Wright State University

CORE Scholar
Physics Faculty Publications Physics

1990

Review of Hall Effect and Magnetoresistance

Measurements in GaAs Materials and Devices
David C. Look
Wright State University - Main Campus, david.look@wright.edu

Follow this and additional works at: http://corescholar.libraries.wright.edu/physics

Part of the Physics Commons

Repository Citation
Look, D. C. (1990). Review of Hall Effect and Magnetoresistance Measurements in GaAs Materials and Devices. Journal of The
Electrochemical Society, 137 (1), 260-266.
http://corescholar.libraries.wright.edu/physics/653

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Physics at CORE Scholar. It has been accepted for inclusion in Physics Faculty
Publications by an authorized administrator of CORE Scholar. For more information, please contact corescholar@www.libraries.wright.edu.
Review of Hall Effect and Magnetoresistance
Measurements in GaAs Materials and Devices
David C. Look

J. Electrochem. Soc. 1990, Volume 137, Issue 1, Pages 260-266.

doi: 10.1149/1.2086379

Email alerting Receive free email alerts when new articles cite this article - sign up
service in the box at the top right corner of the article or click here

To subscribe to Journal of The Electrochemical Society go to:

http://jes.ecsdl.org/subscriptions

1990 ECS - The Electrochemical Society

 Review of Hall Effect and Magnetoresistance Measurements in
GaAs Materials and Devices
David C. Look
University Research Center, Wright State University, Dayton, Ohio 45435

ABSTRACT
T h e u s e of m a g n e t i c fields in t h e electrical c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of s e m i c o n d u c t o r m a t e r i a l s is f a m i l i a r to e v e r y o n e i n t h e
f o r m of Hall-effect m e a s u r e m e n t s . H o w e v e r , t h e r e is a n o t h e r m a g n e t i c - f i e l d - b a s e d p h e n o m e n o n , m a g n e t o r e s i s t a n c e (MR),
w h i c h is h i g h l y u s e f u l b u t n o t n e a r l y so f a m i l i a r to t h e m a j o r i t y of w o r k e r s . O n e of t h e u n i q u e f e a t u r e s of M R m e a s u r e -
m e n t s is t h e i r a p p l i c a b i l i t y to c o m m o n d e v i c e s t r u c t u r e s , in p a r t i c u l a r , field-effect t r a n s i s t o r s (FETs) a n d c o n t a c t -
r e s i s t a n c e p a t t e r n s . We will s h o w h o w c h a n n e l m o b i l i t y i n f o r m a t i o n c a n b e e x t r a c t e d f r o m t h e M R d a t a in m e t a l - s e m i c o n -
d u c t o r F E T s ( M E S F E T s ) a n d m o d u l a t i o n - d o p e d h e t e r o s t r u c t u r e F E T s (MODFETs), a n d also h o w t h e m a t e r i a l u n d e r
o h m i c c o n t a c t s c a n b e c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e u n p r o c e s s e d m a t e r i a l to see if a p p r e c i a b l e c o n t a c t - e l e m e n t d i f f u s i o n h a s oc-
curred. Finally, w e will c o n s i d e r s o m e c o m m o n p r o b l e m s w h i c h are o f t e n o v e r l o o k e d i n p e r f o r m i n g s i m p l e Hall-effect
m e a s u r e m e n t s o n t h i n s t r u c t u r e s . S o m e u s e f u l f o r m u l a s a n d p l o t s are p r e s e n t e d .

M a g n e t i c fields h a v e b e e n a p a r t of m e t a l a n d s e m i c o n - w h e r e r ~ eB/m* is t h e c y c l o t r o n f r e q u e n c y a n d t h e o t h e r
d u c t o r c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n for m a n y years, at l e a s t s i n c e 1879 symbols have their usual meanings. The brackets denote
w h e n E. H. Hall m a d e his f a m o u s d i s c o v e r y of w h a t w e an average over electron energy e defined by
n o w k n o w as t h e "Hall effect" (1). I n w h a t m u s t b e re-
g a r d e d as a classic u n d e r s t a t e m e n t , Hall s u g g e s t e d t h a t " a
m o r e c o m p l e t e a n d a c c u r a t e s t u d y of t h e p h e n o m e n o n will f(~)e3/2 ~ e de
p r o b a b l y o c c u p y m e for s o m e m o n t h s to c o m e . " I n d e e d , it (f(~)> -
[5]
h a s o c c u p i e d t h e t i m e of a g r e a t n u m b e r of r e s e a r c h e r s
since then and thus would seemingly be too familiar.and
f : e3/2Ofo de
3e
m u n d a n e a t o p i c to b e w o r t h w h i l e for t h i s s y m p o s i u m .
H o w e v e r , t h e r e are m a n y a s p e c t s of t h e Hall effect w h i c h w h e r e f0 is t h e e q u i l i b r i u m F e r m i f u n c t i o n . We c a n n o w de-
are n o t as f a m i l i a r to t h e g e n e r a l w o r k e r , a n d yet c a n b e fine t h e q u a n t i t i e s of i n t e r e s t for t h i s p a p e r : t h e Hall coef-
v e r y i m p o r t a n t for c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n p u r p o s e s . We will ficient, RH, t h e Hall m o b i l i t y , ~H, a n d t h e g e o m e t r i c m a g n e -
briefly d i s c u s s several of t h e s e a n d will also p r e s e n t s o m e t o r e s i s t a n c e (GMR) m o b i l i t y , ~GMR.
u s e f u l figures a n d f u r t h e r r e f e r e n c e s . B e c a u s e so m u c h T h e Hall coefficient is m e a s u r e d in a p r o t o t y p e s t r u c t u r e
e m p h a s i s is b e i n g p l a c e d o n t h i n - l a y e r s t r u c t u r e s t h e s e s u c h as t h a t s h o w n i n Fig. la, t h e "Hall b a r . " T h i s s t r u c t u r e
days, w e will c o n c e n t r a t e o n t h e p a r t i c u l a r m e a s u r e m e n t is l o n g a n d n a r r o w , a n d t h e v o l t a g e c o n t a c t s , to m e a s u r e Vc
p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h i n layers. a n d VH, are p l a c e d far f r o m t h e large-area c u r r e n t c o n t a c t s
B e s i d e s t h e Hall effect, h o w e v e r , several m o r e r e c e n t de- o n t h e e n d s of t h e s a m p l e in o r d e r to a v o i d v o l t a g e s h o r t -
v e l o p m e n t s i n v o l v i n g m a g n e t o r e s i s t a n c e in d e v i c e struc- ing by the current contacts. Because the voltage contacts
t u r e s h a v e p r o v e n to b e of u s e in s e m i c o n d u c t o r charac- do n o t c a r r y c u r r e n t , Jy = 0. T h e Hall coefficient is t h e n de-
terization. T h e m a j o r v i r t u e of t h e s e n e w t e c h n i q u e s is t h a t f i n e d as
t h e y ' c a n give m a t e r i a l s p a r a m e t e r s in a c t u a l d e v i c e struc-
tures. I n p a r t i c u l a r , w e will d i s c u s s m a g n e t o r e s i s t a n c e i n
MESFETs, MODFETs, and contact-resistance transmis-
s i o n - l i n e - m o d e l (TLM) p a t t e r n s . O u r p r i m e e x a m p l e s will R H =~ ~ x B
Ey 3Y = 0 __ 1 ~x~
B (Txx2 Jc (y 2
[6]
xy
b e G a A s a n d A1GaAs/GaAs, s i n c e m u c h of t h e r e c e n t m a g -
n e t o r e s i s t a n c e w o r k h a s i n v o l v e d t h e s e m a t e r i a l s , a n d also AtB =0
s i n c e t h e p r e s e n t a u t h o r is m o s t f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e s e partic-
ular materials. 1 <~2> r 1
RH -- -- -- [7]
The Hall Effect: Experiments in Bulk Materials ne <~>2 ne nile
W h e n a s y s t e m of e l e c t r o n s in e q u i l i b r i u m is p e r t u r b e d
b y t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of electric a n d m a g n e t i c fields, colli- w h e r e r is t h e "Hall f a c t o r " a n d nH is t h e "Hall c o n c e n t r a -
s i o n a l forces will a t t e m p t to r e s t o r e t h e s y s t e m to e q u i l i b - t i o n , " t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n a c t u a l l y m e a s u r e d i n a Hall e x p e r -
r i u m . F o r m a n y t y p e s of s u c h collisions, t h i s r e s t o r a t i o n i m e n t . T h e q u a n t i t y r u s u a l l y m u s t b e c a l c u l a t e d b y fitting
will b e e x p o n e n t i a l in n a t u r e w i t h a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t i m e
c o n s t a n t ~, t h e " r e l a x a t i o n t i m e . " T h e n , in s i m p l e i s o t r o p i c
s y s t e m s , t h e c u r r e n t d e n s i t i e s set u p b y t h e fields will b e
given by
Jx = ~xxEx + ~x~E~ [1]

j~ = ~yxE= + ~ E y [2]
W ~ !H I-~ W
w h e r e Ex a n d E, are t h e electric field c o m p o n e n t s , and, for
an n-type sample

ne2< ~ ) T T
~xx = ~,, = ~ ~ +~ [3]
] i X

| B=B~'
ne 2 tOc,F2 Y
(a) (b)
Fig. 1. (a) A standard Hall-bar configuration. (b) A geometric-mag-
*Electrochemical Society Active Member. netoresistanceconfiguration.

260 Ji Electrochem. Soc., Vol. 137,No. 1, January 19909 The ElectrochemicalSociety,Inc.

J. E l e c t r o c h e m . S a c . , V o l . 137, No. 1, J a n u a r y 1 9 9 0 9 The Electrochemical Society, Inc. 261

d [_R3~,42 + R42,~3.] [14]

RH = ~ 2
1.5
T = 77.2K w h e r e R~j.ke--= VkJI~, a n d f is a f a c t o r d u e to s h a p e a s y m -
1.4 N,/n = 10 m e t r y . H o w e v e r , for all t h e s t r u c t u r e s i n Fig. 3, w h i c h are
s y m m e t r i c , f s h o u l d e q u a l u n i t y ; if it d o e s not, t h e m a t e r i a l
l 1.3 is p r o b a b l y i n h o m o g e n e o u s . I n o r d e r to a v e r a g e o u t s o m e
of t h e s p u r i o u s e m f s w h i c h c a n i n f l u e n c e VH, it is g o o d to
a v e r a g e o v e r c u r r e n t a n d m a g n e t i c fiel d polarities.
1.2 T h e r e are a d v a n t a g e s a n d d i s a d v a n t a g e s to t h e v a r i o u s
H a l l - b a r a n d v a n d e r P a u w c o n f i g u r a t i o n s s h o w n i n Fig. 3.
1.1 F o r e x a m p l e , c o n t a c t - s i z e effects are less i m p o r t a n t i n (b)
a n d (d) t h a n in (a) a n d (c); h o w e v e r , (a) is o b v i o u s l y t h e eas-
iest to fabricate. C o n s i d e r a t i o n s s u c h as t h e s e are dis-
1.0 ~ ~
1012 1013 10 TM 1015 1016 10 ~7 1018 1019 c u s s e d i n detail in t h e b o o k s b y W i e d e r (3) a n d L o o k (4).
Hall m e a s u r e m e n t s in t h i n f i l m s . - - I t is of i n t e r e s t to m e n -
n (cm-3)
t i o n h e r e t w o effects w h i c h c a n b e i m p o r t a n t in t h i n - f i l m
Fig. 2. The Hall r-factor at 77 K as a function of carrier concentra- Hall m e a s u r e m e n t s b u t are o f t e n i g n o r e d . T h e first is cur-
tion n for two different compensation ratios. Here, N, is the ionized- r e n t s h u n t i n g d u e to s u b s t r a t e c o n d u c t i o n . S u p p o s e t h e
impurity concentration. s u b s t r a t e is l03 t i m e s as t h i c k as t h e c o n d u c t i v e l a y e r it
s u p p o r t s ; t h e n , for t h e s u b s t r a t e to c o n d u c t less t h a n 1% o f
t h e total c u r r e n t , it m u s t h a v e a r e s i s t i v i t y at l e a s t 10 ~t i m e s
~H VS. T to a t h e o r e t i c a l s c a t t e r i n g f o r m u l a m a d e u p of all t h a t of t h e layer. T h i s effect c a n b e q u a n t i f i e d as follows (5)
c o n t r i b u t i o n s to t h e s c a t t e r i n g . If i n e l a s t i c s c a t t e r i n g is im-
p o r t a n t , as is t h e c a s e i n G a A s at r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e , t h e n ~d~ + ~ede d~/p~ + de/pe
p-1 = ~ _ _ [15]
r ~ (~2)/(~)2, a n d n u m e r i c a l s o l u t i o n s of t h e B o l t z m a n n d~ + de d~ + de
e q u a t i o n m u s t b e c a r r i e d o u t to get r. T h e r e s u l t s of o n e
s u c h c a l c u l a t i o n are s h o w n in Fig. 2 for v a r i o u s v a l u e s of
nH a n d i o n i z e d - i m p u r i t y c o n c e n t r a t i o n NI, at T = 77 K, a n RHe~e2de + R H ~ 2 d s [16]
i m p o r t a n t c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e . As is seen, t h e re- FH = IRH(TI = credo. + ~sd~
l a t i o n s h i p r = 1.2 _+ 0.2 e n c o m p a s s e s n e a r l y all G a A s m a t e -
rial at t h i s t e m p e r a t u r e . w h e r e t h e s u b s c r i p t s s a n d ~ r e f e r to t h e s u b s t r a t e a n d
To d e t e r m i n e t h e H a l l m o b i l i t y IxH, w e m u s t also p e r f o r m layer, respectively. A s a n e x a m p l e ; s u p p o s e w e are m e a s -
a conductivity experiment u r i n g a pure, p - t y p e G a A s l a y e r o n a n n-type, s e m i - i n s u l a t -
i n g (SI) s u b s t r a t e ; t h e n
Jx Jy-o - - (Txx2 -P O'xy2
-~x~ E= ~=o PeP'pe2d~ -- nsp'ns2ds I
~H . . . . . [17]
~=o ne ~ (~) pdxpede + nstxn~d~ I
= ~=xE~ - - - E~ = ne#E= [8]
m $
T h e t y p i c a l n u m b e r s m i g h t be: ns = 107 c m 3, Pe = 10 ~3
w h e r e ~x-= e(~}/m* is k n o w n as t h e " c o n d u c t i v i t y m o b i l - c m 3, ~ = 8 103 cm2/V-s, ~pe = 4 102 cm2/V-s, a n d d~ =
ity." T h e Hall m o b i l i t y is n o w d e f i n e d as 500 ~m. T h e n , u n l e s s de > 0.2 ixm, t h e layer will " a p p e a r " to
b e n - t y p e r a t h e r t h a n p-type. E v e n at de = 2 ~m, t h e m e a s -
r u r e d m o b i l i t y will b e significantly l o w e r e d b e c a u s e of t h e
i.tH =-- RHC~ = -- - - ne~t = - - ~ [9] n - t y p e c o n t r i b u t i o n to RH f r o m t h e s u b s t r a t e . I f d e p l e t i o n
ne effects (see below) are c o n s i d e r e d , t h e effective de is e v e n
W i t h r e s p e c t to t h e s y m b o l s i n Fig. la, w e c a l c u l a t e nH a n d
~H, a l o n g w i t h t h e r e s i s t i v i t y p, in l a b o r a t o r y u n i t s as
2 1
wd Vc
p- [lO]
I
9 " Iq
rLH - -
108
-
VH e cm 2
[11]
! !
B(gauss) V~ w V-s

/ ( a m p ) B(gauss)
n H = 6.25 x 10 TM c m -3 [12] 3 (a) 4
VH(volts) d ( c m )

w h e r e d is t h e s a m p l e t h i c k n e s s . E q u a t i o n s [11] a n d [12] are

s t r i c t l y t r u e o n l y for [F(m2/V-s) B (T)] 2 < < 1 or [~(cm2/V -
s)B (G)] 2 < < 10 ~6, if t h e e l e c t r o n s are n o n d e g e n e r a t e . Typi-
cally, B = 5 x 103G, so t h a t low-B c o n d i t i o n s are a p p l i c a b l e
as l o n g as ~ ~< 2 x i04 cm2/V-s. E v e n for h i g h e r v a l u e s of #B,
Eq. [11] a n d [12] are o f t e n a g o o d a p p r o x i m a t i o n .
H o w e v e r , r a t h e r t h a n a H a l l - b a r s t r u c t u r e , it is p r o b a b l y
m o r e c o m m o n to u s e o n e of t h e " v a n d e r P a u w " configu-
r a t i o n s (2), s h o w n in Fig. 3. I n t h i s case, it is n e c e s s a r y to
p e r m u t e c u r r e n t (i, j) a n d v o l t a g e (k, l) l e a d s in o r d e r to cal-
c u l a t e p, IxH, a n d nH as follows
(c) (d)
= -~d ~R21,34 + R32.41]
P jf [13] Fig. 3. Four common patterns used for van der Pauw resistivity end
Hall-effect: (a) square, (b) Greek cross, (c} circle, and (d) cloverleaf.
 262 J. Electrochem. Soc., Vol. 137, No. 1, J a n u a r y 1990 9 The Electrochemical Society, Inc.

lower. A t h i g h e r t e m p e r a t u r e s , t h e effect will also b e m o r e

severe, s i n c e n i n c r e a s e s r a p i d l y in S I GaAs. T h e s e s a m e
p r o b l e m s o c c u r i n Si, a n d are p o t e n t i a l l y w o r s e , s i n c e Si
~ .~/--
" , , ~
W {77K)
w (296K)
d o e s n o t h a v e a s e m i - i n s u l a t i n g f o r m to give as g o o d a sub-
strate.
A n o t h e r p r o b l e m i n t h i n s t r u c t u r e s is s u r f a c e a n d inter-
face d e p l e t i o n (6). C o n s i d e r t h e b a n d d i a g r a m s h o w n i n
g
Fig. 4, for a n n - t y p e l a y e r o n S I GaAs. T h e r e g i o n s i n w h i c h s
t h e b a n d s b e n d u p w a r d are d e p l e t e d of free e l e c t r o n s a n d
0.1
t h u s c a r r y n o c u r r e n t . (In Fig. 4 it is a s s u m e d t h e free car-
r i e r s d e p l e t e d f r o m n e a r t h e i n t e r f a c e are all a c c o m m o -
d a t e d at i n t e r f a c e states, n o t s u b s t r a t e states. T h i s a s s u m p -
t i o n is o f t e n true, b u t n o t always.) T h e " e l e c t r i c a l
t h i c k n e s s , " w h i c h is t h e t h i c k n e s s to b e u s e d i n t h e RH a n d
(r f o r m u l a s , is g i v e n b y
00110~'~ 10' t5 10
' ~o 1 17'o 'o
1 ~8 10~9
Conc. (cm-3) -

[ 2: ],,= Fig. 5. Total depletion width w = w, + w~ as a function of carrier

d~ = de - w , - w i = de - Le(N~ - NA)J concentration n at 77 and 296 K.

m a y b e fitted. F o r n o n d e g e n e r a t e , n - t y p e m a t e r i a l t h e ap-
p r o p r i a t e e q u a t i o n is

w h e r e 9 is t h e static dielectric c o n s t a n t s (1.1431 x 10 -'0 F / m ND

in GaAs), ND a n d NA are t h e d o n o r a n d a e e e p t o r c o n c e n t r a - n + NA net - [19]
t i o n s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , a n d t h e v a r i o u s p o t e n t i a l s are d e f i n e d
i n Fig. 4. A n a l y t i c a l e x p r e s s i o n s c a n b e g i v e n for ~ , 4~e, 1 + [g~o 1--eN'r "~lj e EDr n--T~t2
a n d ~s~, b u t it is p e r h a p s m o r e u s e f u l to s h o w p l o t s o f
to = w~ + w~, w h i c h are p r e s e n t e d in Fig. 5 for GaAs. N o t e
w h e r e g, a n d go are t h e o c c u p i e d a n d u n o c c u p i e d s t a t e de-
t h a t a 1 ~ m l a y e r of 10 ~s c m -a G a A s w o u l d n o t c o n d u c t a n y
g e n e r a c i e s , respectively, N'r -= 2(2vm*k)312/h3, ED =- ( E D 0 - -
c u r r e n t at all (w~ + wi > de). E v e n a t y p i c a l O.1 ~ m F E T
~T) is t h e d o n o r a c t i v a t i o n e n e r g y (a is t h e t e m p e r a t u r e co-
layer, w i t h n = 2 10 '7 c m -3, m u s t b e c o r r e c t e d for de-
efficient), a n d NAn't = NA ( b e l o w EF) -- ND ( a b o v e EF). T h e
p l e t i o n to get t h e p r o p e r v a l u e s o f n a n d p. F o r t u n a t e l y ,
fitting p a r a m e t e r s are ND, NA"r EDO,a n d N'o(go/gl) e x p (~/k).
h o w e v e r , ~ is i n d e p e n d e n t of t h i c k n e s s a n d will n o t b e af-
F o r t h i n layers, t h e effective electrical t h i c k n e s s e s s h o u l d
fected.
b e c a l c u l a t e d b y m e a n s of Fig. 5 or Eq. [18]; o t h e r w i s e , t h e
Temperature dependence.--So far, w e h a v e b a r e l y d a t a at h i g h e r t e m p e r a t u r e s m a y b e d i s t o r t e d (7).
s c r a t c h e d t h e s u r f a c e o f w h a t is a v a i l a b l e w i t h t h e Hall-
effect t e c h n i q u e . B e y o n d b e i n g a u s e f u l g e n e r a l charac-
t e r i z a t i o n tool, it is also o n e o f t h e b e s t w a y s to get r e l i a b l e G e o m e t r i c M a g n e t o r e s i s t a n c e : E x p e r i m e n t s on Devices
a c t i v a t i o n e n e r g i e s ( m o r e so t h a n D L T S , w h i c h c a n h a v e Hall-effect e x p e r i m e n t s d e m a n d a long, n a r r o w s a m p l e
i n t e r f e r e n c e f r o m t h e c a p t u r e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l e n e r g y de- as s h o w n in Fig. la. A s a m p l e w i t h a n o p p o s i t e a s p e c t ratio
p e n d e n c e ) a n d o n e of t h e o n l y w a y s to get d o n o r a n d ac- is s h o w n in Fig. l b , a n d it is clear t h a t as t h e l e n g t h C I> 0
c e p t o r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . T h e p r o c e d u r e for d o i n g this, w i t h t h e Hall field Ey will b e s h o r t e d o u t b y t h e c u r r e n t c o n t a c t s ,
m a x i m u m a c c u r a c y , first i n v o l v e s f i n d i n g t h e Hall-factor r, i.e., Ey-~ O. T h e n Eq. [1] r e d u c e s to a p a r t i c u l a r l y s i m p l e
as follows: form
1. M e a s u r e R H a n d ~ vs. T.
2. Initially, let r = 1 for all T; i.e., n(1) = (eRH) -1. ne 2 / 9 \
3. L e t ~(~)= ~ = IR~]. T h e n fit ~ to t h e t o t a l t h e o r e t i - Jx = ~x=E= = - - { - - - ) Ex [20]
E~=0 m* \ 1 + r
cal s c a t t e r i n g e x p r e s s i o n b y a n a p p r o p r i a t e n u m e r i c a l
t e c h n i q u e . F o r t h e free-carrier s c r e e n i n g t e r m s , e s p e c i a l l y a n d for ~oc2T2 < < 1 (or [~(m2/V-s)B(T)] 2 < < 1)
i n t h e i o n i z e d - i m p u r i t y s c a t t e r i n g f o r m u l a , let n = n(~). De-
t e r m i n e t h e i o n i z e d - i m p u r i t y c o n c e n t r a t i o n N~, a n d per- 9 ne 2
h a p s o t h e r u n d e t e r m i n e d c o n s t a n t s , b y t h e fit. J~ ~y=0 = ~ [(~> - r (~3)] = new [1 - ~GMR~2B2]Ex
4. W i t h t h e v a r i o u s s c a t t e r i n g s t r e n g t h s n o w k n o w n , to
first order, c o m p u t e r(~), e i t h e r b y t h e f o r m u l a r = (~2)/(~>~,
or b y a m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d n u m e r i c a l t e c h n i q u e if re- = new [1 - P~GMR2B2]Ex [21]
quired. w h e r e ~ = e(~)/m* is j u s t t h e f a m i l i a r c o n d u c t i v i t y m o b i l -
5. N o w let n(2) = r(~)/eRH, ~(~) = ~s/r(,), a n d find a n e w N~ ity, a n d ~GMR =-- <T3>/<~)~ is t h e g e o m e t r i c m a g n e t o r e -
b y t h e m o b i l i t y fit. s i s t a n c e coefficient. Usually, w e m e a s u r e t h e c o n d u c t a n c e
6. G o to s t e p 4, find a n e w r [i.e., r(2)], etc. Usually, n o G =- Ix/V= = (wd/Om T h e n , f r o m Eq. [21], w e c a l c u l a t e a
m o r e t h a n t w o to t h r e e i t e r a t i o n s are n e c e s s a r y . v e r y s i m p l e a n d u s e f u l r e l a t i o n s h i p (8)
O n c e t h e r ' s are f o u n d for e a c h t e m p e r a t u r e , t h e n t h e
true n's can be calculated and the charge-balance equation
- - - - 1 - - 1 [22]
~cr~a B(MKS) B(gauss)
I- n-GaAs ~ I, Sl GaAs
w h e r e Go =- G(B = 0). F o r d e g e n e r a t e e l e c t r o n s , Eq. [22]
h o l d s e x a c t l y for a r b i t r a r y ~B, as l o n g as q u a n t u m effects
are negligible; also, i n t h a t case, ~ G M R : 1, SO ~LGMR : ~s F o r
a n FET, t h e e l e c t r o n s are n e a r l y always d e g e n e r a t e , e x c e p t
n e a r pinch-off.
Mobility u n d e r a n ohmic c o n t a c t . - - A c o m m o n l y u s e d
p a t t e r n for m e a s u r i n g t h e r e s i s t a n c e of p l a n a r c o n t a c t s is
s h o w n i n Fig. 6. It is clear t h a t t h e t o t a l r e s i s t a n c e b e t w e e n
I ,, d~ t t w o c o n t a c t s s e p a r a t e d b y ~ is
Fig. 4. Conduction-band energy diagram showing s,,rface and inter- e~
face depletion effects. The effective electrical thickness is given by R = 2R0 + r~-- [23]
deft, W
J. Electrochem. Soc., Vol. 137, No. 1, J a n u a r y 1990 9 The Electrochemical Society, Inc. 263

l(~m)
0 5 10
9 I . . . . I . . . . i

MESFET / s =lS kG
296K o
300

F------H F.---I Iz=l o 9 kQ

t' c s /2 t~3 s 3O
~" 2OO

20
100

R _~_ rs 10

~'~'~2R c -1.- - -~--~ .......... o

J I I I I
i i i I = i t i i
0 o.~ 0.2 o3. 0.~
s ~2 ~3 /4 s
/
Fig. 6. (a) A common test pattern (the "TLM" pattern) for contact-
resistance measurements. (b) A schematic diagram of the expected
total resistance R as a function of contact spacing s Here, Re is the
contact resistance and r, is the sheet resistance of the material between
the contacts. 2000 ~ ~
w h e r e Rc is t h e r e s i s t a n c e d u e to o n e of t h e c o n t a c t s a n d r~
is t h e s h e e t r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e b u l k m a t e r i a l b e t w e e n t h e ~ o
1500
c o n t a c t s . (The s u b s c r i p t s will d e n o t e a s h e e t r e s i s t a n c e or
s h e e t c a r r i e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n . ) To find t h e s h e e t r e s i s t a n c e R~
of the material under a contact requires an "end-
30 N"
r e s i s t a n c e " m e a s u r e m e n t (9) w h i c h i n v o l v e s a t h i r d con-
t a c t a n d is o f t e n difficult to c a r r y o u t a c c u r a t e l y . B y treat- 1000 25 rr
i n g t h e r e g i o n u n d e r t h e c o n t a c t as a t r a n s m i s s i o n line, it
c a n b e s h o w n t h a t (10) 800 . i . . . . I . . . . I , , 20
0 1 O0 200 300

Re - c a s h ker - [24]
w kec > > 1 w
w h e r e k 2 =- R J p c , a n d Pc is t h e specific c o n t a c t r e s i s t i v i t y o f
t h e m e t a l / s e m i c o n d u c t o r (M/S) barrier. E q u a t i o n [24] in-
v o l v e s t h e s h e e t r e s i s t a n c e R~, n o t r~, b e c a u s e t h e c u r r e n t
m u s t flow u n d e r p a r t o f t h e c o n t a c t a f t e r p a s s i n g t h r o u g h
t h e M/S barrier. H o w e v e r , u n l e s s w e k n o w R~ w e c a n n o t
c a l c u l a t e pc.
To get f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n , w e c a n a p p l y a m a g n e t i c
field. N o t e t h a t e a c h p a i r of c o n t a c t s i n Fig. 6 a p p e a r s to
h a v e a G M R c o n f i g u r a t i o n , as s h o w n in Fig. la, as l o n g as
w / e i > > 1. I n t h a t case, t h e field i n c r e a s e s e a c h s h e e t
r e s i s t a n c e a c c o r d i n g to t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p R ( B ) = R(O)
[1 -t- IJ.GMR2B2]. S i n c e n o r m a l l y ~ ~ !, w e will a s s u m e t h a t
~o~m = ~ for p u r p o s e s of t h i s d i s c u s s i o n . T h e n , Eq. [23] a n d
[24] lead to (11)
R ( B ) = 2Re(B) + ~ i r~(B)
W
= 2Rc0 (1 + Ixc2B2)I~ + ~ i r~0 (1 + 1~2B2) [25]
W rs0 a n d t~ f r o m t h e a n a l y s i s so t h a t t h e s h e e t c a r r i e r c o n c e n -
w h e r e t~c a n d ~ are, r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e i n a b i l i t i e s of t h e m a -
terial under the contacts and between the contacts, and the
s u b s c r i p t 0 d e n o t e s a m e a s u r e m e n t at B = 0. N o t e t h a t
Rr a n d v~(B) c a n b e f o u n d in t h e u s u a l way, as i l l u s t r a t e d
i n Fig. 6b, a n d t h e n I~c c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m Rc2(B) vs. B 2,
a n d ~ f r o m r~(B). I f t~r is m u c h d i f f e r e n t t h a n ~, t h e n it is
obvious that the contact fabrication process has affected
the material under the contact.
To i l l u s t r a t e t h e s e ideas, w e s h o w R vs. ~i d a t a (Fig. 7a),
a n d Re2 a n d r~ vs. B 2 d a t a (Fig. 7b) for a n i o n - i m p l a n t e d
B'(kG=)
Fig. 7. (a) Actual plots of R vs. ~i (cf. Fig. 6) for GaAs MESFET mate-
rial at three different magnetic fields, B. The bottom part of the figure
is an expanded version of the region near the origin. Reproduced by
permission of the IEEE. (b) The sheet resistance r, and the contact
resistance squared Rc2 vs. B 2 in GoAs MESFET material. These data
were obtained from the slopes and intercepts of the lines in Fig. 7a as
well as from data at two other magnetic fields, not shown in Fig. 7a to
avoid clutter. Reproduced by permission of the IEEE.
G a A s M E S F E T (11). T h e s t r a i g h t l i n e s s h o w t h a t t h e vari-
o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p s all h o l d q u i t e well a n d t h a t t h e c a l c u l a t e d
p a r a m e t e r s , s h o w n b e l o w , are t h e r e f o r e p r o b a b l y accu-
rate: rc =- R o w = 0.29 ~ - m m ; pc = 6.3 x 10 -7 ~-cm2; r~0 = 1.4 x
103 ~ / R ; i~ = 4.3 x 103 cm2/V-s; ~c = 4.3 x 103 cm2/V-s. T h u s ,
~ = ~ i n t h i s case, a n d t h e r e f o r e c o n t a c t - e l e m e n t d i f f u s i o n
h a s e v i d e n t l y n o t greatly a f f e c t e d t h e m a t e r i a l u n d e r t h e
contact 9 T h e n w e c a n a s s u m e Rs = r~ a n d c a l c u l a t e Pc f r o m
Eq. [24].
Actually, t h e T L M t e s t p a t t e r n , Fig. 6a, is q u i t e u s e f u l i n
its o w n r i g h t o u t s i d e of c o n t a c t - r e s i s t a n c e s t u d i e s , b e c a u s e
it s u b s t i t u t e s for a Hall-effect m e a s u r e m e n t . T h a t is, w e get
t r a t i o n ns c a n easily b e c a l c u l a t e d f r o m n~ = s = 1.1
x 1012 c m -3 i n t h e a b o v e e x a m p l e . J u s t as t h e Hall-effect
m e a s u r e m e n t e l i m i n a t e s p a r a s i t i c r e s i s t a n c e effects b y
m e a s u r i n g v o l t a g e s a t c o n t a c t s w h i c h c a r r y n o c u r r e n t , so
t h e m a g n e t o - T L M m e a s u r e m e n t s e l i m i n a t e p a r a s i t i c re-
s i s t a n c e effects b y m e a s u r i n g v o l t a g e s at m o r e t h a n o n e
p a i r of c o n t a c t s . N o t e t h a t t h e Hall effect is still b e t t e r for
l o w m o b i l i t i e s , b e c a u s e it is first-order i n ~B, w h e r e a s t h e
G M R effect is s e c o n d - o r d e r .
Finally, w e s h o u l d m e n t i o n t h e effects of n o t h a v i n g a
p e r f e c t G M R c o n d i t i o n , s ~ O. K u h r t a n d L i p p m a n n (12)
264 J. Electrochem. Soc., Vol. t37, No. 1, January 1990 9 The Electrochemical Society, Inc.
h a v e s h o w n that, for ~B and C/w <~ 0.4, the resistance can
be written
R(B) = R(0) [1 + ~2B2 (1 - 0.54~/w)] [26]
Thus, if e/w <~ 0.2, an easily attainable condition, the cor-
rection to ~ is less t h a n 6%.
Mobility profiles in FET structures.--By a p p l y i n g a
S c h o t t k y - b a r r i e r gate to a s e m i c o n d u c t o r surface, the de-
pletion w i d t h wd u n d e r the surface can be controlled by
the voltage VG on the gate. If e(bB is the M/S barrier energy,
t h e n wd is g i v e n in the depletion a p p r o x i m a t i o n by
I2e(Vbi- V G - kT/e) ]ll2
wd = L- ~]~D -~N-~ [27]
In Fig. 8, the values of wd are shown for two different
v a l u e s of V~. N o w it can be s h o w n that Eq. [22], w h i c h
gives only an average value of ~, can be m o d i f i e d to give
the v a l u e of ~ at wd. The relevant e q u a t i o n (13) is
~[~(v~)] = ~1 [[AG0(VG)
~ 111/2
[28]
w h e r e AG -= G(Va + AVe) - G(VG). Thus, by varying VG in
steps of AVG, it is possible to profile I~ t h r o u g h the layer.
F o r h i g h l y c o n d u c t i v e layers, unfortunately, it is impossi-
ble to profile o v e r large distances, b e c a u s e the S c h o t t k y
d i o d e breaks down. H o w e v e r , for typical GaAs M E S F E T
layers of n = 2 1017 cm -3 and d = 0.1 - 0.2 ~m, there is
usually no problem.
One of t h e great advantages of the m e a s u r e m e n t s de-
scribed h e r e is that t h e y can be p e r f o r m e d in actual F E T
structures, e v e n short-gate (ea ~< 1 ~m) structures. How-
ever, in t h e s e small structures it b e c o m e s difficult to accu-
rately m e a s u r e w~, because that is usually d o n e w i t h a ca-
pacitance measurement
eA
wd = [29]
C m a t e w i d t h ~ is formed. The electrons in this well h a v e
w h e r e A is t h e effective gate area, not necessarily e q u a l to
t h e actual gate area for a small gate. Thus, a large-gate or
" F A T F E T " d e v i c e is better for the capacitance m e a s u r e -
ments.
A p r o b l e m w i t h m o b i l i t y profiling in a M E S F E T is that
w e are dealing w i t h a two-terminal structure and t h u s par-
asitic resistances can be important, especially u n d e r open-
c h a n n e l conditions. T h e r e are various ways to deal w i t h
this problem, b u t the cleanest w a y is to h a v e two or m o r e
F E T s of different gate lengths b u t identical in e v e r y other
respect. A special test structure k n o w n as a g a t e d - T L M
pattern is s h o w n in Fig. 9. H e r e the total parasitic resist-
a n c e Rp b e t w e e n two contacts consists of the contact
resistances and the access resistances. It is clear that
T parallel to the interface can be c o n d u c t e d in two different
ei:
\ regions, the A1GaAs and GaAs, and in several different
Ec (01 ._
- eyG
I I. . . . . . EF
0 W d (0) W d (VG)
Z ~
Fig. 8. The conduction-band energy diagrams for a metal/semicon-
ductor interface at two different gate biases, 0 and VG, where VG is
negative here. Note how the depletion width wd increases as reverse
bias is increased.
Ri(VG) = Rp +-- R s (VG) = Rp + Rch (VG) [30]
W
w h e r e Rs is the sheet resistance of the u n d e p l e t e d material
( b e t w e e n wd and d) u n d e r the gate of l e n g t h CG, By plot-
ting Ri vs. Cat at a g i v e n V~, both Rp and Rs (VG) can be cal-
culated. An e x a m p l e is given in Fig. 10 and it is seen that
Rp is nearly constant, as it should be by definition. The true
m o b i l i t y profile, w i t h o u t parasitic-resistance effects, can
n o w be calculated and is s h o w n in Fig. 11 for this particu-
lar case.
A final p r o b l e m is that of gate current, w h i c h is d r a w n at
the high forward biases necessary to profile close to the
surface (cf. Eq. [27]). This p r o b l e m has also b e e n dealt with
(13) and the effects of the correction are s h o w n in Fig. 11.
M a g n e t o e l e c t r i c Experiments in Heterostructure
M a t e r i a l s and Devices
E x a c t l y the s a m e kinds of e x p e r i m e n t s as discussed ear-
lier can be p e r f o r m e d on h e t e r o s t r u c t u r e materials and de-
vices. H o w e v e r , the interpretations can be significantly
different, m a i n l y b e c a u s e (i) c o n d u c t i o n can occur in sev-
eral different b a n d s and layers (it) the e n e r g y levels and
shapes of the bands t h e m s e l v e s d e p e n d on t h e free-charge
density, and (iii) q u a n t u m effects are also important.
T h e s e p h e n o m e n a are illustrated in Fig. 12 w h i c h shows
the band d i a g r a m for m o d u l a t i o n - d o p e d A]GaAs/GaAs
h e t e r o s t r u c t u r e material but w o u l d also apply to m a n y
other h e t e r o s t r u c t u r e pairs. The idea of m o d u l a t i o n dop-
ing is that donors are placed in the h i g h - b a n d g a p material
(A1GaAs), but the free electrons transfer to the low-
b a n d g a p material (GaAs) w h i c h has a h i g h e r electron affin-
ity. B e c a u s e the l o w - b a n d g a p material is u n d o p e d and t h e
p a r e n t donors are separated from the free electrons, the
e l e c t r o n mobilities and saturation velocities can be v e r y
high. (Over 5 106 cm2/V-s has b e e n a c h i e v e d at 2 K (14).)
Thus, fast F E T s (MODFETs) can be designated.
The electrons transferring to the GaAs b e n d the bands
down, and since a barrier already exists due to the con-
d u c t i o n b a n d discontinuity, a triangular well of approxi-
t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l character b e c a u s e t h e y are b o u n d in the z
direction and will reside in s u b b a n d s w i t h energies E0, El,
E2, etc.; however, t h e s e energies, their c o n c o m i t a n t w a v e
functions, and the relative c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of electrons will
d e p e n d on the total sheet electron c o n c e n t r a t i o n n~ and
t h u s on t h e gate voltage V~ w h i c h controls n~. F r o m t h e s e
considerations, it is clear that the charge-control p r o b l e m
(ns vs. VG) m u s t be solved self-consistently, i n c l u d i n g a so-
lution of S c h r o e d i n g e r ' s e q u a t i o n in the well region and a
solution of Poisson's e q u a t i o n in both regions. S u c h calcu-
lations h a v e b e e n carried out by several groups and good
analytical a p p r o x i m a t i o n s are also available. H o w e v e r , the
s i m p l e d e p l e t i o n a p p r o x i m a t i o n applicable to M E S F E T s
is no l o n g e r valid, because the s a m p l e cannot be split into
two regions, one c o m p l e t e l y devoid of electrons and the
o t h e r h a v i n g an e q u i l i b r i u m d e n s i t y of electrons (with
only the position of the b o r d e r b e t w e e n the two regions
b e i n g affected by the gate voltage). Instead, the current
VG VG VG
L2- " "
"I[GII~" I~*~G2"~ active layer t~--eG3"~
substrate
Fig. 9. A "gated-TLM" test pattern. By taking resistance R readings
between successive pairs of ohmic contacts at a given VG and plotting R
vs. e~, both the parasitic resistance Rp and sheet resistance R, under
the gate can be determined at the given VG. By varying VG, profiles of R,
may be obtained.
J. Electrochem. Sac., Vol. 137, No. 1, January 1990 9 The Electrochemical Society, Inc. 265

10 metal ~ n + AIxGa ~_xAs = ',= ~ ', = GaAs

9 l \ u nd+~
++k~, AIxGa 1.xAS
e~B +\

O 5
6

-e~G
l :
-E F
' +++' ~ . . . . . . v~+ I
* * +-** * * - + : - - E E J 0 ~
/
....
E c (z}

0-
I I I I
-d - ds 0
Z--~-
2
Rp
Fig. 12. The conduction-band energy diagram for an AI~Gal_~As/
I GaAs MODFET with an undoped spacer of width d,. Note how the ion-
ized donors, denoted by "+", are separated from the electrons in the
0 I I GaAs subbands, denoted by ".". The typical well dimension 5 is about
.5 0 -0.5 -1.0 80~,.
VsGlv)
Fig. 10, Actual R:~ and RDvs. VG data from GaAs MESFET material as w h e r e it is a s s u m e d that E= and Ey are c o n s t a n t and that
determined from a gated TLM pattern. Here Rr is the channel resist- the electrons are d e g e n e r a t e for simplicity. Then, the Hall
ance of a 10 100 ~m gate MESFET. Reproduced by permission of m o b i l i t y will be given by
The American Institute of Physics.
nsi~ti 2

101T E~ Iy=o- ~ 1 + gti2B2 ' ~ ns1~12 [33]

8 '8000
~H --=E ~ E nsi~ B --~ 0 E n~il~i
6 6000 ~"
corr. ~-~ \\ 1 + 1~2B2
4 4000.

T h e c o n d u c t a n c e at B = 0, Go, is calculated f r o m
22000
uncorr, p
G o = - ~Ix B=o -- W Ix B=O= ~W- 2 enSit~i
e Ex [34]
10,~. \
\
8: \\
6: \ E v e n for two bands the n u m b e r of u n k n o w n s is four, and
\
m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n is needed. S t o r m e r et al. (15) u s e d Shub-
4"
n i k o v - d e Haas oscillations to get no and nl, and t h e n could
solve for ~0 and ~1. A n o t h e r w a y is to m e a s u r e P.H as a func-
2- tion B and t h e n fit Eq. [33] w i t h Eq. [34].
VsG(V) An i m p o r t a n t p r o b l e m in h e t e r o s t r u c t u r e F E T s is the ex-
0i8 0.4, Oi -0.41 -0.81 -1.0, -1.1= istence of parallel conduction, i.e., c o n d u c t i o n from low-
10,= m o b i l i t y electrons in t h e A1GaAs. This p r o b l e m is espe-
0 o:1 o'.2 o'.3
Depletion Depth (pro)
cially a c u t e in p o w e r devices for w h i c h the gate voltage is
subject to large swings, e v e n into the forward-bias region.
Fig. 11. The uncorrected and corrected (for gate current) mobility t~ E q u a t i o n s [33] and [34] are a d e q u a t e to analyze this situa-
profiles in a 50 400 t~m gate GaAs MESFET, as measured by the tion w i t h one of the nsi's d e n o t i n g the sheet carrier concen-
GMR technique. Also shown is the carrier concentration n profile, as tration in the A1GaAs. H o w e v e r , there n o w exists a subtle
measured by C-V. Reproduced by permission of The American Institute complication, b e c a u s e at each voltage contact, currents
of Physics. will h a v e to flow b e t w e e n the layers to m a i n t a i n that con-
tact at a single potential. This situation has b e e n discussed
by S y p h e r s et al. (16).
bands in the GaAs. We therefore must include multiband
and multilayer effects in the Hall-effect and GMR T L M analysis in heterostructures.--The s i m p l e T L M ex-
analyses. p r e s s i o n (Eq. [24]) relating the contact resistance Re to the
specific contact resistivity Pc b e c o m e s m u c h m o r e compli-
Hall effect in heterostructures.--The v o l u m e electron cated w h e n there are two layers involved, because current
concentrations, especially in the s u b b a n d region, will be m i x i n g b e t w e e n the layers in t h e m is possible, b o t h in the
strong functions of position, and therefore it is m u c h sim- r e g i o n u n d e r the contacts and in the b u l k region b e t w e e n
pler to deal with the sheet electron c o n c e n t r a t i o n s n,~, the contacts. The two relevant layers in the heterostruc-
w h e r e i d e n o t e s the r e l e v a n t band. Of course, by doing this ture are the GaAs, n e x t to the interface, and the neutral re-
we are giving up any h o p e of "profiling," either of carrier gion in the A1GaAs. It has b e e n s h o w n that the use of the
c o n c e n t r a t i o n or mobility. I f z is the direction p e r p e n d i c u - standard, single-layer m o d e l can lead to significant error in
lar to the surface, t h e n the currents I= and Iy can be written po in such cases (17, 18). H e r e the magnetic-field depend-
e n c e can be quite v a l u a b l e in d e t e r m i n i n g the correct pa-
r a m e t e r s (18). F o r e x a m p l e , in Fig. 13 is s h o w n the ~ vs. T
c u r v e s for both the b u l k region and the region u n d e r the
contacts d e t e r m i n e d by a two-layer m a g n e t o - T L M analy-
en,~F~ en,i~i2B sis. The l o w e r c u r v e suggests that the material u n d e r the
c o n t a c t retains t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l character, in spite of con-
= W E x ~ 1 + p,i2B2 E, ~ 1 + b~i2B2J [31]
t a c t - e l e m e n t diffusion.
Geometric magnetoresistance in heterostructures.--To
ensil~i2 B ensiP.~
a p p l y the G M R c o n c e p t s in M O D F E T structures, we solve
I, = w E~ ~ -1 +- ~2B2
+ E ~ 1 + I~i2B2J [32] Eq. [31] and [32] u n d e r the b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n Ey = 0. T h e n
266 J. Electrochem. Soc., Vol. 137, No. 1, January 1990 9 The Electrochemical Society, Inc.

105 where C, is the capacitance due to the i~ band, and it has

been assumed that d~i/dVG = O. Some results for ~D VS. VG
and the fitted I~0and t~1 are shown in Fig. 14. The curve for
~0 is probably fairly accurate, because most of the elec-
trons are in the lowest subband, while that for t~1 is only
Bulk
rough.
> Other uses of a magnetic field.--Two relatively recent in-
&-- 104
E novations in magnetoelectric characterization include
Hall-current profiling (19) and Hall-DLTS (20). The former
makes use of the fact that, although the Hall electric field is
shorted out in a FET-type structure, a Hall current Iy will
I I Contact exist and can be detected if either the source or drain is
split, as is the case for some RF-designed devices. How-
103
ever, the Hall currents tend to be relatively small and at
I I I [ I I l I [ I I I I
10 '102 103
present it is u n k n o w n how useful this technique will be.
T(K} The Hall-DLTS technique (or Hall-effect transient spec-
troscopy) is based on the time constant of the transient in
Fig. 13. The temperature dependences of the bulk mobility ~ (be- the Hall voltage which results after a light pulse has pro-
tween the contacts) and the mobility I~ of the material in the well re- duced nonequilibrium carriers. The type of the excess car-
gion under the contacts. Note that both regions show classical two- riers, electrons or holes, can be. determined from the sign
dimensional I~ vs. T behavior. Reproduced by permission of The Electro- of the Hall voltage. An advantage over capacitance-DLTS
chemical Society, Inc. is that no Schottky barrier is needed, while a disadvantage
is that a magnetic field is required. Again, it is too early to
tell if this technique will become widely used.
Acknowledgments
This work was performed at the Electronic Technology
~ ~ + / B ' D 191
Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, under Con-
tract F33615-86-C-1062. Thanks are due Robin Hell for typ-
t ing the manuscript.
6 Manuscript submitted Dec. 21, 1988; revised manuscript
> received May 10, 1989. This was Paper 433 presented at the
Chicago, IL, Meeting of the Society, Oct. 18-23, 1988.
~" 5
E Wright State University assisted in meeting the publica-
0
tion costs of this article.
o
,- 4
REFERENCES
1. E. H. Hall, Am. J. Math., 2, 287 (1879).
2. L. J. van der Pauw, Philips Res. Rept., 13, 1 (1958).
3. H. H. Wieder, "Laboratory Notes on Electrical and Gal-
vanomagnetic Measurements," Elsevier Publishing
Co., New York (1979).
4. D. C. Look, "Electrical Characterization of GaAs Mate-
rials and Devices," J o h n Wiley & Sons, New York
1 I (1989).
-0.4-0.3-0.2-0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 5. R. L. Petritz, Phys. R e v , 110, 1254 (1958).
6. A. Chandra, C. E. C. Wood, D. W. Woodard, and L. F.
V G (V}- Eastman, Solid-State Electron., 22, 645 (1979).
7. T.R. Lepkowski, R. Y. DeJule, N. C. Tien, M. H. Kim,
Fig. 14. The measured GMR-differential mobilities ~o, at B = 9 and and G. E. Stillman, J. Appl. Phys., 61, 4808 (1987).
18 kG, and the subband mobilities ~o and I~1, obtained by fitting the 8. J . R . Sites and H. H. Wieder, IEEE Trans. Elec. Dev.,
data. ED-27, 2277 (1980).
9. G.K. Reeves and H. B. Harrison, IEEE Elec. Dev. Lett.,
EDL-3, 111 (1982).
it can be shown (4) that an "average" mobility can be de- 10. H. H. Berger, Solid-State Electron., 15, 145 (1972).
11. D. C. Look, IEEE Elec. Dev. Lett., EDL-8, 162 (1987).
fined in analogy to Eq. [22] as 12. F. Kuhrt and H . J . Lippmann, "Hallgeneratoren,
Eigenschaften and Anwendungen," Springer-
nsi~i 3~ Verlag, Heidelberg (1968).
E - - 13. (a) D. C. Look and T. A. Cooper, Solid-State Electron.,
2 = 1 I-G0 1 1 + p.i2B 2 28, 521 (1985); (b) D. C. Look, J. Appl. Phys., 57, 377
~A - ~ I-:-= - 1j - [35]
LL~B nsi~i (1985).
14. J . H . English, A. C. Gossard, H. L. Stormer, and K. W.
1 + ~2B2 Baldwin, Appl. Phys. Left., 50, 1826 (1987).
15. H. L. Stormer, A. C. Gossard, and W. Wiegmann, Solid
and a "differential" mobility in analogy to Eq. [28] as State Commun., 41, 707 (1982).
16. D.A. Syphers, K. P. Martin, and R. J. Higgins, Appl.
Phys. Lett., 49, 534 (1986).
~i 3 17. M. D. Feuer, IEEE Trans. Elec. Dev., ED-32, 7 (1985).
1 IhGo_ E C i ] - + ~i2B 2 18. D. C. Look, ibid., ED-35, 133 (1988).
19. A. G. Andreou and C. R. Westgate, ibid., ED-34, 1441
~ 2 _ = ~ LAGs 1 - ~i [36] (1987).
20. Z. Kachwalla and D . J . Miller, Appl. Phys. Lett, 50,
Ci 1 + ~i2B2 1438 (1987).