtai n th e eq uation corre

a a , ,

s o nd i n
p g to (I V 8 C ) .
, , ,

d iv A E ,

wh ich i n th e i n terpreta t ion of the sy m bols for th e electrical case is

, ,

th e equation wh ich gi ves th e den sity of electri cation i n the el ec

tric eld .

4 Tr a n sfo m a ti o n f the D yna m i c E qu a ti o n The dyn am ic

. r o .
-

equatio n does n ot i n i ts o r igin al form S how a ny resembl ance t o

an y o f th e eq uati on s of the el ectric eld So me si m ple tran sforma .

tion s wi ll ho wever brin g o u t terms of the sam e form as appear i n

, ,

th e dynam ic equation s o f the electric eld .

To show thi s l t u s rst i ntroduce i nstea d o f th e vel oci ty A th e

e

actual specic m omen tu m a accordi ng to the equatio n ,

(a ) A d a

The eq uation of motion th en ta kes the form

da I da
dt
d
+
a i di
aa =f _
v7
o r, accord i ng t o th e equation of co n tin u ity (2 ,
a
) ,

t a l
(d i v A )aa f
d ; Vp .

I n t he left ba nd mem be r we ha ve th e term (d i v A )a the an al ogue n,

o f wh ich appea rs i n the ex pression f for th e elemen t ary forces i n l

the el ectr ic eld (I V 8 It is th e elemen tary force acting

.
, ,

u po n th e true elec tri cation d i v A ,

.

F u rther si mple tran sformation s brin g i n the oth er correspon di ng

terms appeari ng i n the expression fo r f for th e elemen ta ry fo rces ,

i n t he electric eld U sing th e E ulerian expan sio n we rst get

.
,

a
t Av (d iv A )a f

a V 1) ,
a
 PRO PERTI E S O F T H E H YDRODYNA M I C F I ELD . 93

an d then tran sform i ng th e second left h and term accord i ng to a

wel l kn own vecto r form ula we ha ve ,

68
6;
A a u
w (cu rl a ) xA (di v A )ad f Vp .

N ow th e term (cu rl a) x A has appeared wh ich correspond i ngly

, ,

appea rs i n th e expression (I V 8 E ) for the force i n the electric .

, , 1

eld represen ti ng i n o n e ter m th e force exerted u pon permanen t

,

pol arizatio n an d upon mag netic c u rren t .

A ccordi ng to (a ) the second term i n th e left han d m ember may

,

be wr itten
A aa v aa a
a a
v l a
.
v a z ,

or n ally ,

M IN v e ai )
d

S u bs ti tuting th is abo ve we h ave ,

7
c

ota

v ( z)
gaa
i av a
(curl a ) xA (di v A)a d
f v p,

g iv i ng u s al l th e correspon d i ng terms con ta i ned i n th e expression

for the forc e (I V 8 E ) i n the el ectric eld
.
, , 1
.

5 S epa r a ti on of the E qua ti on of l r ti n

. W e th u s seem to ha ve o .
-

fou nd som e r elation between th e hydrodynam ic eq uati on a n d the

equatio n gi vi ng th e dynam ics o f th e electric eld B u t we sti ll .

have th e geo metry an d th e dynam ics o f the hyd rod yn am ic eld

u n ited i n one set of eq uation s To m ake the rst step towards .

the separation o f certa i n geom etric a nd dy n am ic pro perties from,

o n e a nother we h ave t o consider th e hydrod y nam ic eld as th e su m

o f two partial elds j u st as we co ns ider the electri c eld as th e s u m

,

of two partial elds th e i nd uced a n d the energetic eld L et us

,
.

represen t th e vector a the actual speci c momen tu m as the su m

d , ,

o f two vectors a and a th us .,

(a ) a a a n d
.

Th e equation th en devel ops i n to

da

a
3 A
()
a
; v e i)aa
i zva a
( cm 1a )x
-

a, 5 .

(div A)a a
f vp .
94 F I ELDS OF FORCE .

N owwe h ave th e righ t to su bm i t o ne o f the au x i l iary vectors ,

say a to a con d ition L et th is cond ition be that i t shal l satisfy

, .

the equ ation

5
() V (1 +
7 ta a i
The oth er vecto r wi ll th en h a ve to satisfy th e equatio n
5a
(di v A )a (c u r l A
2

0 ; f a a Il
V a 8 0 )x .

6 . r Pr op rty
Geo met i c c d ll t i n We ha ve th u s
e o
f the I nd u e I o o .
'

i ntroduced the con sideration o f two elds wh ich su peri m posed ,

u pon each oth er repre ent the actual hyd rody n am i c eld B u t th e
s .

equation s o f both partial elds are stil l dyn am ic equation s H o w .

ever from o ne o f th em we ca n at once p roceed to a pu rely

,

geom etric equation F o r ta k i ng th e cu r l o f equation (b) a nd

.

chan gi ng th e order o f the opera tion s d /d t an d cu rl we get ,

0
at
cu r l a = 0 .

To com pl ete th e n omenclat re I wi l l cal l the cu rl of the velocit y

u

th e ki n ma ti c an d th e cu rl o f t he s p ci c momentu m th e d y n m i c
e ,
e
a

v or tex d en si t Th e dynam ic vo rt ex den si ty i s th us i n variabl e at

y .

every poi n t o f space I n tegrating with respect to t he ti me an d

.

writing k fo r the co nsta n t o f i n tegration we get ,

(d ) cu rl a
wh ich ex presses the loca l co n servation of th e dynam i c vortex den
s ity .A s regards its form th is is the same equation wh ich i n
,

the electric i nterpretation of the sy m bol s ex presses the relation be

tween th e electric el d i n ten sity 3 an d th e magnetic cu rren t It (I V .
,

8 B ) A nd as the con servation o f k is local equation (d ) co r

,
.
, ,

res pon ds exactly t o the equation for the electric el d for th e cases
o f m agnetic cu rrents wh ich are stationary both i n space a nd i n ti me .

7 F n da men ta l G eo m et r i c P rop r t i es f th H yd r od y na m i c F i ld
. u e o e e .

-
We h ave th us succeeded i n represen ting the hyd rodynam i c eld
 PR O PERTI ES OF TH E HYDR O DYNAM I C F I ELD . 95

as th e su m of two partia l elds Writi ng A .

,
aa we have fo r th e
vectors i n trod uced the equation o f con n ection
(A ) A aa
d
aa Ac .

Then the i nd uced eld described by a has th e property of local

con servation o f th e dy nam ic vortex ,

(B ) c rl a
u

wh i le fro m the el d of the actual velocity we calculate th e l

v e oc

ity o f e xpa nsion per u n i t vol u me E fro m the equation , ,

a
( ) div A = E .

In form these equation s are precisely the fu ndamental equati on s

,

for th e geo metric properties o f the stati onary electric eld .

8 B d i es a nd F nd a m enta l F lu i d
. o u To com plete the i n vestiga .

tio n o f th e geometric properties we shal l h ave t o exam i n e wh eth er

we can i n tr od uce co nd ition s correspond in g to the su pplemen ta ry
con d itions (I V 8 D ) Th e i n troduction o f cond i tion s o f th is
.
, ,
.

n ature for the u id system ev iden tly i n vol ves th e d istin ction b e
twee n cert ai n l i m ited pa rts of th e u id wh ich we h ave to co m ,

pare wi th material bod ies an d an ex terior u n l im ited part of th e

,

u id wh ich we have t o co mpare w ith th e free ether The part o f

,
.

the u id su r r ou n d i ng th e fluid bod ies we S hal l cal l t hef un d a m enta l

ui d .

I ntroduci ng the cond ition

D
( I) a :

wh ere et i s con stant we si m ply req u i re the fu ndamental u id

c ,

t o be ho mogen eo us I n trod ucing th e cond ition

.

we req u i re i t t o be incom pressible There is n oth i ng wh ich pre .

ven ts u s fro m i n trod ucing the addi tional cond i tion

(D 3 ) k = 01

fo r, at every poi n t of space the dynam ic vortex has accord in g ,

to
96 FI ELDS or F ORCE .

the fu n dam e ntal eq uation (B ) a constan t val ue \Ve are there ,

.

fore free to i mpose th e cond ition th at i n the parts of space o cc u

pied by th e fu ndamental u id th i s con stan t sh al l h ave t he val u e
zero Th is i n con n ection w ith th e gen eral cond ition (B ) of cou rse
.
, ,

i n vol ves al so a restriction u pon th e gen eral ity o f th e m otion of

t he u id bod ies The n atu re an d con sequen ce o f th is restriction
.

wi ll be di scussed late r bu t for th e presen t i t i s sufcien t for u s to

,

kn ow th at n oth i ng prevents u s from i n trod uci ng i t .

The question n ow arises : are we al so en titl ed to i n trod uce fo r

the hydrodyna m ic system a cond ition correspon di ng to t he con di
d ition (D ) fo r t he eth er ? To an swer th i s we m u st refer to th e
dynam ic equation (5 c ) O n accou n t of th e r estricti on
,
. we
shal l have v = O i n th e fu n damenta l u id O n accou n t o f co n
a .

d ition (D ) we shal l have d i v A 0 so that two of th e righ t han d

2 , ,
.

term s o f the equation fo r the en ergetic m otion d isappear Writing .

a
a a an d rem em ber i ng the con d i tion (D ) j ust i n trod uced
, 3 , ,

we nd cu rl a c u rl a and th e equation therefore reduces to

a c,

as
f (cu rl a) x A .

F u rtherm ore we are free to i n trod uce the cond ition that th e ex
,

t er i o r for ce f sh al l be zero for every poi nt i n th e fu n damen tal u id ,

so that t he equation becom es

(cu rl a) x A .

N ow i f at a ny p o i n t i n space a
,
0, we shal l also h ave
8a
at

i . u n der th e gi ven condi tion s th ere can be n o energetic eld

e,
.

i n ten sity a u n less it ex isted previously Th e same wil l be tr ue

.
.

o f th e en ergetic vel oc i ty A wh ich i s si m ply proportion al t o th e

.)

correspo nd i ng eld i n tensity a N oth i ng preven ts u s co u se c

.
,

q uently fro m requ i ri ng that i n the space occ u pi ed by the fu nda

,

m en tal u id we shal l h ave th e con d ition

 P R O PERTI E S O F T HE HYDRO DYNAM I C F I ELD . 97

al ways fullled F or ev iden tly we ha ve th e righ t to i n troduce

.

the con dition (D) as an i n itial cond ition A n d as we h ave seen .

, ,

i f i t i s fu l l led on ce i t wil l al way s be fu l l led

, .

S u m m i ng u p th e con tents o f (D ) we n d that we hav e

1

i nt rod u ced the fo l lowi ng con d ition s de n i ng th e d i fferen ce between

the u id bod ies an d the sur rou n d ing fun dame n ta l u i d wh ich i s ,

analagous to th e d ifference between th e bod ies an d th e su rrou n d

ing eth er i n the electromagn etic el d The fun damental ui d has
.

consta nt m ob i l it y (specic vol u m e) just as t he eth er h as con stan t

,

i nd ucti vity ; the u id bod ies may have a m obi li ty varyi n g from
poi n t to poi nt an d differi ng from that o f th e fu nda m en tal u i d ;
j ust as th e bod ies i n the magn etic eld m ay have an i nd ucti vity
v aryi ng fro m poin t to poi n t an d di ffer in g from that o f th e ether .

The fu ndamen tal u id n ever h as velocity o f ex pan sion or co n

traction E wh i le th i s velocity may ex ist i n the u id bod ies ; j ust
, ,

as i n the free eth er we h ave n o di stribu ti on o f true electri cation

o r magnetism wh i le such d istributi on m ay ex ist i n material bod ies
,
.

Th e fu ndam ental u id n ever has a d is t ri bution o f dy nam ic vortices ,

wh ile such d istri bution s may ex ist i n th e u id bod ies ; j u st as th e

ether i n the cas e o f stationary elds n ever ha s a d istr ibuti o n o f
cu rrents el ectric or magn etic wh ile such d istrib ution s may ex i t
, ,
s

i n material bod ies Th e fu n damental u id never h as an energetic

.

velocity wh ile th i s veloci ty m ay ex ist i n th e u id bod ies ; j u st as

,

the ether n ever has an energetic (i m pressed ) po lari zation wh i le such ,

pola rization m ay exi st i n material bodies .

U n der th ese con d ition s the geometric p roperties o f th e hydro

dynam ic el d and th e stationary electri c o r m agnetic eld are de
sc ribed b y equation s of exactly t he sam e form Th u s u nder th e .
,

gi ven con d ition s w hose physical con ten t we shal l con si der m ore
,

close ly la t er th ere ex ists a perfect geometric analogy between the

,

two k ind s o f elds .

9 D y na m i c P rop er ti es f the H yd r od y n a m i c F i eld

. o It is .

easi ly see n that u n der certa i n cond itions a n i n verse d y nam ic

13
98 F I ELDS OE F O RCE .

a nal ogy w i ll be join ed to th i s geometric a n alogy . F or let u s i m

pose th e co n d ition that
6a
()
a
at

shal l al ways be satised i e th at th e en ergetic speci c m om en t u m

,
. .
,

sh all be con served loc lly W hen t h i s con di tion i s ful lled th e
a .
,

equ ation of th e en ergetic motion wh ich we w i l l no w have to u se ,

for the bod ies on ly red uces to ,

di v si v cu r x A
(b) ( A
f )a s ( a
l a
) a ,

i e i f th e con ditio n of the l oca l con servation o f th e en ergetic

. .
,

specic m o men tu m m ust be full l ed there m u st act upon the system ,

a n exterior force f wh ose distri bution per u n it vol u m e i s gi ven

,

by A ccord i ng to th e pri nciple o f equal action an d reaction ,

th is force t h us balan ces a fo rce f exerted u nder th e given con d i

tion s by the u i d system Th e u id system th erefore exerts the
.

force
E
( 1 ) ( d iv A )a
i
a V
(cu r la
a )x A a
d ,

wh ich i n form oppositely correspo n ds to th e force wh ich i s exerted

, , ,

accordi ng to H E A V I SI D E S i n vestigation by th e electric o r th e

,

magn e t ic eld i n th e corres po nd i n g ca se .

1 0 S co n d F or m of the A n a log y
. e The phy sical featu re of th e .

anal ogy th us fou n d i s dete rm i n ed mai n ly by th e con di tion (9 a )fo r ,

the loca l co n servation o f th e en ergetic speci c momen tu m Th e .

physical con ten t o f th i s cond ition we wi ll disc uss l ater B u t rst .

we wi l l sho w that even other cond itions may lead to an an alogy i n ,

wh ich we d o n o t arri ve at H E A V I SI D E s bu t at som e o ne o f th e

,

oth er ex pression s fo r th e d i stributi on o f force .

We start agai n w ith th e eq u a tion o f m otion ,

1 dA
() a
a dl
f
Vp

No w , i nstead o f i n trod uci ng the actual sp ec i c m omen t u m a I -

d ,

i ntrodu c e at on ce the i nduced spec ic m om en tu m a and th e en er

get i c veloci ty A accord i ng t o th e equ ation o f con n ection
,

(6) A aa + Ae .
 PR O PER TI ES O F T HE H YDR O DYNA M I C F I E LD . 99

Perform ing th e

d i eren t i at io n a nd mak in g u se Of th e equation of

con ti n u ity (2 ,
a
) we h a ve
,

da
(i t
(l A )&
2 ?
I n trod uci ng in th e rst left han d term th e local ti me deri vation -

da 1 dA o
f
v p,
at a dt

tran sform i ng the secon d l eft

o r, b a nd m ember accord ing to the
vector form u la ,

(c)
8
a ?
+ Aa v cu r l a
( ) x =f
Vp .

Usi ngthe equation o f con n ecti on (6)an d per form i ng si mpl e tran s
formation s we get for th e secon d term i n the left ba nd mem ber
,

Aa w a aa v A
av

g av a
A e
av

2
V Gaza Ac a
) 5 1 s
& a o
-
.

In trod uc i ng t h is i n (c) ,

6a
2
1 dA
(2 aa
z
V + A a
)+ + (d i v A )a a v a
at (l l
(d )
a

A aA
,
v = f Vp .

N ow we ca n spl i t the eq uatio n i n two requ i ri ng that the vector

, ,

a satisfy th e equatio n

()
6
W ]? i ot a Ar a
)
,

and we n d th at th e oth er vecto r A ,

m ust satisfy th e equ a tion
1 da
(d iv A )a (c rl a ) x A
z
f g aA 7
d
a v a u .

a dt .
 F I ELDS OF F O RCE .

B oth equ ation s are d ifferen t from th e correspo nd ing equ ation s (5 ,

b) a nd (5 B u t as is seen at on ce th e n ew equation for th e i n

, , ,

d uced motion i n vol ves the sa me geometri c property as t he previou s

o ne n am ely th e loca l co n servation of the dynam i c vortex expressed
, , ,

by (B ) We arrive th us at the same set o f fu n damental g eo m et

.

ric eq uation s as b e fore (A ) F u rth erm ore we h a ve ev i

, ,

d en t ly the same righ t as before to i ntrod uce th e restricti ve cond i

ti on s (D ) (D ) (D ) A d iscu ssion o f equation (f ) si m ilar to
1 , 2 , 3
.
,

that gi ve n abo ve for equation (5 I) sh ows us that we are en ti tled ,

(
,

i n th is case also t o i mpose the con d ition (D ) u pon th e fu ndamental 4

u id si nce i n a u id hav i ng the properties (D ) (D ) a m ov i ng

, , 3

u id particle ca n n ot h ave a n en ergetic velocity i f th is d id n o t

ex i st previously .

The geo metric an al ogy th erefore ex ists exactly as before the ,

con d ition s for i ts existen ce bei ng ch anged on ly w i th respect t o th i s

o n e poi n t that th e con dition
, (D )no w refers t o t he material part i 4

cles belongi ng to the fu ndam en tal u id a n d n ot to th e po i n ts i n ,

space occ up ied by th is u id The con sequ ence of th i s d i fferen ce .

w i ll be d iscussed later .

F i nal ly we see that t o th is geometric analogy we ca n add a

,

dynam i c an alogy R equ i ring th at th e en ergetic vel ocity be co n

.

served i nd i v id ua l/y we have ,

and reason i ng as befo re we n d that u nder th is cond ition th e u i d

, ,

sys t em w il l exert per u n i t vol u m e the force

(E )2 (div A )a s
f2a V a (cu rl a ) x A aA v
Z
c ,

wh ich i n form oppositely co rresponds to th e forces i n th e electric

, ,

or magn etic eld accord ing to the exp ression (I V 8 E )

,
.
, 2
.

1 1 We ha ve th us arri ved i n two di ff eren t ways at a n analogy

.

between th e equations of hyd rody nam ic elds a n d th ose of th e

stationary el ectric or m agnetic eld A nd from a n analytical .
,

poi nt of v iew th is an alogy seems as com plete as po ss ible apart

, ,

from th e Opposite sign o f th e forces exerte d by th e eld s .

 PROPERTI ES O F TH E H YDRO DYNA M I C F I ELD .

In regar d to th e closen ess of th is an alytical a no log y we h ave to ,

remark that we do n o t k now w ith perfect ce rtai n ty wh ich o f

'

th e expressi ons (E ) or ,
i f ei ther represe nts the tru ed ist r i bu
,

tion Of the elemen ta ry forces i n the electric o r th e m agn etic eld ,

wh i l e the co rrespon d in g distrib ution of forces i n th e hydrodyn am ic

eld are real d istrib ution s O f forces wh ich are exer t ed by the eld
an d wh ich ha ve to be cou n teracted by exterior forces, if th e cond i
tions i m posed u po n th e m otion of th e system are t o be ful l led We .

can not therefore dec ide wh ich of th e t w o form s th at we have fou n d

, ,

for the an alogy is th e m ost fu ndam ental B ut we know w ith per .

feet certai nty that i f we i n tegrate th i s system o f elemen tary forces

,

for a wh ole body we get th e true val ue o f the resu ltan t force i n th e
,

electric or magnetic eld When we l i m i t ou rself to th e con sidera

.

tio n O f th e resul tan t force on ly the two forms O f the analogy are
,

therefore equ ivalen t A nd from th e i n tegration performed i n th e

.

preced i ng l ec tu re we concl ude at on ce that th e resu ltan t forces ,

upon th e bod ies i n th e hyd rody nam ic el d ca n also be repre

sen ted as resul ti ng from the ctitiou s d istribution s
3 ) (d iv A)a A
,
av (curl a ) x A ,

an d
(E )
4
f4 a
o (div a)a a
0 (cu r l a ) x a .

Th e fact wh ich we h a ve j ust proved that th e laws o f the elec

, ,

t ri c o r magn etic eld s an d o f th e hyd rodynam ic elds ca n be rep

resen ted by the sam e set o f form ul ae u ndoubtedly shows that th ere
,

i s a close relation between th e la ws o f hyd rodyn am ics an d th e laws

o f electricity a n d magn etism B u t th e formal analogy between th e
.

l aws does n ot n ecessarily i m ply al so a real anal ogy between the

th i n gs to wh ich they rel ate O r as M AX W ELL expressed i t : th e
.
,

analogy of th e r ela t i ons Of th i ngs does no t n ecessari ly im ply an

analogy of th e thi ng s r ela t ed .

Th e subject O f o ur n ext i n vestigation w il l be t o con sider to ,

w hat ex tent we ca n pass fro m th is form al an alogy between the

hyd rodynam ic form ul ae a nd th e electric o r magn etic form ul ae to an

a nalogy Of perfectly concrete natu re such as that represen ted by,

ou r experi men ts .
 VI .

F URT H E R D E V E L OPM E N T S A ND D I SCUSS I O N S OF

TH E A N A LO G Y .

1 . A ccordi ng
to the system s Of form u l ae wh ich we have de
v elo ed
p the hydrody nam ic analogy seem s t o exten d t o th e wh ol e
,

domai n o f s ta tionary el ectric or stationary magneti c elds B u t

,
.

accordi ng to ou r elem en ta ry a nd experi men tal i n vestigation we ,

arri ved at two d i fferen t an alogies wh ich were wh olly detached

from each other The re i s n o co ntradiction i n vol ved i n these r e
.

s u lt s I n o u r analytical i n vestigation we h ave h itherto ta ken on ly

.

a formal poi n t Of view i n vestigati ng the analogy between th e for

,

ma ] l aws of hyd rodyn am ics and Of elec tromagnetism I f from t he .

,

analogy between the formal laws we try to proce ed fu rther to a n,

analogy between the d i fferen t physica l phen omena obeyi ng them ,

we sha ll arri ve at th e two deta ch ed fragmen ts o f th e analogy

wh ich we ha v e stud ied ex peri mental ly .

2 B etween th e hyd rodyn am ic an d t he el ectric o r magn etic

.

systems there i s gen eral ly th i s i m porta n t d i fferen ce Th e hyd ro .

dyn am ic system is moving a nd th erefore gen eral ly ch angi ng its

,

con gu ration B ut apparen tly at l east th e electric o r magn eti c

.
, ,

systems with wh ich we com pare the m are at rest Th e corre .

s o nd en ce developed b etween hyd rodynam ic an d elec tromagn etic

p
form ul ae th erefore gi ves on ly a momen tary an al ogy between the
t wo ki n ds o f elds w h ich ex ist u nder d i fferen t con ditions
,
.

To get an analogy n ot only i n form ul ae b ut i n experi m en ts

, ,

we m u st th erefore i ntrod uce the con d ition that th e bod ies i n th e

hyd rodynam ic system sh ould appear stationary i n space Th i s .

can be don e i n t w o ways F i rst th e u id system can be i n a

.
,

stea dy state of m oti on so that th e bodi es are l i m ited by su r

.

faces o f i n variable shapes and position i n space Secon d th e .

,

u id ca n be i n a state of vi bratory motion so that th e bod ies per ,

form smal l v i bration s abou t i n va riable m ean position s .

1 02
 DEVELO PMEN T S AN D D I SCUSS I O NS OF TH E ANAL O GY . 1 03

3 . The rst for m o f th e an alytical

Stea d y S t a te o i I o ti o n
'

.
-

analogy i n wh ich we su pposed local con servation of th e en ergetic

,

speci c m om entu m ,

(0 )

i m m ediately lead s u s t o th e con si deration o f a perfectly steady

state o f motion at wh ich we arri ve i f we assu m e besides (a ) al so
, ,

th e local con servatio n o f th e i nd uced s peci c m omentum ,

(6) it
wh ich is pe rfectly co n sisten t wi th (a ) i n the case of a steady . B ut
sta te o f m ot ion th e gen era li ty of the eld i s very l i m ited o n ao ,
-

cou nt of t he con d itio n that th e u id both ou tside and i n side , ,

mo ves tangen tially to th e stationary su r face wh i ch li m i ts the

bod ies .

4 I rr o ta ti o na l Ci r cula t i on Out i d e the B odi es

. A s th e m otion
s .

ou tside the bodies ful lls the cond ition curl a 0 an d i n co u se , ,

q uen c e Of th e constancy Of the specic vol u me al so the con ,

a
o,

d ition curl A = O the m otion i n th e exterior space wil l be th e

,

well k nown m otion o f i rrota tional circu lation wh ich is on ly possible ,

i f th e space he m ulti ply co n nected I f th en there i s to be an y .

, ,

m oti on o f th e exterior u id at al l o ne or more o f the bodies m u st,

be pierced by ch an n els th rough wh ich the u id ca n circu late .

Bodies wh ich ha ve n o chan nels act on ly as Obstruction s i n th e

cu rrent wh ich ex ists because of the chan n els thro ugh th e other
,

bod ies The velocity o r the specic m omen tu m by wh ich t h i s

.

m otio n i s d escri bed has a n on u n i form scalar potentia l -

Th e .

strea m l i n es are a ll closed and n ever pen etrate i nto th e i n terior

-

o f the bod ies but ru n tangentially to th e su r faces

,
The corre .

s po n d i ng electrodyn am ic eld wi th closed li nes o f force r un n i ng

,

tangen tial ly to th e bod ies a nd hav i ng a n o n u n iform poten tial -

i s also a wel l k nown eld .

5 Co rr e p on d i ng F i l d I n si d e th B o d i es
. s e Th is ex terior el d
e .
-

ca n correspo n d i n the hyd rodyn am ic as w ell as i n th e electro

, ,
1 04 F I ELDS O F F O RCE .

magneti c case to d i fferen t arrangem en ts i n th e i n terior o f th e

,

bod ies Th e m ost stri king restriction o n th e exterior eld is th e

.

con dition th at the l in es Of force or o f ow shal l n ever pen etrate

i n to th e bod ies I n th e magn etic case th is co n dition wi ll al ways

.

be fu l l l ed if the bod ies con sist o f a n i n n itely d iamagn etic

mate rial and a eld w ith th ese properties wi l l be set u p by any
,

d istribu tion o f el ectric cu rren ts i n th ese i n n i tely d iamagn etic

bod ies The hyd rodynam ic con d ition correspon di ng t o zero i n
.

d uc ti v i ty is zero m obil ity The bod ies th en retai n th ei r form s

.

an d their position s i n space as a con sequence of an i n n ite

d en si ty an d the accom pa ny ing i n n ite i nertia N o w i n th e ca se .

o f i n n ite den sity a n i n n i tely smal l veloci ty w i ll correspo n d to a

n ite speci c mom entu m We ca n then h ave i n these i n n i tely

.

heavy bodies a ny n i te d istri bu tion o f speci c momentu m an d o f

the dynam ic vortex wh ich correspon ds to th e electric cu rren t a nd
, ,

yet to th is specic m o men tu m there wi l l corres po n d n o v isibl e

mot ion wh ich can i n terfere w ith the con di tion Of the i m mobi l i ty
Of th e bod ies .

O ther i n terior ar rangements ca n also be con cei ved w h ich pro

d uce the sam e exterior eld The co nd ition o f i n n ite d ia m ag
.

n et i v i t
y m ay be repl aced by th e con dition that a spec ial syste m
o f electri c currents be i n t roduced t o m ake bod ies ap p ea r t o be

i n n itely d iam ag netic The correspon d ing hyd rodynam ic case wil l
.

exist if we abandon th e i n n ite i n ertia as the ca use o f th e i m m o

b i li t y of th e b o d i es an d al so d ispen se with th e creation o f a ny gen
eral d ist r ibu tion o f dyn am ic vortices i n th e bod ies and i f we i n ,

t ro d uc e i nstea d spec ial d istri bu tion s O f vortices subj ect t o th e

, ,

con d ition that th ey be the v ortices o f a m otion wh ich d oes no t

ch ange the form o f th e bodies o r th ei r position i n S pace Th is .

d istri bution o f th e dyn am ic vorti ces w i ll from a geometric po i nt

,

of v iew be exactly th e same as th e d istri bution o f electri c c urren t

,

wh ich makes bodies appear i n n itely diamagn etic .

F i nal ly a th i rd arrangem en t is possibl e I n bodies Of any i n

,
.

d u ct i v i ty we can set u p any d istribu ti on Of el ectric cu rrents an d ,

si m u l tan eously i n trodu ce a special i n trinsic magn etic polariza tion

 DEVELO PM EN T S A ND D I SCUSS I O NS OF T HE ANALOGY .

1 05

wh ich makes the bo dies appear to be in n itely d iamagn eti c Co r .

r es o n d i n ly we can gi ve to bod ies o f any m ob il i t

p g , y any d is t r i b u
tion O f dynam ic vortices u nder th e cond ition that we x the
bod ies i n space by a su itabl e d istribution o f energetic veloci ties
p rod u ced by ex tern a l forces .

6 The Dy na m ic A na log y
. I n t he cases th us in dicated th e
.

geometric analogy bet ween the elds w i l l be perfect A n d w ith .

th is d i rect geomet r ic a nalogy we have an i n verse dyn am ic analogy .

The system o f elemen ta ry forces by wh i ch th e eld ten ds t o pro ,

d uce visible motion s of th e bodies a nd wh ic h m u st be cou nter ,

acted by exterior forces oppositely correspond s i h th e two system s

,
.

The si m plest experi ments demonstrati ng these theoretica l resul ts

are those show ing the att raction an d th e repu lsi on of rotati ng cyli n
ders an d the attracti on of a n on rotatin g by a rotating cyl i n der
,
-

, ,

correspo ndi ng to the repul sion Of a d iamagnetic b o dy by a n elec

tric cu rren t .

A s th e an alogy th us devel oped holds fo r any arrangemen t Of

el ectric cu rren ts i n i n n itely d iamagn etic bod ies it w i l l also h old ,

fo r th e arra ngemen t by wh ich magnets ca n be represen ted accord

i ng to A M PERE S th eory \Ve ca n th us al so get a n analogy to

.

magn etism but i n a pe cu lia rly restricted way since i t refers only
, ,

t o perma nen t magnets con structed Of a n i n n itely d iamagn etic

materi al Th e hydrodynam ic rep resen tati on of a magnet i s th ere
.

fore a body pierced by a m ul titude o f chan n els th rough w h ich th e

exterior u id ci rcu lates i rrotational ly S uch bod ies wil l then exert .

apparen t action s at a d istan ce u pon each other correspo n di n g in ,

v ers elv to th ose exerted by perman en t m agnets wh ich h ave the

pecu lia r pro perty o f being con structed o f an in n itely d iamagnetic

m aterial Th is pecul iar an alogy was discovered by L O RD K ELV I N
.

i n 1 8 7 0 bu t by a m eth od wh ich d i ffers com pletely fro m that

,

wh ich we h ave followed h ere .

7 R s tr ic ted G n a li ty of the F i eld f o r the Ca se of Vi br a to r y

. e e er

Jlf t i o n
o .Th e hypothesis o f a v ibratory motion also restricts t he
.

gen eral ity of t he eld bu t i n an oth er way tha n does the cond ition of
,

steady motion F o r wh en the speci c momen tu m i s v ibra tory its

.
, ,

14
106 F I ELDS OF FO RCE .

cu rl i f i t h as an y m ust also be vibratory Bu t we h ave fou n d that

, , .

th is c u rl or th e dy nam i c vortex d en sity is a con stan t at every

, ,

poi n t i n space an d i s th us i ndepen dent of th e ti m e Th e dyn am ic

, .

vortex therefore m u st be everywh ere zero and the equ ation s ex ,

pressi ng the geom etric analogy red uce t o

A as A
c url a O,

div A E ,

w i th the con dition s fo r th e surrou nd i ng u id ,

(6) a E = O, A ,
O .

The equation s thu s take the form of th e eq uation s for the static
el ectric o r the static magnetic eld so that the analogy wil l n o t
, ,

extend beyon d th e l i m its Of static elds To establ ish th e cor .

respond i ng dyn am ic an alogy we may u se n either Of the con di tion s

(V 9 a o r 1 0
.
, , F o r both are con trad ictory t o the cond ition
,

fo r vi bratory m otion e have to retu rn t o the u n restricted

Y
.

equatio n for t he en ergetic m otion an d the form wh ich in th i s case ,

leads t o th e m ost gen eral resu lts is (1 0 f ) wh ich accord ing to (a ) , ,

red uces t o
(c) (di v A)a
2
f a Va aAc v .

Th is system of equation s i s valid for an y single mom en t d u ri ng the

v ibratory motion e shal l h a ve t o t ry to deduce from it an other
.
r

sys t em o f eq uation s wh ich represents t he i n variabl e m ean sta te of

th e syste m .

8 Per i o d i c F u nc t i o n s
. To d escri be the v ibratory m oti on we
.

shal l em ploy on ly o n e periodi c f n ction o f the ti m e an d therefore

u ,

the d i fferen t particles o f th e u i d w il l n o t have v ibratory m otion s

i ndependen t Of each oth er Th e m otion of the u id w il l have
.

th e character o f a fu ndam ental m od e Of a n el astic system To .

describe th is fu ndam en tal m ode we u se a peri o d ic fu n c t i o n f o f th e , ,

period 7 ; th u s
()
a f (t 7 =
) f (t )
 DEVEL O PM EN T S AND D I SCUSS I O NS O F T HE ANAL O GY . 1 07

The val ues of the fu nction f sh oul d be con tai n ed between n ite
li m its bu t th e period 7 sh ould be a smal l quan ti ty o f the rst
,

order F urther th e fun ction f m u st be subject to th e fol lowi ng

.
,

Con di tion s du ri ng a period i t shal l have a l i n ear m ean val ue 0

:
,

and a quad ratic m ea n val ue 1 th u s ,

1[
H
(b) yena o,

(c) 1

E viden tly th ese con d ition s d o no t restrict the n atu re o f th e fu nc

tion provided i t be periodi c A ny period ic fu nction m ay be made
, .

t o ful l them by the proper adj ustm en t Of an add i ti ve co n stan t an d

of a con stan t fac tor A n in sta n ce o f a fu n ctio n wh i ch fu l l s th e
.

co n dition s is
d
() f (t ) si n 27 1.

F rom th e condi tion s that th e period i s a sm al l qu an tity of th e

rst order a nd that th e mean l i near val u e o f the fu n ction for
a pe riod is zero i t i s ded uced at on ce th at the ti m e i ntegral of th e
, ,

fu nction over a u i n terval o f ti me m ultipl ied by any n i te factor

v

n w il l n ever exceed a certai n smal l quan tity o f the rst order We .

m ay th u s write
(e) f n
f (t )d t a,

wh ere n is a n ite factor a n d 8 a certa in smal l quan ti ty o f th e

,

rst order .

9 R ep r es ent ti on f the Vi b r a to r y Sta te o f hf o ti o n by ! u a n ti ti es

. a o

I n d ep end ent of the Ti m e To get eq uation s wh ich de ne u n i

form ly th e vi brato ry m otion we can n ow m ake u se Of th e property

Of th e eld that i t i s determ i n ed un iquely by the en e rgetic v elo c
,

ity A i n con n ection with the vel ocity o f expan sion E The motion
,
.

wil l th us be den itely determ i ned by th e t w o equation s ,

(0 )1
A .
A f (t ) ,

(d z) E : E m f (t ) ,
108 F I ELDS OF F O RCE .

where A and E are quanti ties i ndepen dent of th e ti me b u t

n ,

vary i ng of cou rse from particle to particle A s to th ei r absol u te .

val ues these con stan ts a re the q uadratic m ean val ues of th e ener
,
~

getic vel oc ity A and of th e vel ocity of expan sion E F o r from

,
.
,

equation (8 c) we get , ,

The con sta nts A an d E for d i fferen t particles i n space m ay

, ,

h ave d i fferen t sign s Th es e are al ways gi ven by the equation s

.

(a ) and
,
an d th e ru le Of S ign s m ay be ex pressed th us ; th e
qua ntities A an d E ha ve res pecti ely al ways t he same sign as
,
v

th e variable quan tities A an d E h ad at a certai n i n itial tim e Th e .

absol u te signs th us attribu ted to A a n d E have n o great i m m n

por tan ce b ut i t is i m portant that th is rule determ i nes perfectl y th e

,

sign s wh ich th e d i ff erent quan t ities A an d E h ave r la ti v ely to

.
, ,
e

each other .

Wi th regard to th e mo t ion s determ i ned by ( ) we ca n con cl ude a

,

from the property (8 e)o f t l e fun ction f th at th e energetic vel oci ty

,
1 ,

prod uces d isplacemen t from th e mean positio n o f the particle

s ,

w h ich n ever exceed a certai n sm al l quan tity o f the rst ord er .

A nd i n the sa me way we co ncl ude th at th e change Of vol u me pro ,

d u ced by th e periodic vel oci ty of expa nsion an d contraction n ever

exceeds a s mal l q uantity O f th e sa me order Th is h as th e i m por .

ta n t con sequ ence th at n egl ecti ng smal l q uan titi es o f the rst order
, ,

we can con sider the S pecic vol um e Of th e u id as con stan t ex ,

a
, ,

cept Of cou rse i n cases wh ere i t has to u n dergo a d i fferen ti ati on

, ,

with respect t o the ti me .

A ccord i ng to th i s it is easy to write th e expl ici t expressions of

,

the actual vel oc ity A and Of th e specic m oment u m a D oi ng .

th is ,

(bi )
(62 ) a
 DEVEL O PM E N T S AN D D I SCUSS IO NS O F THE ANAL O GY . 1 09

Fo r the substitution Of th ese expression s a nd th e expression s (a )

i n the equations (7 a )shows that th ey satisfy th em if the quan ti
, ,

ties i ndepen den t Of the ti me satisfy th e equation s

Am = a am + Aem J

cu rl a m 0,

di v Am E

i n con n ection with the con ditions for th e exterior u i d

(d ) a Am 0, E m 0 .

I f these equation s be satised (6) wil l satisfy th e equation s an d

,

rep resen t the sol u tion as there ex ists bu t o ne

,
.

Th e eq u ation s (c) wh ich th e qu an tities Am

,
A satisfy , ,

ha ve exactly the sa m e for m as the equation s (7 a ) Th ey gi ve ,

.
,

therefore fo r al l ti m es th e sam e analogy to an i n vari abl e el ectro

,

magn etic el d as th e corres po nd i ng variabl e quan tities gi ve for a

si ngle momen t Th e S i m ilarity i s so great that i t i s n o t even
.

n ecessa ry to i ntrod u ce two sets Of n otation To pass from th e .

o ne form o f th e an alogy t o the other it i s su ffi cien t to change the

sign i cation Of the letters i n th e equation s (7 a ); i f th ese quan ,

ti ties are i n terpreted n o t as the velocities and the specic m o

,

m en ta them sel ves bu t as representin g i n th e i nd i cated man ner the

,

mea n i n ten sities Of these quan ti ties they gi ve th e geometric ,

analogy ex istin g at a ny ti m e between th e electric or m agn etic

eld a n d the c ase o f vi bratory m otion i n th e hydrodyn am ic eld .

1 0 The Ilf a n Va l e o f the Fo r c e i n the Vi br a tory F i eld

. e
-

u F i nal ly .
,

to exam i ne the dynam ics Of th e eld we have to substitu te th e

expression s (9 a ) an d (9 b) i n the equati on Of en ergetic m otion
, ,

(7 c) a n d perform th e i ntegration over a period Of the osci lla

,

tions U si ng th e property (8 b) Of the fu n ction f we n d that

.
, ,

th e left ba nd m em ber O f the equation d isappears D esignati ng by .

f : th e m ean val ue o f the exterior force f an d usi ng th e property

"

(8 c) o f the fu n ct i o n f we n d
, ,

2
0 f; (di v Am p", %a "
,
V a
110 F I ELDS O F FO RCE .

Th is eq uation shows th at du ri ng th e v ibratory state o f motion

th e external force wi l l have t o balance a m ean force exerted by
th e system wh ich has th e valu e
,

( Am)a m
di v ! a f 7 a
n
a mA em v '

Th e expression has again exactly th e sam e form as the expres

sion for th e force i n th e case Of th e m omentary an al ogy except that ,

th e vary i ng q uan tities are replaced by quan tities i n dependen t o f

the ti me Th e si m ilarity o f th e expression s makes it u n n ecessary
.

t o u se t w o systems of n otation \Ve can write the ex pression fo r

.

th e force
(d iv A )a a V a aA V , ,

and in terpret accordi ng to the ci rcu m stances the quan ti ties a and
, ,

A as the mom enta ry val u es Of speci c mom en tu m a n d velocity re ,

s pecti vely o r as th e quan tities wh ich represen t i n the way i n di cated

th e mea n i nten sit ies of these quan ti ties I n o ne ca se we arri ve at
.

th e anal ogy wh ich ex ists for a m omen t on ly i n th e other case at ,

the analogy wh ich ex ists i ndependen t O f the ti m e Both an alogies .

h ave th e same d egree o f exactn ess th e geometric anal ogy be i ng

,

d i rect an d th e dyn am ic analogy be in g i n verse

, .

1 1 We have th u s a rri ved at thi s resul t that in th e case O f

.
,

v ibra t ory motion th e hyd rod ynam ic eld can b e described w ith
reference t o geo metric properties by the follow i n g fo r m u lfe ,

A as Ac,

c url a = 0,

di v A E ,

together wi th the cond ition s fo r the fu ndam en ta l u id ,

6
() a = E = 0, A, = O .

A nd th i s u id system i n the supposed v ibratory state of m otion

, ,

w i ll exert exterior forces te nd i ng to p rod u ce visi ble m otion s wh ich

.

are gi ven by
(c ) (di v A )a ha aA V f
a
,
.
 DEVELO PM EN T S AN D D I SCUSSIO NS OF TH E ANALOGY . 111

I n th ese equation s all q uan tities are i ndepen den t o f t he ti me .

B u t these equation s are also the fu n da men tal equ ation s for an
electrostatic o r for a magn etic system except fo r t he di fference that
,

th e force f has th e Op posite d i rection It i s an Open question

,
.

w hether th is ex pression for the elemen tary forces i n th e case o f the

el ectric o r m agn etic el d i s fu n damental o r on ly a cti tiou s force
,

wh ich gi ves th e righ t val ue Of th e resu lta n t force u po n th e whol e

body .

We ha v e su cceed ed i n p rov i ng this the v i br a tory hyd r od yn a m ic

:

eld ha s the sa m e g eometr ic cong u r a ti on as a n electr osta ti c o r a

ma g n et i c eld I n the hyd r od y na mi c eld t her e a r e f orces w hose
.

r es ulta n t up on n ite bod i es Opp osi tely cor r esp o nd s to the corr esp on d
i ng r es ulta n t f orc s i n the elect r i c o r m a g n eti c eld
e .

To sho w th at th is resul t gi ves th e fu l l ex planation of al l o u r

experi ments w ith th e pu lsatin g an d osci llati ng bod ies we h ave

o n ly to add o ne remark I n o ur ex peri men ts we u sed pulsatin g
.

a n d os ci llati ng bod ies constructed o f sol id m aterial O n th e .

other han d i n o u r math em atical developments we h ave co nsid

,

ered th e bodies as u id Bu t these u id bod i es are sub ject to th e

.

action o f forces wh ich gi ve th e presc ribed state o f v i bration an d ,

wh ich a re s ubject to n o restricti ve cond ition s N oth i ng preven ts .

us therefore from adj u sting these forces so as to g ive the u id

, ,

bodies th e sa m e m otio n as th ey would h ave i f th ey were con

structed o f sol id mate rial The reaction s exerted u po n th em by
.

th e su rrou n d in g u id wi l l th en of cou rse be exactly th e sam e as

if th ey were con structed o f sol id material .

1 2 We h ave noth i ng t o add to th e dem on stration of th e anal

.

ogy B u t to ma ke ou rsel ves better acqu ai n ted w ith it we may

.
, ,

m a ke a si m ple appl ication of i t I n the a nalogy fo r i nsta n ce

.
, ,

pu lsati ng pa r ticl es prod uce eld s of the sa m e geometric co ng ura

tion as electrical ly charged particl es an d are acted u pon by forces
,

oppositely co rrespondi ng t o t hose acti ng u po n th e latter Pul sati n g .

particles wil l th e refore act u pon each other accord i ng to a law

analogou s t o th at o f CO U LO M B except fo r th e reversed S ign of th e
,

force I ntroduci ng fo r th e cha rg es or the i nte nsities of pulsatio n

.
,

of th e two particles
1 12 FI E L DS o r F O RCE .

G :

an d usi ng th e ration al system of u n its we get ,

fo r this law

r bei ng the d istance between the two particles an d 01 the i nd uc , 0

t i v i t y or th e mobil ity of th e med i u m

, .

L et us now i magi n e a n i n vestigator who observes th e attractio n

an d th e repulsion o f th e pulsati ng bodies but wh o is n ot capable ,

o f observi ng the water wh ich tran sfers the action or th e pu lsa ,

tion s wh ich set u p th e el d i n th e water H e w il l then bel ieve .

th at he sees a n actio n at a distan ce follow ing a la w havi ng the ,

same form as that govern i ng th e action at a dista n ce between el ec

t r i ed particles.

L et u s i magi ne that as h e proceeds i n h is fu rth er i n vestigation s

, ,

h e m oves on e pulsati ng body e from po i n t t o poi n t i n the space

,

,

su rrou nd ing the other measu res at each poi n t th e force F au d

, ,

d raws a n arrow represen ting the val ue o f F/ H e then arri ves

e .

at th e form al d i position of a eld wh ich is asso ciated with th e

s

pu lsati ng body 6 H e has n o more than i n th e electrical case

.
, ,

a f ormal right to attri bute to th is el d a physi cal sign i ca nce o r ,

to attribu te to the record ed vector a physical ex istence H i s ex .

pe ri m en t s gi ve h i m e v iden ce on ly o f th is that th ere i s a force act

,

i n g at t he poi n t wh ere he places h is secon d charge Bu t h e ,

e

.

has n o evidence of th e ex isten ce of a physical vector at th is po in t

a fter h e has removed th e charge
e .

B u t i n S pi te o f t h is he m ay try t o ch ange h is View

,
H e may .

i magin e the ex iste nce o f a m ed i u m wh ich he does n o t see a nd ,

m ake the hypothesis th at the vector represents som e sta te ex ist

i ng o r som e process goi ng on i n th is m edi u m I n the el ectrica l
, ,
.

ca se we have n o d i rect evidence th at th i s hy pothesis i s correct ,

al though th u s far the developmen t of o u r k n o wledge o f electricity

,

m a kes it ex trem ely proba b le that there m ust be som e truth i n i t .

B u t i n the hyd rodyn am ic case w e h ave th e fu l l evidence : the .

 DEVEL O PMEN T S AN D D I SCUSS I ONS OF T HE ANAL O GY . 1 13

m ed i u m exists ; i t is an i ncom pressible u id A nd th e vector r e .

corded represents th e spec ic m om entu m i n t he eld set u p i n the

u id by th e pul sating body Th u s we get a verication by an alogy
.

o f th e hypothesis w h ich form s th e basi s o f th e whol e m odern

theory o f electric ity .

1 3 B u t n ow let o u r hyd rodyn am ic i n vestigator proceed sti l l

.

fu rther L et h i m con cl u de w ith M A X W ELL that th e a ttraction

.
,

an d repu lsion between th e pu l sating bod ies m u st depen d u pon

a stress i n th e med i u m F ol lowi ng M A X W ELL S devel opments
.

h e wil l arri ve at th e expression of M A X W ELL S stresses w ith

,

the reve rsed S ign B u t h is con cl usion i n th is case that M A !

.
,

W ELL S stresses ex ist i n th e u id and prod uce th e attraction o f th e

pu lsati ng bod y i s w rong Th e stress tha t ex ists i n th e u id an d

,
.

prod uces the apparen t action s at a d istan ce i s n ot M A X W ELL S

stress bu t th e isotropic stress o r pressu re i n the u id We can

,
.

n o t co ncl ude from th is that M A X W ELL S developmen ts a re also

w rong for th e electric eld B u t w e h ave fu ll evidence that they

.

ma y be wrong even i n th is case ,

.

To retu rn to th e hydrodynam ic case i t i s easy to poi n t o u t ,

where th e error com es i n M AX W ELL on ly i n trod uces h is stresses

.

t o accou n t for th e forces wh ic h prod uce th e v isi bl e m otion s B ut .

i n th e hyd rody nam ic el d the stress o r pressu re has a d ou bl e

ta sk ; rst t o ma i ntai n th e eld an d secon d to prod uce th e v isi bl e
, , ,

m ot ions A n d i t i s extremely remarkable that th e stress wh ich

-
.

has th is doubl e e ffect is a stress O f m uch si m pler n atu re tha n the

stress i magin ed by M AX W ELL wh ich prod uces on ly o n e o f the ,

two e ff ec t s .

W hen we de veloped the electromagn etic equati on o f acti v ity

accord ing to H EA V I S I DE we also m et with the m ore gen eral
,

stres ses i n trod uced by h i m wh ich reduce i n si m pl e cases to ,

M A X W ELL S stresses
W e can not test H E A V I SI D E S develop
.

men ts i n the same way as M A X W ELL S F o r we h ave no

.

hyd rodyn am ic analogy extendi ng to the electromagn eti c ph e

n o m en a o f th e m ost gen eral type fro m wh ich he starts wh en h e ,

forms the equation Of acti vity B u t the fact rema i ns that t h e .

15
1 14 F I ELDS O F FO RCE .

s r t ess es , even in H E A V I SI D E S th eory are i n trod uced on ly to ex plai n

,

the visibl e motio n observed i n th e eld n ot the formatio n o r m ai n ,

t ena nce O f th e eld i tsel f A n d even H eaviside gi ves wh i le em

.
,

pha s i z i ng th e i m portan ce o f th e stress probl em i n d i fferen t form s

-

ex pression to the u nsati sfactory natu re of o u r presen t sol uti on o f

i t Th us
O ur atti tude to w ards the gen eral appl ication of th e special
form of the stress theory Obtai n ed shou ld th erefore be o n e o f , ,

scien ti c sceptici sm Th is S hou ld h owever be careful ly disti n

.
, ,

g ui s hed from a n obsti n ate prej ud ice fou n ded u pon ignorance such ,

as displayed by some an ti M a x w ellia n s -

I t i s n atu ral to ask w hat part do th e stresses play i n the prop

a a t i o n O f d istu rban ces Th e stresses an d a ccom pany ing strai n s
g
i n an elastic body are m ateria ll y con cerned i n th e tran sm is ion of s

m otion th rough t hem and i t m igh t be th ough t th at i t m igh t be

,

the sam e h ere B u t i t does n ot pp a r t o be so from th e el ectro

. a e

m agnetic equation s a u d thei r dynam ical con seq uen ces that i s to
say we represen t the propagation of d isturbances by particu lar
,

relation s between the spa ce a nd the ti m e variations of E a n d H ; -

an d th e electrom agnetic stress a nd possibl e m otion s seem to be

accom pan iments rather th an t he m ai n th em e T .

It m ay th erefore b e a question wheth er this wi l l n o t be the

, ,

great problem i n the theory Of el ec tric i ty to n d a stress wh ich ,

accou n ts for both the formati on a nd propagation Of th e el ect ro

magnetic el d a n d for th e v isi b le m otion s Of th e charged or polar
i ed bod ies j ust a th e pressu re i n the u id ac cou n t s for bo t h th e
z ,
s

formatio n of the hyd rody nam ic eld an d for th e v i sible m oti on s

Of th e pulsati ng o r oscil lati ng bod ies .

E l tr m g ti Th ry V l I p 8 7
ec o a ne c eo o

p
. . .
, ,

1 L oc . ci t , . 1 10 .
 VI I .

N E R AL CO N CLU S I O N S
GE .

R EM A R K S ON M ET H O DS O F R ESEA RCH A ND O F INS T RUCT I O N

I N TH EORETI CA L PH YS I CS .

1 . The Pr obl m e f
o F i elds o
f F orc e W e h ave i n the pre
ced i ng l ectu res taken th e term eld a more gen eral o f force
in
sen se than u sual F ro m the electric or magn etic elds we have
.

extended th is ter m also to th e elds o f m otion i n a perfect u id .

A nd th i s has been perfectly j ustied by the results Obtain ed ,

th e m os t s t r i k i ng o f wh ich is the extraord i nary analogy I n th e

p roperties o f th e two k ind s Of elds S o far as th e analogy ex .

tends there is o n e an d on ly o ne di fferen ce t he reversed S ign

, , , ,

Of th e en ergetic forces Th e relation o f th e electromagnetic and

.
.

th e hydrod ynam ic eld s may be co m pared to the relation be

tween a n obj ec t a nd its i mage i n a m ir ror ; every characteristic
detail o f the Object is recogn ized i n th e i mage bu t at the sam e ,

time th ere is the character istic d ifferen ce that left an d righ t

are i n terchanged B ut however pecu liar th i s di fference may be
.
, ,

it ca n n ot h ide th e com m on structu re o f th e Object an d its i mage .

The d isc ove ry o f th is ex traord i nary an alogy gi ves rise t o sev

eral con sideration s an d o ne o f the rst i s th is H a s ou r r e search
,

bee n exhaustive ? A re th e ph en om ena i n vestigated by u s the

on ly phen om en a wh ich have the sam e general structu re as th e
electromagn etic phen om ena o r ca n stil l other ph enom en a with
,

correspon di ng fu n damen ta l properties be discovered

I th i n k that i t i s very i m probable that o u r i n vestigati on has
been ex haustive E ven with i n the domai n o f hydrodynam ics o ur
.

i n vestigatio n h as probably been in co m plete There are i n deed .

, ,

ve ry strong i n dications th at a n an alogy between electromagn etic

an d hydrodynam ic el ds may be fou n d with qu ite an oth er co r
respo ndence between th e electric an d the hyd rodynam ic quan ti
115
116 F I ELDS O F F O RCE .

ties A nd if we n o longer l i m it ou rsel ves to th e co nsideration o f

.

u ids bu t pass to m edia o f other an d more gen eral properties we

, ,

m ay hope t o n d sti ll other form s of th e analogy perhaps Of even ,

greater gen eral ity .

2 F i eld s i n Other l ed i d tha n F l u id s

.
/

The question n ow

arises : A r e no t th e laws wh ich we h ave fou n d so en tirely depen

den t u pon th e u id prope rties that i t wi l l be u sel ess t o l ook for
Si m i lar la ws when we pass t o other m ed ia ? To an swer th i s ques
ti on we have to l ook for th e origi n o f th e hyd rody nam ic an alogy .

We then see th at the geo m etric analogy h ad i ts origi n t o a great

exten t i n the equation of co n ti n u i ty A nd as th i s equation ex
.
,

presses th e pri n cipl e O f th e co n servatio n o f mass it holds fo r a ny ,

material med i u m and furn i shes th e sam e basi s for a possibl e g eo

,

met r ic anal og y t o el ect romagnetic elds .

O n th e oth er h a n d th e dy nam ic properties O f th e hyd rodyn am ic

,

elds h ad thei r origi n pri nci pal ly i n th e i n ertia of th e u id masses .

Th is is seen equal ly wel l i n th e elem enta ry developm en t Of th e

forces by th e pri nciple o f k i netic b uoyan cy and i n th e mathem atical
de velopm en ts o f L ectu re V wh ere i t is seen that the com pl ete
,

expression Of the en ergetic force devel ops from th e i n e r tia term of

the hydrody n am ic eq uation of motio n .

A bri ef con sideration th u s S hows that the p rin cipal cond ition s
from wh ich th e hydrodynam ic analogy t o th e el ec tromagnetic eld s
developed ex ist i n any material med i u m no t alon e i n u ids
, ,
.

B ut th e speci al form wh ich the analogy w ill take i ts accu racy an d , ,

its exten t w il l depe n d u po n th e special p ro perties o f the d i fferen t

,

med ia Th u s th e spec ial properti es o f ui ds ad m it t ed th e ex ist

.

ence of an anal ogy wh ich is perfectly acc u rate if we except the ,

i n verse natu re Of th e forces bu t l i m ite d i n extent It w il l ther e

,
.

fo re be a m ost fasci nati ng su bject fo r research to exam i n e wheth er

there ex ist m ed ia i n w h ich th e acc u racy o f th e analogy i s pre
ser ved wh i le its scope i s widen ed O r i n oth er words to deter
, .
, ,

m i n e the dyna m ic con d ition s o f a m ed i u m i n wh ich th e a nalogy ,

with u n altered prec ision has th e greatest po s si ble exten t

,
.

3 The F i eld i n a Tr a nsv er se E la sti c M ed i m To exam in e

'

. s u .

 GENERAL C O NCLUS IO NS . 117

th e chances of progress along th is l i n e i t wi l l be ad van ta geous to

con sider briey th e elds i n a med i u m w ith th e com mon elastic
soli d properti es N o w i t is wel l kn own th at th ere i s an ex ten
.

si ve g eom et r i c analogy between th e el ds of motion i n an elastic

m ed i u m w i th properly adj usted con stants an d the electromagn etic
elds o f the m ost general ty pe Th e coex isten ce and equ i valence .

o f th e two th eories o f ligh t th e elastic an d th e electrom agn eti c

, ,

pro ves th is perfectly I n deed th e electromagnetic th eo ry o f l igh t

.
,

originated fro m th e an alogy wh ich M AX W ELL succeeded i n stating

betwee n th e equati on s fo r Optical phenom en a developed by F RE S ,

NEL an d h i s successors from the hypoth esi s o f the tran sverse elas
t ic eth er an d the eq uation s wh i c
,
h h e h ad h i m sel f devel oped to
descri be el ec tromagn etic elds .

We wi ll co n sider th is an alogy i n th e si m pl est possibl e case L et .

the m ed i u m be h om ogen eo us an d i sotropic an d furth erm ore i n , , ,

co m pressible an d subject to th e action Of n o exterior force U bei n g .

th e vect r d isplacemen t th e specic vol u m e and p th e con sta n t

o
,
at
,
.

Of tran sverse elasti city the equation o f m otion o f t h e m ed i u m i s

,

generally w ritten
(a ) a dt z

As a a nd p
, are co n stan ts th is may be written
,

5 2U
2
V and ] .

On th e righ t han d side O f th e equation we can no w i n trod u ce

th e vel oc ity
(6)

Th is m em ber may at th e sam e ti me be written i n a m odied form ,

th e Operation V bei ng fo r th e so lenoidal vector U eq u i valen t to

2
, ,

c url Th e equati on may then be written

2
.

6A 1
at
cu rl 2
an U c u rl a
2
y
. c url U
a
 F I ELDS OF F O RCE .

L et us i n trodu ce n ow
(d )
from wh ich we get
6B
at

or i f we i n troduce th e specic momentu m a accordi ng

, to th e
e
qu a o n

(6 ) A aa,

we have
dB
at
cu rl a .

I n troduction of (d )
( 3A
(g ) at
cu rl ya
z
B .

I f we i n trod uce
b f
p a B,
(g ) n al ly takes the form
h
() c url b .

Th u s we can substitu te fo r equation (a ) th e foll owin g system o f

equation s

dB
at
cu rl a ,

where the vectors A an d a ,

B and b are con n ect d e by th e equa
tion s

(1)

W h ere B h as th e sign i catio n

(k )
 GENERAL C ON CL U S IONS .

But th is system is th e system of M A X W ELL S equation s for a

m ed i u m wh ich i s el ectrical ly an d magnetical ly homogen eous an d

i sotropic an d wh ich i s th e seat O f n o i ntrin sic electrom oti ve o r
,

magneto moti ve forces A nd we get the following correspondence

.

A el ec tric u x velocity
a el ectric eld i nten sity s ec i c mom en tu m
p .

B magn etic u x curl Of specic mass d isplacem en t -

b m agn etic el d i nten s ity of s

p m ass d isplaceme n t ) n
.
-
ot
"

a electric i n ducti vi ty specic vol u m e

8
, magn etic i nd ucti v i ty d en si t y /co e o f elasticity
Z
.

As is wel l k now n we are free t o gi ve d i ff eren t form s to th i s

,

geom etri c an alogy We ha ve u sed th i s freedom to ch oose a for m

.

which m akes the an alogy a di rect contin uation of t he hyd ro dy

nam i e analogy .

Th e exten t of th i s geom etric analogy i s very great even th ough

we have avoided ful l gen eral ity by n eglecti ng h eterogen eit ies a n d
i ntrin sic forces F o r it extends n ow to that poi n t where th e cross
.

i ng o f electric an d magn eti c ph enome n a takes place the poi nt at ,

wh ich the hydrodyn am ic a nalogy ceased .

4 D yna m i cs of the F i eld i n th e Tr a nsv er se E la st i c JlI d i u m

. e .

Th ese wel l known de velopm en ts wh ich lead to the geom etric

,

analogy o f elec tromagn etic a nd elastic elds apparen tly gi ve n ot ,

the fai ntest i nd ication Of th e ex istence also o f a dynam ic analogy ,

corre pon d i ng to th at wh ich we k n ow from the i n vestigation o f

s

the hyd rodyn am ic eld wh ic h is qu ite the Opposite of wh at we

,

shou ld ex pect from o u r preced ing con sideration s .

Th e ex planatio n o f th is apparen t contradiction is however i m , ,

m ed ia te A s we have remarked th e en ergetic force i n th e hyd ro

.
,

dynam ic elds originated i n the i nertia term o f the hyd ro d y

n a m i c equation B u t th e equation o f motion of the elastic m edi um
.
,

as it is generally writte n 3 con ta i n s th is term i n com pletely

( )a , , ,

the local ti me deri vation a/d l bein g u sed as a rst a ppro x i m a

tion for the i ndi vidual deri vation d /d t wh ich woul d gi ve to t he
,

left member O f th e equation i ts proper form .

120 F I ELDS OF F O RCE .

L et u s
repeat th erefore th e preced ing developm en t bu t start
, , ,

i ng with the equation

1 (IA
2
(a ) MV U + L
a d,

i n wh ich th e left m ember has its exact form and i n wh ich we have ,

added on the right ha nd S ide the exterior force f wh ich we su p ,

pose however smal l i n com parison to the elastic forces Th e le ft

, , .

b a nd m ember of th is eq uation i s iden tical w i th th e left han d m em ber

o f th e hyd rodyn am ic equatio n an d m ay be developed i n exactl y ,

the sa me way W e may th us write as i n (V

.
, ,

A aa A

an d then equation (a ) i n th e form

a 1 M
i
(

(di v A )a

z e
g Ae ) n
e
v aa -

a w ,
o a dl

(cu rl a ) x

A pV U f,

corres po nd in g t o (V 1 0 d ) A s th e m ed i u m is su ppo sed h omo

, ,
.

gen ous an d i ncom pressible th i s equation reduces to ,

0a l d A
cu rl a) x A
at
-

) a d,
a +
(

a o nV U f .

Thi s m ay n ow be i ntrod u ced i n eq u ation (a ) a n d th e equatio n ,

th en sepa rated in to two equation s j ust as i n th e case of the co r ,

re s pon di ng hyd rodynam ic eq uation Ve th u s arri ve at th e sys .

tem O f equation s
as
2
V 11 V (aA
at

l d Ac
(c) a di
f aA V
. (cu rl a ) x A ,

wh ere th e rst i s th at o f the i nd uced the secon d th at of

,

energetic motion .

The rst Of th ese equation s d i ffers fro m eq uation (a ) on ly

 GENERAL CONCLU S I ONS . 121

quan titie of th e order gen erall y n eglected i n th e th eory o f elas

s

t ic i t y I f we agree to n egl ect th ese quantities we m ay stil l de

.
,

scri be th e geom etry o f th e eld by th e system of equ atio n s

cu rl a ,

wh ere no w
A as A

But if we proceed t o th e seco n d approx mation we h ave besides i

, ,

t h ese equation s descri bi ng th e geom etric con gu rati on from ti me

t o ti me t o con sider another partial m otion g iven by equation (c)

, ,
.

A n d i f we deman d h ere that t he energetic velocity be con served

i n d i vi dually d A /d t = 0 we nd that a n exterior force f m u st
, e ,

be appl i ed wh ich has th e val ue

,

f aAG V (cu rl a ) x A .

Th is fo rce i n versely correspon ds to th e ex teri or force wh ich had to

be appl ie d i n th e co rrespond i ng electromagn etic system i n order ,

t o p reven t the prod ucti on O f v isi ble m otion s d ue t o the forces

exe rte d by the system U pon i n t r i n sic electric po lari zation co r ,

respo nd ing to A an d u po n m agn etic cu rren t

6 ,
c url a ,
.

5 Th is resul t th u s gi ves a new an d remarkable ex ten sion o f

.

t he analogy A n d th e fact that con ti n ued research leads to fu rth er

.

extension Of the analogy betwee n th e formal l aws o f the ph en om

ena i f no t betwee n th e phen omena them sel ves seem s to i nd icate
, ,

that there ex ists a com mon set o f l aws the la w s of the eld s of ,

force where th e ex pression elds o f force is taken i n a su itably

,

ex ten de d sen se I f th is be true th e i n vestigation o f th is com m on

.
,

set O f laws and the d iscovery Of al l ph enom ena obeying them w ill

be o n e o f the grea t problem s Of th eoretical physics A nd i n vesti .

16
 F I ELDS OF F O RCE .

g a t io n s suggested by th is idea may perh aps soon er or later l ead , ,

even to th e d isco very of th e tr ue n atu re Of th e el ectric or mag

n etic elds .

6 B u t i n vestigation s Of th i s k i n d ca n be con sid ered as on ly

.

j ust begu n A nd i f we retu rn to o ur resu lt relating to the

.

el astic eld it is e a sy to poi n t out its i ncom plete ness I n th i s

, .

el d we h ave n ot on ly th e wel l k n own geo me t ric a nalogy but ,

also a dyn am ic an al ogy t o the electrodynam ic eld at least so ,

l ong as we con ne ou r atten tion to the analogy between th e

formal laws of th e phen om ena an d n ot to th e ph en omen a them
,

sel ves A n d th is dyn am ic analogy has exactly th e sam e i n verse

.

n at u re as i n th e case o f th e hyd rodynam ic eld B ut i t S hou l d .

be emphasi zed th at th is dyn am ic analogy i n th e form i n wh ich ,

we h ave foun d i t has n ot the sa m e degree of com pleten ess as

,

th e geom etric analogy I pass over h ere th e fact that we have

.

gi ven to o u r developm en t on ly a restricted form by su pposi ng ,

the med i u m to be homogen eou s an d i ncom pressibl e an d th us ex ,

cl ud i ng beforeh and h eterogen eities an d changes of vol um e M ost .

l i kel y th is gap ca n be ll ed B u t th e great d ra wback is th i s th e

.

dyn am ics of the electromagn etic eld relates to two classes of forces ,

th e electric forces an d th e m agn etic forces whi le o ur a nalysis Of ,

the elastic el d has led u s t o th e d iscovery o f on ly on e cl ass Of

forces n amely forces w h ich corres po n d to th e electric forces ao
, , ,

cord ing t o ou r i n terpreta tion o f them ; but we h ave d isco vered

n o trace of forces correspond i ng to the magneti c forces o f th e ele c
t ro m a g n et i c eld I t i s tru e that m aki ng u se of the sym m etry
.
, ,

we can ch ange the i nterpretation com parin g from th e begi n n ing

,

the veloci ty wi th th e m agnetic i n stead of the electric u x Th e

, .

elastic eld wi l l th en accordin g to o u r an alysis gi ve forces co r

, ,

respon d i ng t o the m agnetic forces Of the electromagn eti c eld b u t ,

at the cost Of the co m pl ete d isappeara nce of the forces wh ich pre
v i o u s ly correspo nded to th e electric forces .

7 F i na l Rema r ks o n the Pr o blem of F i eld s of F o r c e

. I t i s too .

early of cou rs e t o con sider thi s in com pleteness as a decisi ve fai l ure
o f the analogy i n th e elasti c m edia F rom the begin n i ng there
.
 GENERAL C O NCLUS I O NS . 123

see med to ex ist n o dynam ic analogy at all H owever writi ng th e .

,

i nertia term of the elastic equation i n its correct form we fou n d

-

at o nce forces correspo nd in g to o ne class o f forces i n th e elec

t r o m ag n et i c eld B u t even i n th is form the elastic equation s
.
,

wil l gen erally be on ly approx i m ation s F o r t he ex pression o f th e

.

elastic force s i s b ased u pon H OO K E S law o f the proportion al ity of

th e stresses to th e deform ation s an d thi s law i s a n a ppro x i m a

,

tion on ly W ill th e add ition o f th e n egl ected terms u n der cer

.
,

ta i n cond ition s bring ful l h armony between th e electromagn etic

,

an d th e elastic eld ? I put th is questi on o nly to em phasize a

problem wh ich i s certai n ly worth atten t ion I f th e research he .

ca rried o u t i t w il l certa i n ly l ead to val uable resu lt S whether the

,
-

an swer tu rn s o u t to be positi ve o r negati ve A nd even i f th e .

an swer be n egati ve the i n vestigation o f th e elds of force wil l

,

n ot th erefore be com pleted It i s n ot at al l to be ex pected that

.

the i n tri ns ic dyn a m ics o f the electromagn etic el d sh oul d corre

s o n d t o that o f o n e o f the S i m ple med ia o f w h ich we have a
p
di rect em pi ri ca l k n owl ed ge W hen th e elds o f th ese si m pl e
.

m ed ia are th orough ly explored so that w e kn ow h ow far th e

,

an alogy o f thei r elds to those of electromagnetism goes th e ti me ,

will then h ave com e I th in k to pu t th e problem i n an oth er form

, ,

W hat sho ul d be the properties Of a med i u m wh ose elds shal l gi ve ,

the com pl etest possible a nalogy to electromagn etic elds

E ven whe n the p robl em is pu t i n th is form we ha ve th e a d v a n ,

ta ge that prepa ra tory work of great va lue h as al ready been done .

The gyro stati c eth er wh ich was i ntroduced by M A CC UL L A G H an d

,

L O RD K ELV I N is a m ed iu m w ith very remarkable properties

,
As .

i s wel l k nown th e elds i n th is m ed i u m gi ve as perfect a geo

,

m etric analogy to the electromagnetic eld as the elastic medi u m .

A n d th e form o f the ex pression for t he en ergy in th i s m ed i u m

'

seem s t o i nd icate th e possi b i l ity o f a dyn am ic anal ogy o f greater

ex tent than that wh ich is l ikely to be fou n d i n th e case Of th e
com mo n elastic m edi u m .

It wi ll be cl ear after th ese few remarks that the probl em of elds

,

o f force i s Of v a st ex t en t W e are on ly at th e begi n n i ng o f it

. .
 F I ELDS OF FORCE .

8 . K i neti c Theo r i es
The p roblem of elds O f force i n th i s
.

gen eral sen se eviden tly belongs t o a class of problem s wh ich has
been presen t in th e m i nds of th e natu ral ph i losoph ers from th e
very begi n n ing O f ou r speculation s wi th regard to n atu re ; bu t
th e m ethod of sta ti ng th e problem h as changed .

F ro m th e very rst of h m an spec ulation s o n th e ph en omen a u

o f n atu re strong e fforts have been made t o con struct dyn am ic

m od el s o f th e e ph en omen a T hese dyn am ic m odel s seem to be
s .

the n atu ral way to rend er th e ph enomen a Of n atu r e in tel l igible

t o th e h u man m i nd I n eed on ly rem i n d you o f th e e fforts
.

o f th e o ld ph ilosoph ers of th e atom isti c sch ool su ch as D EM O K ,

R IT OS or E P I CURU S o r Of ph i losoph ers o f l ater t im e l i ke D E S

,

CA RT E S O r I m ay men tion a lon g se ries O f theories o f S pecial

.

physical phen omena for i n stan ce H U YG H EN S an d N E WT ON S

,

,

th eo ries o f l igh t th eo ries oppo sed to each oth er bu t both o f th em

, ,

dynam ic th eories O r I m ay rem i nd you o f th e ki n etic th eory o f

.

gases o f B ERN O ULL I K RON I G C LA US I US an d M AX W ELL o r of

, , , ,

M A X W ELL S i n gen iou s id eas of physical l i nes Of force

.

B u t m ost o f th ese spec ulation s have broken down m ore o r less

com ple t ely O f th e u n i versal con structi on s o f th e atom ists n oth i ng
.

i s left except the bu ild ing ston es them sel ves th e atoms wh ich , , ,

h owever have rem ai n ed t o th is day a n i nd ispen sable idea t o th e

,

n atu ral ph i loso pher D E S CA R T E S th eory o f u n i versa l vo rtices

.

had the sam e fate B u t though i t fel l i t left germ s o f fru i tfu l
.
,

ideas lead ing i n t he d i rection o f th e elds O f force N E W TO N s

,
.

th eo ry o f l igh t also broke down B u t it d id not ex ist i n vai n . .

F o r th e fact that phenom en a o f radiation could be expla in ed a c

cordi ng to h i s pri nci pl e i m mensely facil itated th e i n terpretation o f
the n ew ph en om ena o f radiation d i scovered i n vacu u m tubes an d ,

i n rad ioacti ve substan ce s Th e theory Of ligh t o f H UYG H ENS an d

.

F RESN EL i s sti l l u n shaken i f i t i s con side red merely as an abs tract

,

u nd ulation th eo ry B u t i t is open t o doubt whether i t sti l l ex ists

.

i n its origi nal form as a th eory wh i ch ex plai n s the phen omen a o f

l igh t o n dyna m ic pri n ci pl es F or a dynam ic th eory o f l igh t wi l l.

hardly be satis factory before we have a dynam ic theory of el ec tro

magnetism .
 GENERAL C O NCLUS IO NS . 125

Th is fate Of dynam i c t heories wh ich h ave had th e u nan i mou s

su ppo rt of all physici sts m ay al so bri ng i nto a d ubiou s ligh t d y
n a m i c theories wh ich are stil l h ighly appreciated as for i n stan ce , , ,

the k in etic th eo r y O f gases A s a matter o f fact a stron g reaction

.
,

agai n st dy nam ic th eories has appeared .

9 The Rela t i o n f I t i n eti c Th o r i s to the Phen om e nolog i ca l

'

o e e
'

Pr incip les of Resea rch Reacti on s a ga in st exaggeration s are

al ways wh ol esome O n the other h an d i t is a law o f n atu re th at

.
,

r eaction s u su ally go to exaggeration s I n accordance wi th th i s .

law th e en ergetic sch ool developed I w i l l n o t enter u pon th e

,
.

exaggeration s of th is sch ool B u t i t has don e good by em .

phas i z i ng p hen om en o log i ca l research the pri n ci ples o f wh ich ,

were develo ped especial ly b y P rofessor M A CH at V ien na p re ,

v io ns to th e form ation o f th e en ergetic school an d W i thou t its ,

exaggera tion s .

T he leading pri nci pl e o f Professor M A CH is th at th e phenom en a ,

of natu re sh ould be i n vestigated w ith perfec t i m partial ity an d free

d o m from p rej u d ice that th e research sh ould l ead u l ti m ately to a
ki n etic th eory o r to a ny oth er preconcei ved v iew o f n atu ral phe
,

n o m en a
. I f th i s idea he carried o u t w i th perfect con si sten cy i t i s ,

n ecessary o f cou rse n ot on ly that we S hou ld avoid th e positi ve

, ,

p rej ud ice that th e physical phenom en a are ul ti m ately ph en omena

Of pu re k i netics bu t that we sh ould also avoi d th e n egati ve prej a
,

dice th at the phen omen a o f n atu re are n ot u l ti m atel y k i netic .

T he pri n ci ples of phen om enological research are th erefore rightly ,

u n dersto od no t hostil e to k i n etic research i f th is be only con

, ,

ducted w i th perfect im partial ity .

If th is be adm itted the extreme im portan ce o f k i netic research

,

w i ll no t be den i ed by th e ad h erents o f the ph enom en ol ogi cal

pri nci pl es o f research F o r n o u n prej u d iced observer wil l deny
.

th at physical ph enom ena are i nex t r icabl y i n te rwoven wi th ki neti c

phenomena N either w il l h e deny that o u r po wer Of k i netic
.

research exceeds by fa r ou r power o f every oth er ki n d o f physi cal

resea rch The rea on i s obvi ous We are al l ki netic m ach i n es
. s . .

I n sti ncti ve ki netic knowl edge i s laid down i n o u r m u scles an d

126 n e ws O F F O RCE .

n erves as a n i nh erita nce from the accum ulate d dy nam ic ex per

iene s o f ou r an cesto rs a n d has been fu rther devel oped w ithou t
,

i n terru ption from th e ti me o f o u r rst motion s i n th e cradl e A nd .

furthermore wh il e we h ave thi s i n val uable i n sti n cti ve kn ow ledge

,

o f the fu ndam en tal pri nci ples of dy nam ics we have at th e sa m e ,

ti me an Objecti ve v i ew of dy nam ic ph enomena as Of no other

physi cal phen om en a from th e fact that we h a ve th e power o f
,

fol lowi ng an d control li ng th e phen om en a o f motion by several o f

o u r sen ses at th e sam e ti m e wh i le for other ph en om en a such as
, ,

sound l igh t o r h eat we h a ve on ly o n e special sen se and fo r stil l

, , , ,

others such as el ectricity magn etism o r rad ioacti v i ty we h ave

, , ,

n o special sen ses at all .

N O wonder therefore that at th e ti m e wh en scien ce grew u p

, ,

dynamics soon developed i n to th e model sci ence from t he formal ,

poi nt of v iew the most perfect Of physical sciences an d i n t h is ,

respect secon d only to pu re m ath ematics Th is also explai n s w hy .

th e dyn am ic side o f physical phenom en a has al ways O ffered t he

best poin t o f attack for research wh ile o n th e oth er hand i t gi ves
, , ,

th e Obvious reason why we may be tem pted t o overesti ma t e th e

Val ue of ou r dynam ic con stru ction s
.
.

B u t if a reaction agai nst exaggeratio n has been n ecessary n oth ,

i ng can be gai n ed by gi vi ng up ad van ta ges w hich fo r s u bjec ,

ti ve reason s at l east are combi n ed w i th the k i n etic d irection Of

,

research whatever be th e nal Obj ecti ve resul t o f th ese research es

,
.

The reaction has taught u s that problem s sh oul d be stated in a

perfec tly u n prej ud iced way .

1 0 The Co mp a r a t i e M tho d
. v It i s such a way Of cond ucti ng
e .

the i n vestigation o f t he relation s between physi cs an d k i n etics ,

w h ich we have tried t o r eal i ze i n these researches o n elds o f force .

The essence of t he meth od is that k in etic system s are made th e

,

su bject o f pure ph en omenological research Their l aws an d pro .

pert i es are made th e subject o f i m partial i n vestigation bu t w ith ,

constan t atten tion to the an alogies an d the con trasts between the
laws fou nd for th e dy n am ic system and th e l aws o f physical
phenomena .
 GENERAL C O NCLUS IO NS . 127

A nd th i s com parati ve method is applicable far outside t h e

l i m its o f o u r spec ial problem O f elds of fo rce I ndeed i t is th e .
,

method u sed by s uch a uthors as B OLTZ M A NN H ELM H OL TZ , ,

H E R TZ a nd WI LLA R D G I B B S i n thei r profou nd researches i n th e

, ,

dyn am ical il l ustratio n o f p h ysical laws a nd phenomena especial ly ,

those o f h eat a n d th ermodyn ami cs These researches are nu .

com pleted j ust as are o u r researc hes o n el ds of force an d w i l l

, ,

p robably rem ai n so for a lo ng ti me B u t th e more they h ave .

ad vanced the stronger has been the deman d for r igorousness o f

,

methods ; the more h ave the methods Of con struction bee n f orced
back an d the i m partial com parati ve m ethod ad v anced A nd n o .

on e has em ph as ized conservati ve an d safe m ethods more strongly

than W I LLA RD G I B BS I n the preface to th e last work wh ich h e
.

has le ft us h e ex presses th i s i n th e fol low ing plai n words :

D if c ulties o f th is k in d have deterred the au thor fro m a t
tem pti ng to explai n th e mysteries o f natu re an d have forced h i m ,

to be con tented with the more m odest a i m o f ded uci ng som e O f

th e more obviou s propos ition s relati ng to the statistical bran ch of
mechan ics H ere th ere ca n be no m ista ke i n regard to th e agree
.

men t of th e hypothes es with the facts of natu re for n oth i ng i s ,

assu med i n that respect Th e on ly error i n t o wh i ch on e ca n fal l

.
,

is th e wan t o f agreemen t between th e prem ises an d th e concl u

sion s an d th is wi th ca r e o ne m ay h ope i n t he mai n to a vo id
, , , , , .

H i meth od i s exactly th e sam e as that w h ich we h ave tried to

s

em ploy n am ely the i m partial research of each bra nch o f physics

,

by itsel f but wi th com parison o f the resu lti ng laws an d w ith th e

, ,

greatest possible caution with respect to th e concl usion s to be

d rawn from the an alogies an d th e con trasts presen ti ng them sel ves .

Th e method is that of com parati ve anatomy Is it t o o sangu i n e .

a h ope that th is m ethod w il l sooner o r later u n vei l for u s th e

, , ,

relation s o f th e d i fferen t physical ph enom en a j ust as the m eth od s ,

o f com parati ve an atomy successively gi ve u s an i n sight i nto th e

relation between th e di fferen t k inds o f l i vi ng bei ngs ?

1 1 On the V l ue o f the Co mp r a ti v e Metho d f or I ns tr ucti o n
. a a .

i n Theo r t i c a l Phys i cs
e I can not l eave the d iscussion o f t h i s c o m
.

128 F I ELDS O F FO RCE .

pa ra t i v e meth od withou t sei i ng th e occasion zto em phasi e i ts val u e z

al so i n i n truction i n th eoretical physics Th e resu lts Obtai ned

s .

by th i s m ethod an d the discovery o f si m il ar laws i n apparently

perfectly d i fferen t branch es of physi cs makes an u n expected con
centration Of i n structi on possible A n d i f the pr i nmple be carried .

o u t an d si mi lar facts p resen ted i n sim i lar ways th e analogies wi l l

, ,

faci l itate to a degree n o t to be overestimated th e power o f the

, ,

studen t to com preh en d a nd assi m ilate t he matter E specially wil l .

th is be t he case wh en th e a nalogies gi ve u s th e opportu n ity to

th row l igh t u pon Obscu r e theories such as those o f the elec t r o m ag ,

n eti c eld by mean s O f perfectly pla i n an d com prehensi ble theories

,

such as those Of th e hydrodynam ic eld i n wh ich every step ca n ,

be m ade by rigorous m athem atical concl usion s by elem en ta ry i n ,

d uc t i v e reason ing o r by ex peri men t

,
.

A nd yet th i s sav i ng Of labor so i m per a t i v elv deman ded i n o u r

, ,

days whenever possibl e is pe r haps les essential i n com pariso n

,
s

w ith the i n dependen ce relat ive to th e m eth ods an d th e resul t s

,

wh ich th e student wil l gai n when h e Observes h ow si m ilar methods

c a n be u sed a nd si m ilar laws obtai ned
,
i n a pparen tly widel y d i f ,

fer en t branches of physics Th is wil l teach h i m to j udge bet t er th e

.

val ue of th e methods an d gi ve h i m i n dependence o f view fo r h is

,

futu re work as a n i n vestigato r .

The arrangemen t o f i nst r uction accord i ng to pri ncipl es by wh ich

the an alogi es at ou r disposal are u sed as m uch as possible fo r th e
benet Of the studen t is a p roblem wh ich has i ts own charm i n
, ,

vol u ntari ly attracti ng th e atten tion of the in estigator engaged i n v

research o n these analogies Ti me does no t al low m e t o en ter

.

u pon th e detai l s of my experim ents i n th is d irection B u t before .

concl uding th ese lectu res I w ish to an swer a n obj ection wh ich
, ,

seems to l ie n ear at h and aga i nst th e use to a greater ex ten t o f

,

these analogies i n i n struct ion -

.

1 2 Th ory a n d Pr a ct i c e
. e I t see ms to be an obviou s r eec

tion that i n struction con d ucted accord in g to th e plan th us i n d i

,

ca ted w i l l be of an exceedi ngly abstract n atu re tendi ng to develop

,

i n a p urely theoretical d i rection a nd to dra w atten tion a wa y from

,
 GEN ERA L CONCLUS I O N S . 129

practical ly u sefu l po in ts To take the n earest exam ple hyd ro

. :

dyn a m ics i s u sef l i f it teaches us to u n derstand an d calcu late

u

water m otio ns occu rri ng practically N ow water i s practical ly

.

homogen eous a nd i ncom pressible an d hydrodyn am ics of practical

,

use w il l ha ve to d i rect the attention to the i n vestigation of th e

motion s o f th is si m ple med i u m an d n ot t o th e abstract u id sys
,

tems con sidered by us w ith den sity an d com pressib il ity varyi n g
,

acco rd i ng to laws never occu rri ng pra cti ca lly .

I was of th is opi n ion mysel f when I comm enced my study of

these extraord inary u id system s N oth i ng was fu rth e r fro m m y
.

though ts tha n to ex pect practical resu lts from in vestigation s of

th is abstract nature B u t as the resu lt of co n versation s w it h sci
.

en t i c friends who were i n terested i n th e dynam ics o f th e ocea n

a nd th e atmosph ere I h appen ed to see th at certai n theorem s

,

wh ich I had developed to in vestigate t he m otion s of my abstract

u i d system had i mmed iate beari n g u pon the m otion o f th ese t w o
m ed ia A n d th e reason w hy th ese theorem s had n ot been d i sco v
.

ered a long time before was Obv ious TO wo rk o ut th e scien ce .

Of the motion o f u ids i n a practical for m i n vestigators h ad

al ways con sidered the u ids as h om ogeneo us an d i ncom pressibl e ,

or,
i n the most general case as com pressible accord i ng t o an
,

ideal ized law SO that th e den si ty depen d ed u pon th e pressu re

,

on ly B ut these very sup positions precl uded from con si deration

.

the pri mary cau ses o f the m otion s i n th e atmosphere an d th e

sea F o r these p r i mary causes are j ust the d i fferen ces o f den sity
.

wh ich do n o t depen d u pon the pressu re bu t o n oth er causes such , ,

as d i ffe rences of tem peratu re an d sal i n i ty i n the sea a nd d i ffer ,

enc es o f tem erature an d h u m id i ty i n the atm osph ere Wh i le

p .

th e Old th eo rem s o f th e practical hydrodyn am ics d id n ot al low

u s t o take u p fro m the begi n n i ng th e discussion s of t he ci rcu
la t io ns of the atm osph ere an d the sea th e t hoerem s wh ich I had
,

developed fo r my i m practical u i d systems gave at o nce a very

si m ple vi ew Of the atmosph eric and ocean ic ci rc ulation s I f th ere .
,

fore i t be con sidered a question of pra ctical i m portance to m as

,

ter th e dyn am ics o f these two u n i versal medi a o n w h i ch we

.

17
13 0 F I ELD S OF FORCE .

h u ma n bei ngs are i n such a state o f dependence th en th e m ethod s

.

of th is th eoreti cal hyd rody nam ics are n ot i m practical A n d I

.

do no t th i n k that th is is a n i so lated fact F or th e m ore we a d

.

vance i n th eoretical an d practical research the m ore we shal l d is

,

cover I th i n k that th ere i s real ly n o opposition between th eory

, ,

and practice .

I hope that you wi ll al low me to ex em pl i fy th i s in th e addi

t i o na l l ectu r e to m orro w i n wh ic h I shal l con sider the hy d ro d y
-

nam i e elds o f force i n the atmosphere an d the sea .

 A PPE ND I ! .

V ECT O R N OTA TI O N A N D V ECTO R F ORM UL A } .

A vec to r with the rectangular co m pon en ts A A A i s d esig ,

u s ted b y A .

A vector w ith the rectangular com po nen ts B B B is d esig x, y, ,

n a t ed by B

A vector with th e recta ngular com ponen ts C C C is d esi g Z ,

y, ,

n a ted by C

Vecto r S m
a . The th ree scalar equation s

,

A + B = C,
A + B =
:C,

are re presented by o ne vecto r eq uation ,

(U A + B = C

C is cal led the vector su m o f th e two vectors A an d B .

Sca la r Pr od uc t Th e scalar quan tity A B

.

A B 11
s is L ; v y

designated by A B an d cal led t he scalar o r dot prod uct o f the -

vecto rs A an d B ,

A -
B A Bx
A B
y y
A B z .
.

Vecto r P od
r u ct .
The th ree scalar eq uatio ns ,

A B
M

w
A B A B C ,

A E
W
A B = C Z
,

are re presen ted by o ne vec to r equation ,

(3 ) Ax B C
.

The vector C is cal led the vector o r cross prod uct of -

vec t o rs A an d B The den i tion sta t es that the vector

.

131
132 F I ELDS OF FO RCE .

C is n ormal to each of th e vector fac t o r s A an d B an d is d i rected -

so that the positi ve rotation accord i ng to th e positi ve screw rul e

arou n d th e vector C rotates the rst vector factor A towards th e -

, ,

second B Change o f the order f th e factors th erefore changes

,
. o
, ,

the sign O f th e vector prod uct -

.

Tr ip le Pr o d uct I n a scalar prod u ct on e vector factor ca n be

s. -

a vector prod uct F or th is triple prod uct i t i s easi ly proved that

-
.

dot an d cross can be i n terchanged an d that ci rcular perm u tation ,

of th e fac to r s is al lowable th u s ,

A B x C= o A x B = BC x A
(4 ) Ax B C A -
.

In a vector prod uct o ne factor i t sel f m ay be a vecto r prod uct

- -
.

C a r tesian d evelopmen t easily gi ves th e form ul a

()
5 Ax (E x C) = -

(A -
C )B .

L i n ea r D er i v a t i on Of a Sc a la r ! ua nt i t
y
The three scalar
equation s ,

are represented by o ne vector equation ,

6
() A v a .

The di fferentiati ng sy m bol v o r del represents a vector Opera

tio n w ith the th ree compon ent operations a/ar d /ay a/az Th e -

, , .

vector A or V shows th e d i rection of greatest i ncrease o f th e

a

val ues of the scalar fu nction an d represen ts n u merical ly th e a

,

rate o f th is i ncrease Th e vecto r V i s cal led th e g rad ien t Of

. a

the scalar quan ti ty (com pare th e classical ex pression s pressu re

a

grad ien t te m peratu re grad ien t

, ,
 A PPEND I X . 13 3

Sp her i ca l D er iv a t ion o Th e su m of the

f a Sca la r ! ua n ti t
y

second d eri vation s Of a scalar quan tity m ay be cal led th e spheri

cal d eri vati ve O f th is quanti ty an d th e Operation o f S ph erical de ,

r i v a t i o n m ay be design ated by V
th u s ,

aza a z
a 62a
()
7 _

6332 ay z

Di rg ence The scalar quan tity

ve .
sa
y /5 3, 6 A yc3z
i s called the d ivergence o f the vec tor A ,
and designated by d i v
A th u s
,

6A 6A 8A
(8 ) a;
.

az

l A .

Ca l r . The th ree sca l ar equation s ,

0A 3
( A
C
3

Cy dz 1

6A ,
5A ,

6A 5A
-
, ,

5 913 6 3]

de n e a vector C wh ich is ca l led the cu rl o f th e vector A an d

, ,

the th ree sca la r equation s a re represen ted by th e o ne vec t or eq ua

ti on ,

(9 ) cu rl A C .

Spher
i

ca l D er v a t i
i on f o a Vec to r .
The th ree scalar eq uation s ,

2
0 A, 62 A , 5 2 A,
(i f 822
13 4 F I ELDS O F FO RCE .

de ne the vector C wh ich is cal led th e sph erical derivati ve of A

, ,

an d th e three scalar equatio ns a r e represen ted by one vector

eq ua o n ,

Z
( )
1 0 V A C .

L i n ea r r
Op e a ti o ns . The th ree equations ,

6B 6 B,

8B
,
y
by z
52

08 3
8B
-

ay (7 2

may be represen ted by o ne vector equation ,

The th ree scal ar equation s

,

Az A V

6 Rf OB
A A

6B
A,
I
v

dz 53

may be represen ted by o ne vector eq uation ,

'
( )
1 2 AB V C .

B etwee n t he t wo v ecto rs den ed by (1 1 ) and (1 2 ) there i s the

relation
( )
1 3

Sp ec i a l F or m ula: o
f Tr a ns fo r ma ti o n . The fol low ing form ul ae
are easily veried by ca rtesi an ex pan sion
div aA = a div A + A v -
a
,
 A PPEND I X . 135

( )
1 5 d i v (A x B) = A -
c ur lB + B -
curl A,

(1 6 ) cu r l (a v B) = V x V B a .

I f th e operation curl b e used twice i n succession ,

we get .

(1 7 ) cur 12 A = v d i v A
V
Z
A .

I n teg r a l F o rm u lce .th e el em en t o f a closed cu rve

I f d r be
an d els th e elem en t of a s rface bordered by th is cu rve we h ave
u ,

(1 8 ) f A dr =
~

f c u rl A as -

(Theorem of S tokes) I f ls be the elem en t o f a closed surface

. ( ,

whose normal i s d irected positi vely outwards an d d ? an elemen t ,

Of the vol u m e l i m ited by i t we h ave ,

(1 9 ) f A as -
f d i v Ad '
r .

T r fo rm a ti o n of I n t g r a ls I n v o lvi ng Pr e incts
a ns e In tegrating c .

th e for mu la (1 6) over a su rface an d u s m g we get

( )
2 0
f a v B -
dr =
f v a x v 8 ds0
.

I nteg rati ng (1 4 ) and (1 5 ) th roughou t a vol u m e and u sing

we get
(2 1 ) f A V -
a dr
'

(2 2 ) o cur l E dr =

f E -
cu r1 Adr -

f x B a A -
s .

If i n th e rst o f th ese i n tegral s eith er a or A i n the secon d ei ther

,

A o r B i s ero at th e l im iti ng surface the su rface i n tegral s w il l

,
z
,

d i sa ppear W h en th e vol u m e i ntegrals are ex ten ded over th e

.

whole space it is al ways su pposed that th e vecto rs con verge towards

,

zero at i n n ity at a rate rapid ly enough to make th e i ntegral over

th e su rface at in n i ty d isappear .

Perform ing an i ntegration by par ts w ith i n a certa i n vol u m e o f

eac h ca rtes ian com po nen t Of the ex pression s (1 1 ) an d (1 2 ) an d
su ppo si ng that o n e o f th e vecto rs an d therefore also th e su rface ,

i ntegral con tai n i ng it d isappears at the bou n d i n g su r face Of the

,

vol ume we n d i n vecto r n otation

, , ,
136 F I ELDS OF FORCE .

(2 3 ) f A V Bclr '

f B div A f lr , '

( )
2 4
f AB V ( l?
f BA V ( lr
'
.

I n tegrati ng equation (1 3 ) an d m ak in g u se of we get

(2 5 ) [ a di v A d ? f AE v d
f (c u rl B
1
'

) x A (1 7 .

F or fu rther d eta ils con cern i n g vector analysis see G ibbs VVil ,
-

son V ector A n alysis N ew Y ork 1 9 0 2 an d O l i ver H eav isid e

, , , , ,

E lectrom agn etic Th eory L o ndon 1 8 9 3

, ,
.
 U
niversity of Toronto

li brary

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PO C KE T

A cm e Lib r r ar
a y C d P o ck e t
I

n d er Pa t I
.

Ref
. n d ex Fi le
a d s by L BR I A Y R B UR E AU