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hydraulic deposition
by G. E. BLlGHT*. Pr.Eng.. Ph.D.. D.Sc.(Eng.). F.S.A.I.C.E.
and G. M. BENTELt. M.Sc.(Eng.). Grad. S.A.I.C.E.
SYNOPSIS
The environmentally acceptable disposal of fine-particled mining and industrial wastes by the formltion of hydraul-
ic-fill slimes dams is becoming an increasingly important aspect of the total mining endeavour. Relatively little is
known of the behaviour of waste slurries during deposition. This paper describes and analyses the following aspects
of slurry behaviour:
(i) the relationship between viscosity, shear strength, and water content,
(ii) the slope assumed by a thickened slurry,
(iii) particle-size sorting on a hydraulic-fill beach,
(iv) gradients of hydraulic-fill beaches, and
(v) internal erosion during the deposition of slurry.
SAMEVATTING
Die wegdoening van mynbou- en nywerheidsafval met bale fyn partikels deur die vorming van hidroulies gevulde
slykdamme, wat vir die omgewing aanvaarbaar is, word 'n al hoe belangriker aspek van die totale mynboupoging.
Dur is betreklik min bekend oor die gedrag van afvalflodders tydens afsetting. Hierdie referaat beskryf en ontleed
die volgende aspekte van die gedrag van flodder:
(i) die verhouding tussen viskositeit, skuifsterkte en waterinhoud,
(ii) die helling wat 'n verdikte flodder inneem,
(iii) partikelgroottesortering op 'n hidroulies gevulde strand,
(iv) gradient van hidroulies gevulde strande, en
(v) inwendige erosie tydens die afsetting van flodder.
Introduction TABLE I
SELECTED INFORMATION ON RATES OF PRODUCTION OF MINING
The disposal of fine-grained mining and industrial WASTE
JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY APRIL 1983 73
the deposition of slurries on hydraulic-fill beaches,
(iv) profiles of hydraulic-fill beaches and cyclone T=TO+:~'7]. (2)
underflow cones, and
(v) internal erosion resulting from the flow of slurries In (2), TO is a yield shear strength that applies when
through drying cracks in previously deposited dyjdt = O.
tailings. The coaxial-cylinder viscometer relies on the torque
generated at a given rate of rotatio~ to i.ndicate sh~ar
strength and viscosity. If the conventIOnallllt~rpretatIOn
Relationships between Viscosity, Shear Strength, of the viscometer readings is followed, what IS actually
and Water Content measured is an apparent viscosity:
A knowledge of the relationship between the viscosity
or shear strength and the water content of tailings slur- 7]a = 7] + . . . . . . . . (3)
drldt
ries is important in the assessment of
If the true viscosity is required, the value of TOhas first
(1) head losses in slurry pumping lines8,
to be established from the relationship between T and
(2) the slope assumed by thickened slurries when
d yjdt. The true viscosity can then be determined from
deposited by the thickened-discharge method 9,
and T - TO
7]
= dyfdt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (4)
(3) the flow pattern of a slurry after it has escaped
through a breach in the outer wall of a tailings
As most flow relationships have been derived for
dam1O.
viscous fluids and not Bingham plastics, the apparent
A wide range of water contents is of interest. For viscosity, 7]a, is in fact a useful engineering property for
deposition on a conventional tailings dam, the water approximating the behaviour of a slurry to that of a
content of the tailings during transportation from the
Newtonian fluid.
mill to the dam is typically in the range 150 to 100 per Fig. 1, which shows the properties of a tailings slurry
cent by mass of dry solids. (a relative density for the
from a diamond (kim berlite) operation at a water content
slurry of 1,3 to 1,5). For deposition by the thickened-
of 125 per cent, illustrates the relationship between shear
discharge method, the water content is typically about
strength and rate of shear strain, and indicates a yield
50 per cent (relative density 1,7 to 1,8). For the slurry
shear strength, TO' of 0,35 Fa. The fact that the shear
filling of underground mining excavations, the water
strength does not increase linearly with the rate of shear
content ranges from 50 to 30 per cent (relative density
strain shows that, although the behaviour of the slurry
1,7 to 1,9). Actual water contents depend very much on
approximates that of a Bingham plastic, it is actually
the particle-size distribution of the slurry and on any
more complex than equation (2) would indicate.. .
clay minerals present. The relative densities are, of
Fig. 2 shows relationships between apparent Vl~COSlty,
course, influenced by that of the particles.
7]a, and rate of shear strain (calculated from equatIOn (1))
A number of methods are in common use for the
and between 'true' viscosity, 7], and rate of shear stralll
measurement of viscosity, which can be measured in (from equation (2)). It is again clear that equation (2) is
absolute or relative terms 11. The variable-speed coaxial-
only an approximation to the real behaviour of the
cylinder type of viscometer has been found to be suitable
slurry.
for the measurement of the absolute viscosity of tailings
slurries, and all the measurements reported here were I,it
made with an instrument of this type (the Ferranti
portable viscometer, model VL). It was found necessary
for the range of cylinders supplied with the standard ~o
instrument to be extended by means of a number of
specially made cylinders. The instrument was calibrated
in absolute terms by the application of torque through 0,8
a system of weights, strings, and pulleys pivoted on ball ll.
:I:
races. I-
Cl 0,6
The viscosity of Newtonian fluids is defined by the Z
w
relationship a:
I-
V) TJa . ab lob
dy
T=---a-t7], ........... (1) a:
0,4
w
:I:
V)
in which T is the shear strength of the fluid,
O;?
7]is its viscosity, and
'to
~is the rate of shear strain.
dt 0 b
However, tailings slurries are non-Newtonian and behave 0 10 20 30
more as Bingham plastics, for which viscosity is related RATE OF SHEAR STRAIN d Y/dt ,- I
.
to shear strength by
All water contents are given on the basis of dry mass.
Fig. I-Relationship
strain for diamond
between shear strength and rate of shear
tailings at a water content of 115 per cent
74 APRIL 11183 JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY
(108 n-l
= nK( . . . . . . . . (5)
:~ ) .
T)a
JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY APRIL 1983 75
2,0 .--
r- to rest at a flat slope to form a roughly conical surface
having a small slope away from the point of deposition.
I
The system has the advantage of considerably increasing
/,0
the storage capacity of a given disposal area. To illustrate
this statement, Fig. 7 shows a section through a small
tailings impoundment that is to be constructed by the
0,5
thickened-discharge method. The difference in stored
0
Q.
volume between a conventional system in which material
is beached upstream from the impounding wall and the
;; PLATINUM TAILINGS
76 APRIL 1983 JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY
0,5
0,2
0,1
0,05
"
OfJ2
.....
a:
0
I-
~
u. 0,01
LAM INAR
z
FLOW
Q
I-
U "
~ 0,
0,(XJ2
"
0,001
100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 10 OCXJ 20000 50000
Fig. 6-Moody diagram showing some experimental results for the pumping of thick slurries
the slUITY after it has left the breach can be predicted such a slUITY will spread can be calculated by consider-
rationally. Both these papers consider the situation in ations of force equilibrium as demonstrated by Lucia
which the escaping slurry has a high water content and a et al.15.
very low shear strength, as was the case, for example, The basis of such an analysis is shown in Fig. 10. It is
in the Buffalo Creek failure described by Wahler et al.19. assumed that the slurry will flow and its surface slope
SIUITies having much higher shear strengths are not as will flatten until an equilibrium is established between
mobile as those at Buffalo Creek or Bafokeng12, but they the fluid pressure exerted by the slurry retained in the
ooze and spread from a breach to take up an equilibrium breach (of depth H) and the shear strength along the base
surface slope in much the same way as the thickened- of the wedge of slurry. At that stage, movement will
tailings slurries dealt with earlier. The distance to which cease. The height of the 'tongue' of the slide will be the
JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY APRIL 1983 77
120
l()!j
SLOPE 20 (3) UPWARDS
I'
-
E
90
TAILINGS RETAINING
WALL OR DAM
z 75
0
>= LEVEL SURFACE
~
;;j
60
50 YEAR FlOOD
45 LEVEL
SLOPE 50 (J O) DOWNWARDS
30 I'
Fig. 7-Longitudinal section through a tailings impoundment showing the difference between stored volumes by conventional
beaching and thickened-discharge deposition
LEVEL SURFACE would travel for 60 m. Equation (10) can be used in the
6' estimation of the consequences of a dam failure, especial-
ly where escaping slurry may damage or inundate surface
installations.
5
For the thickened-tailings slurry referred to in Fig. 9, >=
78 APRIL 1983 JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY
surface can be predicted2O~ and hence the shear strength
12
of the wall can be established.
Consider a particle of diameter D moving down a beach
10
of gradient i at a horizontal velocity Vh while it simul-
- ----
taneously settles at velocity Vv. Following Graf8 and
ignoring the interference of adjacent particles in the slur-
ry, the settling velocity will be given by
4(ps
v~= ~w~~gD = KD (say), . . . . . . (H)
L /H
I
In this time, the particle will have travelled down the
1,0
0 0,2 0,4 beach a maximum horizontal distance of
/ "gH
8
H = Vh . -Vy ,
BREACH IN DAM
ASSUMED LINEAR SURFACE
Dr SLIDE and Vh will be governed by an equation similar to that of
fA ",. open-channel flow of the form
"~
_,H .
1- -
~..'.
-:-' ,
- ,
- .
.1
1
4 rip]
Hence,
Vh = C(8i)
i
D=
.
C'83/2ii
(14)
KH
Fig. IO-Stability chart for slumping failures
In other words, the predominant particle size to be found
Because the coarser particles contained by the slurry at a distance H from the point of deposition will be
settle more rapidly than the finer particles, a gradation roughly inversely proportional to H. This is the form of
of particle size down the beach results, with coarser relationship shown in Fig. 12. Alternatively, if the sett-
material adjacent to the points of deposition and pro- ling velocity is governed by Stokes law,
gressively finer material being deposited with increasing (Ps - pw)gD2
distance from these points. Fig. 12 illustrates the particle- Vv = 187J = KID2 (say), . (Ha)
size sorting that has taken place on a 280 m long beach of
diamond tailings. Particle-size sorting also occurs vertical-
ly within each layer of deposition. Vertical sorting and and D=[~~~2ir, ..., (14a)
the anisotropy that results from it has been examined by
i.e. the predominant particle size to be found at distance
Blight and Steffen4.
H from the point of deposition will be inversely propor-
The inset in Fig. 12 shows the results of a separate set
tional to the square root of H.
of measurements taken on the same beach some 12
months later. The distance down the beach, H, has been The above analysis is necessarily approximate because
normalized by dividing by the distance from the point of of the idealizations on which it is based. Apart from the
deposition to the edge ofthe pool, x. For the construction particle interference that must occur, the gradient, i,
of both diagrams, samples were taken that penetrated of the beach surface varies with H, and, as the flow
three layers of deposition. spreads from the deposition point, 8 decreases. It is also
The particle-size gradation on a beach can have a probable that some transport of the material down the
significant effect on the stability of the tailings dam. If beach occurs after it has settled out of the slurry. This
the walls and outer zone of the beaches consist of coarser, may result in further particle sorting if there is any rolling
more pervious material, the phreatic surface will be lower motion of settled particles along the beach surface. It is
and the dam more stable. Advantage can be taken of the also possible that material deposited during one deposi-
particle-size gradation that results from hydraulic filling tion cycle could be eroded, picked up, and re-deposited
only if it can be predicted at the design stage from an during a subsequent deposition cycle.
analysis of the total tailings product, or if a similar dam Then there is the question of the beach gradient, i,
constructed of a similar product is available to sample. which both equations (14) and (14a) contain. It is prob-
In what follows, an attempt is made to derive a method able that i and D are variables that are interlinked in
of predicting the predominant particle size, and hence some complex way. The question of beach gradient will
indirectly the permeability, at any point along a hydraulic be investigated later, but for the time being the varia-
beach. If this can be done, the position of the phreatic bility of the beach gradient will be ignored.
JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY APRIL 1983 79
150m
Fig. I I-Plan of a typical ring-dyke tailings dam (reproduced by kind permission of Messrs Steffen, Robertson and Kirsten Inc.)
80 APRIL 1983 JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY
1,0 is a photograph showing rill flow occurring down a beach
of platinum tailings. The unstable nature of the flow is
1,0
evident from the hydraulic jump in the photograph. This
0,8 8 \ instability is probably responsible for much of the scatter
!\j D.m..
0.6
\ evident in Fig. 12. The overflowing of rills and the result-
0
.'\: ant deposition of fine material high up the beach can
i 0,6
result in a layered fill in which the vertical permeability
...
N
;;; " """'" is considerably less than the horizontal permeability.
.-
0.2
~
i 0,4
0.2 0,4
r--
0,6 0,8
. 1,0
This, in turn, can lead to a raised phreatic surface with
its attendant slope-stability problems. A ratio of horizon-
... H /x tal to vertical permeability of 4000 has been measured
>
on a beach of diamond tailings. In that dam a conven-
::!0.2 tional phreatic surface was not present at all, but was
0
replaced by a series of horizontal perched water table s.
It is important to note that, because of the presence of
0 0
0 process chemicals in the water, many tailings slurries
0 2fiO
!lO 100 150 roo n>
are strongly flocculated. A particle-size analysis carried
D1STANCE FROM PONT OF DEPOSITION I..)
out by hydrometer in the conventional way using distilled
Fig. 12- The particle-size sorting that occurs on a hydraulic water and deflocculants will therefore not be represen-
beach
tative of the effective particle-size distribution on a
Because the particles are effectively settling through hydraulic beach. For this reason, all the particle-size
a viscous slurry and not through water, Vv in the above analyses used in this section were conducted on plant-
analysis is very small. For example, if we consider a return water, and no attempt was made to deflocculate
20 mm thick sheet of slurry flowing down a 280 m beach the slurries.
at 1 m/s, the settling velocity of particles precipitating
If equation (14) is valid, the product, DH, should be
out at the end of the beach will be a maximum of only
constant at all points along a beach for which H exceeds
70 X 10-6 m/so
The idealized laminar-sheet flow assumed for the zero, while, if equation (14a) is valid, the product, D2H,
analysis does not always occur. Instead, an unstable, should be constant. The two possibilities are explored in
meandering, and turbulent rill flow is often observed. Figs. 14 and 15. In these figures, the ratio H/X is the
When such a rill or channel overflows, the settling regime ratio of the distance H from the point of deposition to
is upset and fine material is deposited higher up the the length X of the beach, measured to the edge of the
beach than equation (14) or (14a) would predict. Fig. 13 pool.
Fig. 13-Unstable rill flow occurring on a hydraulic beach, showing a hydraulic jump in the centre of the photograph
JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY APRIL 1983 81
(i (ii) M is approximately constant for all tailings of a
""
given type and for all lengths of beaches greater
than 40 m, but has to be established for each type
4 of tailings.
(!) (!) It is known that, if a beach is too short, a relationship
(!)
such as (16) does not hold. Sampling of a beach of dia-
0
AH/X
~2
mond tailings 9 m long, for example, showed that virtual-
(!) (V (!) MEAN ( ly no particle separation was occurring over that distance.
@~ One possible reason for the lack of rapid separation is
(!) @ (!) the high viscosity of the clay 'flocs' in suspension that
0 constitute much of a diamond-tailings slurry.
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 40 So far, the investigation of particle-size distribution
H/X has stopped at the edge of the pool, i.e. only deposition
in air has been investigated. It is known that an abrupt
change in the depositional regime occurs as soon as the
tailings slurry reaches and runs into water. Limited mea-
surements have shown that A (equation (15)) decreases
60 suddenly beyond the edge of the pool (i.e. for X > L),
0 and the beach gradient steepens suddenly beyond the
(!) water's edge. The under-water regime usually applies
only at a considerable distance from the outer perimeter
40
of a tailings dam, and for this reason is less important
A2 H/X
0 in considerations ofthe stability of tailings dams.
~0
20 Gradients of Hydraulic-fill Beaches
~MEAN
E) (!) As mentioned earlier, the gradient of a hydraulic-fill
@ g (!)
beach varies along its length and is probably related to
(
0
(;)
G'I
the particle-size separation that occurs on the beach.
The coarser material, which settles out first, drains rapid-
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0
H/X (S) X "90.. A x . 1111
Fig. I4-Particle-size distribution
tailings 280 m
along
long
a beach of diamond
. X . 40.. & x . III
711..
1,5
G>
~'I EAN FOR . 90..
minations on specimens taken along the same 280 m long 4
beach of diamond tailings referred to in Fig. 12. Fig. 15
tJ
0
presents similar data for four beaches of platinum tailings 0. 0,2 0,4 0,6 0.8 1,0
that vary in length from 40 to 90 m. Whether equation
(14) or (14a) is followed, there is a lot of scatter about the H/X
mean value of either AHjX or A2HjX. Not surprisingly,
the mean values for these ratios vary with the material
under consideration. In the case of the platinum tailings,
the mean value of AHjX for the 90 m beach is fairly 2,
close to that for all four beaches. The data appear to fit
better than in the case of A2HjX.
shown in Figs. 14 and 15 have been obtained
Similar results to those
for gold
. IllEAN FOR ALL
. If
A2 H/X 1,.0
tailings. ..
Based on the available data, the following tentative
conclusions have been drawn. (pIllEAN FOR X. 90 Ill"""
i 4
(i) The particle size at a given distance along a 0
,4 0,6 0.8 I',0
hydraulic beach from the point of discharge can ."
be roughly predicted from the relationship H/X
AHjX = M (for H greater than zero), .. (16) Fig. IS-Particle-size distribution along four beaches of
in which M is a characteristic of the tailings. platinum tailings
82 APRIL 1983 JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY
ly and develops shear strength faster than the finer strength of the settled slurry is an important factor in
material, which settles out further down the beach and determining beach gradients. However, as the flow
drains more slowly. Hence, equation (9) would predict a spreads, delta-like, from the point of deposition and in
progressive flattening of the beach gradient. Fig. 16 so doing decreases in velocity (Fig. 11), the requirements
illustrates typical variations in surface shear strength of continuity and conservation of energy probably also
along the beaches of an operational platinum-tailings have an influence on the gradients that develop.
dam. Strengths were not measured during deposition, Figure 17 illustrates beach profiles measured on six
but a few hours afterwards, when sufficient capillary platinum-tailings dams. If the profiles are plotted on a
strength had developed to make the area accessible. The dimensionless basis as in Fig. 18, they reduce to a single
actual decline in surface strength from H/X = 0 to 'master' profile that can be approximated by an expres-
H /X = 1 during deposition is almost certainly larger sion of the form
than that shown in Fig. 16.
X!H h/Y = Y/X (1 - H/X)n. . . . . . . . . . (17)
8'0 9'0 0
0'
The variables h, H, X, and Y are defined in Fig. 17, and
n is an exponent that is characteristic of the tailings
i!b
material. It should be noted that Y/X represents the
'average' gradient along the beach.
Fig. 19 compares dimensionless beach profiles for four
different types of tailings. The profiles for platinum,
"0
nw, diamond, and gold tailings were measured on hydraulic-
1
0 M'O ~ fill beaches, but that for copper tailings represents the
8 MW 11--1(
"0 average profile of a series of cyclone underflow cones. It
is interesting that such repeatable results with very little
'",0 ---- scatter can be obtained for beach and cyclone-cone
8'0
profiles, whereas particle-size profiles, which are of more
direct use to the designer, cannot be predicted nearly so
certainly.
Fig. 16-Variation of shear strength along three hydraulic As shown earlier when the flow of thickened slurries
beaches
was considered, a small change in the angle of a beach,
The application of equation (9) to the data of Fig. 16 and particularly of a cyclone underflow cone, can mean
predicts that the slope angle of the beach at the pool an important variation in the volume of stored tailings.
would be 30 to 50 per cent of the slope at the point of It is therefore useful to have an expression such as
deposition. Measurement indicates that the slope de- equation (17) when tailings-disposal systems are being
creases from 4,7 to 0,8, a reduction to 17 per cent of the planned. This is of particular importance when the design
initial value. This appears to support the view that the of a tailings dam depends on the deposition of a given
I&.
0 ..J
8 8
I&J
11-
y I&J
E
z h
0 3
~ 0
~
W
x
--I
W
w
> 2
~
<X
--I
<X
W
0::
11
>-
o. 20 40 60 80 100 /60
H = DISTANCE ALONG BEACH (m)
Fig. 17-Measured beach profiles on six platinum-tailings dams
JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY APRIL 1983 83
shrinks, with the result that a network of open sub-
1/,0
. DAM AI surface cracks may form in the tailings deposit. Fig. 20
. DAM A2 is a sketch of a system of open shrinkage cracks that were
X DAM BI observed in the side of a test pit in the surface of an
0,8 ~DAM B2 operational tailings dam. The system of open cracks was
. DAM C observed to extend to a depth of 500 mm below the
0 DAM D surface. As overburden builds up, the cracks appear to
q6 FITTED CURVE close but remain as incipient surfaces of weakness.
h /y The photograph in Fig. 21 shows the surface of a fresh
vertical cut in an abandoned tailings dam. The network
of old shrinkage cracks is shown up by the oxidation of
0,4 pyrite that has occurred preferentially along these
surfaces. The height ofthe cut is more than 2 m.
II
SURFACE OF DAM
q2
0 q2 0,4 0,6 (0
H/X
/,0
84 APRIL 1983 JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY
(b) the design of surface slopes for the disposal of
tailings by the thickened-discharge method;
(c) the investigation of the distance travelled by
a slurry after escaping from a breach in a dam
wall.
2. Methods of predicting both the particle-size
gradation along a hydraulic-fill beach and the profile
assumed by the beach were developed. Particle-size
gradation can be used in the prediction of the posi-
tion of the phreatic surface, and hence can help in
the analysis of the stability of a proposed dam. A
knowledge of the beach profile assists in an analysis
of the volume-height-area relationships for dams.
3. A troublesome phenomenon, that of internal erosion
during the deposition of slurry, was described, and
preventive measures were tentatively suggested.
SURFACE OF DAM
l50mm
130mm
VOID
270 mm
F DAM
JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY APRIL 1983 85
G. M. Bentel was sponsored by the South African Council
for Scientific and Industrial Research, the University of
the Witwatersrand, Messrs Steffen, Robertson & Kirsten,
Inc., and Fraser F. Alexander & Co. (Pty) Ltd. Thanks
are due to these bodies for their generous support.
References
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86 APRIL 1983 JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY