Wright, W. E. (2015).

Foundations for Teaching

English Language Learners: Research, Theory, Policy,
and Practice (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: Caslon Publishing.
1. What kinds of diversity do we find within the
category English language learners?
2. What pros and cons do you see in the different
labels for English language learners?
3. Where do we find English language learners in the
United States, in the past and today?
4. Why do teachers need to know specific information
about their English language learner students
home languages and literacies, English language
proficiency, educational histories, and sociocultural
experiences?
5. How can teachers learn about their English
language learner students backgrounds?
 Race and
ethnicity

Parents
Native
proficiency
language
in English

English
language
Parents level
of education learners Socio-
and literacy (ELLs) economic
in their native status
language

Level of
schooling
Proficiency
and literacy
in English
in their native
language
 ELLs
are entitled to equal access to
educational opportunities

Content area knowledge English proficiency

Receive high quality Acquire the English

academic instruction they need to

across content areas participate and
achieve at school and
in society
 The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 refers to ELL
students as limited English proficient (LEP)
students, defined as those
whose difficulties in speaking, reading, writing, or understanding the
English language may be sufficient to deny the individual(i) the ability to
meet the States proficient level of achievement on State assessments . . .
(ii) the ability to successfully achieve in classrooms where the language of
instruction is English; or (iii) the opportunity to participate fully in society
Procedures for identifying ELLs vary from state to
state
 Identification: Student enrolls in school

Takes a survey to identify if another language is used at home. If so an English

Language Proficiency (ELP) test is administered.
Tests can never give a true measure of
Tests and surveys vary across states/districts
language proficiency

If identified as an ELL, student is placed in an ELL program

(English-medium or Bilingual program)

Redesignation into Fluent English Proficient, ELP test administered each year
until student reaches the proficient level

No longer needs special Is placed in Redesignation Redesignation happens

instruction/services mainstream classroom tests vary too early for many ELLs
 Lack of consistency in labeling students not yet proficient in English
Some commonly used labels include:
Limited English Proficient (LEP)
Label used in federal and some state laws
No indication of active learning; Emphasis on limited takes a deficit view
English language learner (ELL) [or English Learner (EL)]
Label preferred by most in the field; Emphasis on actively learning the new
language
But no acknowledgement of native language
Language Minority Students (LMS)
But many LMS students are fluent in English and lack proficiency in their native
language
Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students
Nice emphasis on diversity, but proficient and native speakers of English are also
part of schools cultural and linguistic diversity
Emergent Bilingual Students
Emphasizes students development of both their native language and English
 The U.S. has always been a nation of immigrants
Past immigrants (1800s early 1900s) predominantly from
Europe and Canada
The highest peak of immigration was at the turn of the 20th
century - 14 % of the population, although it is still very high
nowadays as well
Todays immigrants primarily from Latin America and Asia
In 2009,16.8 million children (ages 0-17) were children of
immigrants, a 3.5 million increase from 2000
In 2009, about 23% of children have at least one parent who
was born outside of the US
2014 U.S. Census Bureau report states foreign-born
immigrants make up about 12.9% of the total U.S. population
between 2008-2012
 Common Misconceptions
Statement Myth or Fact
1. Most children of immigrants are foreign born, and ?
many are undocumented illegal aliens
2. 86% of children of immigrants are U.S. born ?
citizens
3. Undocumented immigrant children make up less ?
than 2% of pre-K students
4. Immigrants today are slow to learn English and ?
most children of immigrants are ELLs
5. Only about 1/3 of children of immigrants are ?
classified as English language learners
6. Most ELLs are U.S. born citizens ?
76% of elementary school ELLs
56% of secondary school ELLs
 Common Misconceptions
Statement Myth or Fact
1. Most children of immigrants are foreign born, and MYTH
many are undocumented illegal aliens
2. 86% of children of immigrants are U.S. born FACT
citizens
3. Undocumented immigrant children make up less FACT
than 2% of pre-K students
4. Immigrants today are slow to learn English and MYTH
most children of immigrants are ELLs
5. Only about 1/3 of children of immigrants are FACT
classified as English language learners
6. Most ELLs are U.S. born citizens FACT
76% of elementary school ELLs
56% of secondary school ELLs
 5,208,247 ELLs out of total student
population of 49,866,700 in 2010
ELLS make up about 10% of the student population
The growth rate of ELL students far surpasses
the growth rate of the total student
population.
63% vs. 5% between 1994 and 2010
 Majority of ELLs live in 8 states
State # of ELLs Percent of States
Student Population
California 1,779,102 28.4%
Texas 726,062 15.0%
Colorado 95,141 11.4%
Florida 230,540 8.8%
Illinois 179,857 8.5%
Arizona 83,625 7.8%
New York 200,805 7.3%
North Carolina 106,335 7.0%
2009-2010 School Year
 9 states or U.S. territories have over 80,000 ELLS
26 other states or U.S. territories have over 20,000
ELLS
15 other states or territories have over 5,000 ELLs
In 37 states and territories, ELLs make up 5% or more
of the total student population
In 18 states, the ELL growth rate was over 100%
between 1999 and 2009
See EL Population Maps
http://www.ncela.us/content/28_maps08_09
Implications for Teachers
Regardless of where they teach, teachers will likely have
ELLs in their classrooms.
Imperative that they receive the necessary training and
certification to provide effective language and content area
instruction for ELLs
Type Description
Native U.S.-Born ELLs ELLs who are U.S. born citizens.
Foreign-Born ELLs ELLs who were born outside of the U.S.
Transnational ELLs ELLs who frequently travel between the U.S. and
their home country
Newcomer ELLs ELLs who have been in the U.S. for 1 to 2 years
Highly Schooled ELLs who have been in the U.S. for 1 to 2 years, but
Newcomer (HSN) who obtained high quality education prior to
ELLs migration
Refugee ELLs ELLs who entered the U.S. with refugee status, often
as a result of war or political persecution
Type Description
Students with interrupted Students who had limited to no access to schools in their home
formal education (SIFE) or previous countries, or whose education was interrupted due
to war or civil conflict.

Indigenous ELLs ELLs from Native American tribes

Special education English ELLs who are also identified as needing special education services
language learners (SE-ELLs)
Gifted and Talented English ELLs who also qualify to participate in gifted and talented
Language Learners (GT-ELLs) education programs
Long term English language Students who remain classified as ELLs for 5 years or longer
Learners (LTELLs)
Reclassified English Former ELLs who have met their states linguistic and academic
language learners (R-ELLs) criteria to be exited from ELL programs and reclassified as fluent
English proficient
 Home Languages
381 different languages in Language # of ELLs
2011 Vietnamese 85,252
80% of ELLs are Spanish Chinese 69,821
speakers Arabic 51,606
Over 3.5 million Hmong 46,311
Families come from a wide Haitian 33,845
range of countries (see Box
1.2) Tagalog 26,885
Other top 8 languages Somali 19,699
spoken by ELL have a total Navajo 10,507
of 343,926 speakers
 WIDA Consortium - Five levels of English language
proficiency (see Table 1.3):

Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5

Entering Emerging Developing Expanding Bridging

Official State English language proficiency levels may use

different labels but are based on the same principles
Texas: Beginning, Intermediate, Advanced, and Advanced High

Important for teachers to understand what students can

reasonably be expected to be able to do at each level in
order to plan effective language and content instruction
The Urban Institute reports (Capps et al.,
2006):
A high percentage of ELLs come from low-
income families
Over 60% of ELLs
Most parents of ELLs have low-levels of
education (in home country and/or U.S.)
50% never completed high school
Compared to 11% of English-proficient student parents
25% have less than a 9th grade education
Compared to 2% of English-proficient student parents
 Historically the U.S. has done an
inadequate job providing equitable
educational opportunities for ELLs
Continuing wide gap in academic achievement between poor,
minority, and ELLs, and middle to upper-class white students
2012 Report from AIR reveals only 10 states met all of their
NCLB achievement targets for ELLs
Results may be due to flaws in NCLB accountability system
Still show states are failing to meet achievement expectations for ELLs
Low ELL achievement on 2011 NAEP:
Reading test Math test
ELL scores Grade 4 Grade 8 Grade 4 Grade 8
Below basic 70% 71% 42% 72%
At or above 7% 3% 14% 5%
proficient
 High drop-out rates
2010 high school graduate rates:
Latino students = 71% Alaskan Native students = 69%
White students = 83% African American students = 66%
Asian Model Minority Myth
1. All Asian students succeed academically and Asian families do MYTH
well economically
2. Many Asian American students struggle to do well in school FACT
3. In California, some Asian ethnic groups struggle the most to FACT
attain English proficiency
4. Many Asian American families live in poverty FACT

Refugee students
Schools seeing increased numbers of refugee students from war-
torn countries in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East
Many students have had little to no access to formal schooling prior to
their arrival in the U.S.
 Factors contributing to underachievement
of ELLs
Lack of opportunity to learn

ELLs tend to be segregated into overcrowded schools with the

poorest resources

Far less per-pupil spending

Fewer instructional materials and more outdated curriculum

Greater number of inexperienced and uncertified teachers

Lack of teachers certified to work with ELLs

 Factors contributing to underachievement
of ELLs
Parents with low levels of education and English proficiency are less able to help
their children with school work

Low income neighborhoods

Families are Challenging for students
Crowded Limited access
High less able to to find quite places to
living to good schools
crime purchase study and obtain
conditio and public
rates books for their resources to complete
ns libraries
children school assignments

Challenges of learning English at the same time as receiving academic content

instruction in their new language
 Despite these factors which limit opportunities,
ELL students can learn and reach the highest
levels of academic standards
Teachers, administrators, and political leaders
must take these factors into consideration when
Setting policies
Creating programs
Making instructional decisions
Need to build on the strengths ELL students
bring with them to school
Home languages
Funds of knowledge they have access to in their homes
and community
 Some ELL students may also have learning disabilities
Language
disability Cognitive
disability

Imperative to make the distinction between language

difficulties typically faced by all ELLs, and cognitive
learning disabilities which require special education
services
Factors to explore:
Learning environment
Personal and family issues
Physical and psychological development
Previous schooling
Social and academic language development in L1 and L2
Academic achievement in both languages
Cultural differences
 Teachers should be familiar with each students:

Country of origin (or parentscountry(ies) of

origin)
Home language(s)
Ethnic and cultural group(s)
Prior schooling in home country and U.S.
How long student or family has been in the U.S.
Literacy skills in the native language(s)
Parents level of education and literacy skills
Neighborhood conditions
Socioeconomic status
Number of siblings, and birth position (e.g.,
oldest, middle, youngest)

Understanding of these sociocultural factors important for

teachers to be able to provide effective instruction
 Cultural differences can impact students
academic success
Native English speakers from the dominant group are
generally advantaged by the close match between their
home language and culture and that of the school
ELLs may experience a cultural and linguistic mismatch
between their home and schools language and culture.
Disadvantaged when schools do not recognize, value, and
incorporate these differences
Schools need to help ELL students
Adjust to the culture of the classroom
Give them access to the dominant or privileged ways of
knowing and doing
 Assimilation vs. Acculturation
Assimilation Replacing the native
language and culture with a new
language and culture
Rapid assimilation can lead to
conflicts at home and academic
Spanish bicult English
difficulties at school
culture ural culture
Acculturation Adapting to a new
language and culture without sacrificing
the native language and culture
Melting Pot Myth
Inaccurate and inappropriate portrayal of U.S.
Salad Bowl Metaphor
Better alternative to melting pot
Culture is dynamic and multifaceted
ELLs typically and continually forge new cultural identities that are a
mixture of their home culture and the dominant cultural influences
surrounding them
 Subtractive Bilingualism
English replaces the native language
Primary language loss has a number of negative social and academic
consequences for students
(see Box 1.5)
Additive Bilingualism
English added as an addition to the native language
Emergent Bilingualism
Recognizes that many ELLs (especially those born in the U.S.) are acquiring
English at the same time they are learning their native language.
Students need opportunities to learn and develop high levels of proficiency
in both at school
Important for schools to have have policies and programs that
value and promote additive and/or emergent bilingualism
Personal academic and social benefits for students, their families, and
their communities
Societal benefits for our nation as a whole
Great need to address shortage of bilingual citizens needed to fulfill critical
roles in the business, service, education, and national security sectors
(Activity sheet available on Companion Website)

Work with a partner

Read the description of each students
English ability.
Discuss and match the description with the
appropriate English proficiency level label
Check and share your answers with the whole
group
 Resources for obtaining information on the sociocultural
backgrounds of ELLs students
School enrollment papers, emergency cards
All About Me units
Back to School nights
Parent conferences
Internet searches to learn more about
Students (or familys) home country and culture
Students native language(s)
ELL Student Profile Form
Useful tool for gathering and analyzing this information
Form is available on the Companion Website
Use this information to
Provide instruction tailored to students strengths and needs
Identify appropriate supplement curricular materials
Ex: bilingual dictionaries, multicultural literature, etc.
1. Review the profiles of the students at the beginning of the chapter.
Which students are likely to face the greatest challenges in learning
English and academic content? Which ones might have fewer
challenges? Why?
2. Consider the different labels that have been used to describe students
who are not yet proficient in English. Which ones have you heard used
in your school or program? Which do you prefer? Why?
3. How can poverty affect the teaching and learning of ELLs? What is the
danger in attributing students underachievement to cognitive deficits
rather than seeking to understand sociocultural factors that can affect
students opportunities to learn? Describe your own experiences or
observations related to this issue.
4. View the news report video clip describing a class for refugee
newcomer students in the Grand Rapids, Michigan area. What are some
challenges these students face in U.S. schools? What are
some challenges faced by their teacher? How would you address these
challenges?
5. View the video of San Antonio, Texas teacher Kerry Haupert (named
Innovator of the Year by her school district for her work with newcomer
ELL students). How does she view her students? What are some ways
that she advocates for them? Why are these and other similar
characteristics important for teachers of ELLs to have?
Wright, W. E. (2015). Foundations for Teaching
English Language Learners: Research, Theory, Policy,
and Practice (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: Caslon Publishing.
1. What do teachers need to know about
language, and why do they need to know it?
2. How can knowledge of language help
teachers to think linguistically about their
students, their curriculum, and their
classroom instruction?
3. What does it mean to know a language?
4. What do teachers need to know about
language for academic or disciplinary
purposes?
 David Crystals (2001) Definition of Language
The systematic, conventional use of sounds, signs,
or written symbols in a human society for
communication and self-expression
Ability to use language separate humans from
other animals
 Fillmore & Snow (2000) identify 5 functions
teachers perform that require knowledge of
language
Teacher as communicator
Teacher as educator
Teacher as evaluator
Teacher as an educated human being
Teacher as an agent of socialization
All classrooms are language learning
environments
Language is at the heart of teaching and learning
Teachers need to think linguistically
 The recognition of the importance of
language is included in the Common Core
State Standards (CCSS)
Six language standards related to conventions of
standard English, knowledge of language and
vocabulary acquisition and use
Students must gain control over many conventions of
standard English grammar, usage and mechanics, ways
to convey meaning effectively
Determine the meaning of words encountered from
listening, reading and media use; appreciate various
non-literal meanings, expand their vocabulary
Conventions of Standard English
1. Demonstrate command of the conventions of standard English grammar and usage
when writing or speaking.
2. Demonstrate command of the conventions of standard English capitalization,
punctuation, and spelling when writing.
Knowledge of Language
3. Apply knowledge of language to understand how language functions in different
contexts, to make effective choices for meaning or style, and to comprehend more fully
when reading or listening.
Vocabulary Acquisition and Use
4. Determine or clarify the meaning of unknown and multiple-meaning words and
phrases by using context clues, analyzing meaningful word parts, and consulting
general and specialized reference materials, as appropriate
5. Demonstrate understanding of figurative language, word relationships, and nuances
in word meanings.
6. Acquire and use accurately a range of general academic and domain-specific words
and phrases sufficient for reading, writing, speaking, and listening at the college and
career readiness level; demonstrate independence in gathering vocabulary knowledge
when encountering an unknown term important to comprehension or expression.
 Subsystems of Language
Phonology
Morphology
Syntax
Semantics
Pragmatics
Lexicon (Vocabulary)
Spelling
 The study of the sound systems of a language
Phoneme
Smallest unit of sound in a language
Change in phoneme causes a change in meaning
Ex: bit/bet
Addresses the syllable structure and sequence of
sounds in a word (C-consonant, V-vowel)
CCV (spy); CVVC (quit); CCVVCCC (squints)
Knowledge of phonology helps teachers understand
Issues of pronunciation, accents, and regional varieties
Differences in the phonology of a students home language
and English that may lead to difficulties
 The study of the structure of words
Morpheme
The smallest units that carry meaning or have a grammatical function
Ex: Books book (free morpheme) + -s (bound morpheme)
Inflectional changes
Ex: fast/faster/fastest
Derivational changes (words derived from other words)
Ex: teach/teacher
Creation of new vocabulary words
Ex: compounding: sun + roof = sunroof
Knowledge of morphology helps teachers
Explain prefixes, suffixes, infixes, verb tense changes, plurals, compound
words, possessives, comparatives, superlatives, contractions
Teach word study lessons such as how to use morphemes to create
(derive) new words from known words
Understand challenges caused by differences in morphology rules in
students home languages
 The study of the rules governing the way words
are combined to form sentences and the rules
governing the arrangement of sentences in
sequences
Grammar
Syntax is about the relationship between words,
and conveying intended meanings
Who did what to whom, when, where, and how
Dad gave my book to mom. Mom gave my book to Dad.
Knowledge of syntax helps teachers
Model and explain word order and other grammatical
rules to ensure students communicate effectively
Understand challenges caused by differences in
students home language syntax
 The study of the meaning of words, phrases, and
sentences
Individual words have semantic features that indicate various
properties or meanings inherent in the word
Ex: Woman animate, human, female, adult
Knowledge of semantics helps teachers
Explain the relationships between words using
synonyms, antonyms, homophones, homonyms, etc.
Develop vocabulary and word study lessons on semantically
related words
Explain cognates and false cognates
Important (English) = importante (Spanish)
Exit (English) xito (Spanish, success)
Understand challenges caused by differences in semantics
in students home languages
 The study of language in use
The study of invisible meaning
How we recognize what is meant even when it isnt
actually said
Knowledge of pragmatics helps teachers
Guide students how to produce and to recognize and
respond appropriately to direct and indirect speech acts
Requests, commands, statements, questions
Explain to student appropriate ways to
Start, maintain, take turns in, and end conversations
Express opinions, agree, disagree
Negotiate social status, save face, make excuses
Identify misunderstandings that may arise due to
pragmatic differences in students home languages
 The vocabulary of a language is its lexicon
Finegan (2012) notes to use a word from a lexicon, a
speaker needs four kinds of information:
Its sounds and their sequencing (phonology)
Its meanings (semantics)
Its category (e.g., noun or verb) and how to use it in a sentence
(syntax)
How related words such as the plural (for nouns) and past tense
(for verbs) are formed (morphology)
A typical 2nd grade student knows the meaning of 6,000
words by the end of grade 2
Children from English-speaking homes pick up about 13
new words a day, and know about 80,000 words by the
time they are 17
 Folse (2011) suggests ELLs need
approximately
2,000 words to maintain conversations
5,000 words to read authentic texts
10,000 words to comprehend challenging academic
materials
Teachers can help ELLs acquire new words
in instructional and natural noninstructional
ways
Vocabulary acquisition happens most easily
in context
related to topics students care about
 The English spelling system can be very
confusing, but it is more logical and
systematic than it may seem
Spelling system not based simply on how
words sound
Spelling may be based on how words are related in
meaning
Ex: know/acknowledge
Words borrowed from other languages may be
spelled to reflect their origin
Croissant - French
Tamale - Spanish
Jaguar - Guarani
What it means to speak, know, or be
fluent in a language depends first on how
language and language proficiency are
conceptualized.
Earlier approaches to second language
learning viewed fluency as mastering a set
of discrete skills in listening, speaking,
reading, and writing.
Such a narrow view has proved insufficient
to understand how ELLs develop the English
they need to participate and achieve across
content areas at school and in society
 Knowing a language means being able to use it to
communicate effectively and appropriately with other
speakers of the language (Dell Hymes)
Grammatical competence
The ability to recognize the lexical, morphological, syntactic, and
phonological features of a language and use them to interpret and form
words and sentences
Discourse competence
The ability to connect a series of utterances, written words, or phrases to
form a meaningful whole
Sociolinguistic competence
The ability to understand the social context in which language is used,
including the roles of the participants
Strategic competence
The ability to use coping strategies in unfamiliar contexts when imperfect
knowledge of rules (or factors that limit their application), may lead to a
breakdown in communication
 Knowledge of communicative competence can help
teachers
Identify cross-cultural difference in the way people use oral and
written language
Ex: Classic ethnography by Philips (1983) found that students
from Warm Spring Indian Reservation in Oregon tend to pause
longer than Standard-English-speaking white middle-class
students before responding to a teachers question
Teachers misinterpreted behavior as students not knowing the
answer or being intentionally uncooperative
Result was teachers called on Anglo students more often and
made Indian students feel invisible
Understand that even ELLs who quickly learn new
vocabulary and grammar may still struggle with
pragmatic and sociolinguistic issues.
 Register
Variations in language, including the choice of words and
grammar, that reflect the social setting or context in which
it is used
The way you speak in a formal setting the way you speak with
close friends
The way you write an academic paper the way you write a text
message
Genre
Refers to goal-directed activities, such as the creation of a
particular kind of text to achieve a particular cultural purpose
(Hallidays theory or Systemic Functional Linguistics)
Knowledge of register and genre can help teachers
Understand what makes a personal narrative a personal
narrative, a science lab report a science lab report
Make lexical and grammatical features of these genres
more explicit to ELL students
Discourse
James Paul Gee (1996)
discourse (small d) language used in a particular context to
enact activities and identities
Ex: How a doctor uses oral or written language during an appointment
Discourse (big D) - different ways in which we humans integrate
language with non-language stuff, such as different ways of
thinking, acting, interacting, valuing, feeling, believing, and using
symbols, tools, and objects in the right places and at the right
times so as to enact and recognize different identities and
activities
Ex: A teacher draws on Discourses of schooling as she participates in
student-teacher interactions
helps her construct her identity as a teacher and the students identity as a
student
Social practice
Schieffelin, Woolard, and Kroskrity (1998)
There are sociological and ideological dimensions of language:
Understood as beliefs about languages and speakers of
languages that are reflected in what people say, enacted in
everyday activities, and structured by power relations.
Knowledge of language ideologies can help teachers
understand how language ideologies about Spanish, Arabic,
Chinese language influence the Discourse of schooling
challenge and potentially transform language ideologies that are
not equitable for ELL students
Of particular importance is how ELLs come to see themselves,
their home languages, and their educational opportunities
relative to English speakers through discourse practices at
school.
 Standard English
The variety spoken by members of the dominant society
The variety taught and assessed in school
Regional and Non-Standard Varieties of English
Some differences in phonology, morphology, syntax,
semantics, pragmatics, and/or vocabulary
Teachers need to understand, and help students
understand, that non-standard varieties are not
bad English
Are equally rule-governed and legitimate
Teachers need to learn pedagogically sound and
culturally sensitive methods for helping students
learn Standard English without delegitimizing the
variety of their homes and communities
 Two conceptualizations of bilingualism (Valds, 2014)
Use of two languages perfectly in all situations
Some level of competence in more than one language
The same individual may speak to a grandmother in Russian, share
secrets with a sibling in English, tell jokes with a cousin in English
and Russian and pray exclusively in Russian
Translanguaging
Multiple discursive practices in which bilinguals engage in
order to make sense of their bilingual worlds
This knowledge can help teachers understand that
students language knowledge is not compartmentalized
or separate, they always draw on what they know from one
language to make meaning in another
 Cummins (2008)
o Original framework:
o Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS)
Takes 1-2 years to develop
o Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP)
Takes 5 years or longer
o Later framework distinguished between 3 aspects of language
proficiency: conversational fluency, discrete language skills, and
academic language proficiency.
Criticism of Cummins frameworks
o Oversimplification of complex construct of language proficiency (Valds,
Poza & Brooks, 2015)
o Focus should be on specific school-based practices or communicative
functions rather than on achieving a general academic proficiency (Wiley &
Rolstad, 2014)
o Language of academic discourse is learned by all children through literacy.
There is no single unified type of academic English (Fillmore, 2013)
o Construct of academic language is too simplistic, fuzzy, and unhelpful to
guide instruction
 Educators struggle to define academic language with
precision and consistency because the construct is
oversimplified and insufficient
For example, Chamot (2009) identifies the following
academic language functions:
Seek information Inform Compare
Order Classify Analyze
Infer Justify Persuade
Solve problems Synthesize Evaluate
But, are these functions unique to academic language?
How about kids organizing and playing a soccer match out on the
playground?
 Some efforts to determine what exactly academic language is have
focused narrowly on vocabulary
Recent trend is to distinguish three tiers of vocabulary
Tier 1: basic words (e.g. block, baby, happy)
Tier 2: more sophisticated words of literate language users (e.g. coincidence, absurd,
fortunate)
Tier 3: words from specific content areas and domains (e.g. isotope, lathe, refinery)
Advocates for direct vocabulary instruction argue focus should be on
Tier 2 as these are high-use academic words less common in oral
language.
But
Lower level ELLs will need ample opportunities and support to learn Tier 1 words
Many Tier 1 words have specialized meanings in Tier 3
E.g., table, face, plate tissue
While vocabulary development is essential, learning language for
academic success goes well beyond learning new words
 TESOL and WIDA Standards
Attempt to delineate what academic language proficiency means for ELLs
Being able to communicate for social, intercultural, and instructional purposes
within the school setting
Being able to communicate information, ideas, and concepts necessary for
academic success in language arts, mathematics, science, and social studies
Represent a more current view of language
Delineates the different kinds of language demands associated with the different
academic content areas
Language Arts
Mathematics
Science
Social Studies
Rather than focus on academic language as a single, unifying construct,
the focus should be on
How language and literacy are actually used in the classroom for teaching and
learning specific academic subjects
Finding ways to help ELLs learn and use these correctly and appropriately in
academic settings
Standard 1: English language learners communicate for social
and instructional purposes within the school setting.
Standard 2: English language learners communicate
information, ideas, and concepts necessary for academic
success in the content area of language arts.
Standard 3: English language learners communicate
information, ideas, and concepts necessary for academic
success in the content area of mathematics.
Standard 4: English language learners communicate
information, ideas, and concepts necessary for academic
success in the content area of science.
Standard 5: English language learners communicate
information, ideas, and concepts necessary for academic
success in the content area of social studies.
 Jeff MacSwan and Kellie Rolstad (2003) introduced the
concept of Second Language Instructional Competence
(SLIC)
An alternative to the problematic construct of academic language
proficiency
SLIC refers to the stage of second language (L2)
development at which the learner is able to understand
instruction and perform grade-level school activities in the
L2 alone, in the local educational context.
Teachers can focus on a specific academic task and ask
themselves:
What is the amount and type of linguistic proficiency that is
required for that student to engage the subject matter at hand?
What level of oral and written language is required for students to
understand the language of instruction sufficiently well at that
moment, in that context, to participate in that lesson and learn
from it?
 Knowledge of language is relevant to the many roles teachers
play as communicators, educators, evaluators, educated
human beings, and agents of socialization
Knowledge about subsystems of language, language
variation, and bilingualism is needed to value non-standard
varieties of English and other languages students speak while
helping students develop standard English
When teachers understand what it means to know a
language, they can help their students develop the
communicative competence needed for social and academic
purposes in school and beyond.
Teachers can think linguistically to identify the specific
language demands of different academic tasks and how to
best help students meet these demands.
1. Fillmore and Snow identify five functions that teachers
perform for which they need to know about language.
Are these functions relevant only for teachers of ELLs,
or are they important for all teachers? Of the teachers
you know, how many do you think have the kind of
knowledge Fillmore and Snow deem essential? In what
ways might their lack of such knowledge affect their
instruction?
2. Go back to the situations at the beginning of this
chapter. For each one, discuss what misunderstanding
the teacher may have, and discuss how an
understanding of language can help these teachers
pinpoint the issues and address them in an
appropriate manner. What other examples have you
run across where misunderstanding about language
lead to problems?
3. Think linguistically about the following tasks to identify the
specific language skills and levels of English proficiency (or
amount of second language instructional competence) that
students would need to successfully engage in them: (a)
listen and take notes during a high school class lecture on
U.S. history, (b) solve 50 2-digit addition and subtraction
problems, (c) read a chapter in a 5th grade science book
and answer the questions at the end, (d) sing along and do
movements to a song, (e) listen to a book read aloud by a
1st grade teacher and draw a picture of your favorite part,
(f) practice for an 8th grade reading comprehension test
(reading text passages and answering multiple-choice
questions), (g) work cooperatively with a group of peers to
carry out a science experiment, and (h) write a persuasive
essay.
4. View the video of professors David and Yvonne Freeman,
authors of many books on teaching ELLs, discussing the
notion of "academic language". According to the Freemans,
how is academic language much more than simply learning
new vocabulary? How do the Freeman's view of academic
language correspond with scholars who argue that there is
no such thing as a single, unified construct of academic
English?
5. Review the document Key Takeaways from the K-12
Common Core State Standards in English Language Arts"
from the Common Core State Standards Initiative. What are
the specific language areas and skills being targeted
for all students in the standard? What opportunities and
challenges may these standards pose for ELL students?
 Form groups of 4 to 5 students
Linguistic subsystems
Indicate the linguistic subsystem each classroom
activity addresses
Check and share your answers with the whole
group

Activity form available on the Companion Website

Wright, W. E. (2015). Foundations for Teaching English Language
Learners: Research, Theory, Policy, and Practice (2nd ed.).
Philadelphia: Caslon Publishing.
1. How do students develop proficiency in a
new language?
2. How can different theories of language
learning inform effective practice?
3. How do you develop your own personal
approach to providing effective language
and content instruction for English language
learners?
 Babies cannot talk, but by age 5 have a fully developed language system
Two major theories evolved to explain this amazing achievement
B.F. Skinner
Children learn L1 through imitation and positive reinforcement (Behaviorism).
Common view in 1940s and 1950s
Noam Chomsky
Challenged Skinners views in 1959 by demonstrating that children are able to
produce language and unique utterances well beyond what they hear and imitate
Hypothesized that children have an innate ability to learn language
Language acquisition device and Universal Grammar enables children to figure out the
underlying rules of their language on their own
Chomskys theories were revolutionary and his work remains influential
Most linguistics agree children have genetic predisposition for language,
New research is emerging that builds upon or challenges Chomskys idea
 Cognitive approaches to second language acquisition (SLA)
Highly influenced by Chomsky
Most interested in what is happening inside the brain of the language
learner
Many competing theories and debates, but several plausible theories with
important implications for teaching and learning:
Krashens five interrelated hypothesis
Interaction Hypothesis
Comprehensible Output Hypothesis
Noticing Hypothesis
Processability Theory
Input Processing Model
Transfer from L1 to L2
1980s, Stephen Krashen proposed 5
interrelated hypotheses:
The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
The Natural Order Hypothesis
The Monitor Hypothesis
The Input Hypothesis
The Affective Filter Hypothesis
 The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
o Language Acquisition
Subconscious process (not aware it is happening)
Once we acquire something, not aware we possess new
knowledge
Subconsciously stored in our brains
o Language Learning
What we did in school
Conscious process we know we are learning
Rules, grammar
o Because of the complexity of language, the vast
majority is acquired, rather than consciously
learned
 Natural Order Hypothesis
o We acquire the parts of language in a predictable
order
o Order for L1 and L2 is similar, but not identical
o Some grammatical items tend to come earlier and
others tend to come later
ex: Third person singular s (Bob looks at his watch)
comes late
o Natural order appears to be immune to deliberate
teaching
Cannot change natural order through drills, explanations,
exercises
Wont be acquired until its time has come
 The Monitor Hypothesis
oLanguage use mostly depends on acquired
linguistic competence
oConscious learning has one function only
as a Monitor or editor
oAfter producing some language (when
speaking or writing), our monitor can kick
in to correct it if necessary
Like a little language teacher in our heads
reminding us of the rules
 The Input (Comprehension) Hypothesis
o Answers the most important question How does
language acquisition occur?
o We acquire language in one way when we
understand messages or obtain comprehensible input
We acquire language when we understand what we hear or what we
read, when we understand the message
oi + 1
i = a students current level of proficiency
+1 = input that is just slightly above that level
A student can move from i to i +1 by understanding input
containing i + 1.
Do with the help of previously acquired linguistic
competence and context
 The Affective Filter Hypothesis
o Affective variables do not impact language
acquisition directly, but may prevent
comprehensible input
o Examples, anxiety, low self-esteem, see self as
outsider of language group, shyness, etc.
o If affective filter is high, it blocks comprehensible
input
o If affective filter is low, it allows more
comprehensible input in
Teachers need to create a supportive classroom
environment to lower the affective filter and thus allow
more i+1
 Critiques of Krashens theories
o Oversimplification of complex processes in second
language acquisition (SLA)
o Cant be proven
o Cant operationalize things like i or +1 or specify
the exact sequence in the natural order
o De-emphasizes language output (speaking, writing)
and the importance of interaction
o Some misinterpret Krashens theories as opposing
all direct teaching
Nonetheless, Krashens theories have inspired
research and have led to new theories which
build on his ideas
 Interaction Hypothesis (Long)
o Interaction is essential for SLA to occur
o Input and interactions can be modified to maximize
comprehension
Comprehensible Output (Swain)
o Speaking forces learners to confront the limits of their language
ability and push them to find better ways to get their message
across
Noticing Hypothesis (Schmidt)
o Nothing is learned unless students notice it in the input
Processability Theory (Pienemann)
o Sequence in which learners acquire certain language features
depends on how easy they are to process
 Input Processing Model (VanPatten)
o Language acquisition happens in only one way
and all learners must undergo it. Learners must
have exposure to communicative input and they
must process it; the brain must organize data.
Learners must acquire output procedures, and
they need to interact with other speakers. There
is no way around these fundamental aspects of
acquisition; they are the basics.
 Positive transfer
Students are able to take much of the content-area knowledge
and literacy skills they gained in their first language (L1) and
transfer it to their second language (L2)
Students with L1 literacy skills will likely make rapid progress in
developing English literacy skills
Students who have substantial content-area knowledge in their L1
do not need to re-learn the concepts in English
They simply need the language skills to demonstrate what they already
know and can do
Negative transfer (interference)
ex: Applying L1 syntax rules to English
More research needed to understand what does and does
not transfer
Teaching for transfer enables students to draw what they
know from their L1 in learning L2 (Cummins, 2008)
(See Common Core State Standards in Spanish)
 Focus on the sociocultural context surrounding the learner
that facilitates the language learning process
New terms being used to challenge terms that emerged from
traditional cognitive approaches
Home language instead of first language, native language or
primary language
Emergent bilinguals instead of ELLs
English as an additional language/ English as a new language
rather than English as a second language
New language may also refer to English proficient students in dual or
world language programs
The New York Bilingual Common Core Initiative uses terms new language and
home language in the New Language Arts Progressions and the Home
Language Arts Progressions
 Hymesnotion of communicative competence
provides the basis for
Communicative language teaching (CLT)
Content-based instruction (CBI)
Linguistically diverse varieties are rule-
governed and logical systems and should not
be unfairly stigmatized by speakers of
dominant varieties
African American Vernacular English (Ebonics)
TexMex (Spanglish)
 Vygotsky
o Learning is a social activity (Activity Theory)
o Knowledge is constructed through interaction and collaboration with
others
o Zone of proximal development (ZPD)
A domain or metaphoric space where children can reach a higher level of
knowledge and performance with the support of an adult or other more
knowledgeable person
o Scaffolding
The assistance given in the ZPD
Gives much greater emphasis to the role of speaking and
collaborating in learning a second language
Collaboration and interactions as key to language learning and teaching
Teachers role as skilled experts who interact and collaborate
with students, and carefully plan and scaffold instruction
within the ZPD of their students
 Ochs and Schieffelin (1984)
How children are socialized through language in
their respective speech communities across a wide
range of sociocultural contexts
Working with ELLs, teacher are not just
teaching them a new language but they are
also socializing them into a community of
English language speakers in their classes,
programs and schools
 Sociocultural approaches increasingly look at the
education of ELLs through a bilingual lens.
Guiding principles for making decisions about
policies, programming, curriculum, instruction,
assessment, and accountability for ELLS (de Jong,
2011)
Striving for equity
Affirming linguistic and cultural identities
Promoting developmental bilingualism
Structuring for integration
 Bilingual education programs
Use two languages for instructional purposes
Bilingual perspective
Can be embraced by teachers who work with ELLs/emergent
bilinguals in any type of instructional program
See translanguaging as an integral part of natural and normal
ways of using the language in everyday life
Monolingual perspective (language-as-problem)
Reluctant to allow students to use any of their home language in
the classroom
Bilingual programs that insist on strict separation of languages
 All teachers share the responsibility for helping
ELLs develop their proficiency in English and their
ability to use oral and written English for academic
purposes across content areas
Content teachers teach lessons with both language and
content objectives
Several points of collaboration between bilingual,
ESL and content-area teachers
Planning lessons that address ELP standards
Providing support to identify the language demands in
the content area
Writing appropriate language objectives
Differentiating instruction, etc.
 Grammar-Translation Method (1840s)
o Analysis and memorization of grammar rules
o Translation of sentences between the two languages
o Opposition to this outdated and ineffective method
inspired new methods
Audiolingual method (1930s)
o Influenced by behaviorism
o Memorization of dialogues and grammar drills
The Natural Approach (late 1970s/1980s)
o Application of Krashens theories to the language
learning classroom
o Emphasis on providing comprehensible input in an
enjoyable classroom context so students can naturally
acquire the language
 Communicative Language Teaching (1980s)
o Current favored approach in the field
o Based on communicative competence
o Learn the language to be able to actually
communicate with other speakers
o Classroom activities focus on authentic and
meaningful communication
o Includes some focus on form (grammar) which is
necessary to comprehend and produce
comprehensible output
o There are a wide range of communicative language
teaching approaches, methods, and strategies
 Content-Based Instruction (CBI) is a type of communicative
language teaching
o A selected content area becomes a meaningful context for
authentic communication as learners collaborate to complete
carefully designed academic tasks
o ESL teachers used math, social studies, or science as vehicles for
language instruction
But ESL teachers were not experts in these area
Focus was more on learning the language than learning the
content-area concepts
Sheltered instruction / Specially designed academic instruction in
English (SDAIE)
Content teachers trained to modify instruction to make it
comprehensible for ELLs
Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA)
Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol (SIOP)
 Not designed specifically for ELL teaching and
learning, but thy are suited for language
classrooms
Whole language
Places emphasis on teaching reading strategies and skills within
the meaningful context of whole stories, poems, or other texts
Multiple intelligences
To maximize learning according to a particular set of intelligences
a child may have: linguistics, logical/mathematical, spatial,
musical, etc.
Cooperative learning
The use of small groups within which students collaborate to
solve problems or complete academic tasks
 Developed by Paulo Freire in the 1960s
Focus on liberating oppressed students through
transformative education
Many teachers recognize the importance of helping ELLs
understand and confront unequal power relations in order
to improve their lives and society as they learn English and
academic content
Rejects the banking model of education where teachers
simply make deposits of essential knowledge and skills
into the heads of students
Involves problem posing, reflective thinking, knowledge
gathering, and collaborative decision making
Help students find and express their voice
 No single method or approach is applicable to or
appropriate for every classroom
Teachers can draw on the variety of methods and
approaches and develop their own personal
approach informed by observation,
experimentation, and refection on the following
guiding questions:
1. What are the students strengths and needs?
2. What are the instructional goals?
3. What is likely to be challenging about these goals for
these students?
4. What strategies can help address these challenges?
5. How will you know whether these strategies are
effective?
 Teachers personal approach should be grounded
in a set of core principles, such as:
Engage all learners in the lesson
Make learners the focus of the lesson
Provide maximum opportunities for student participation
Be tolerant of learners mistakes
Develop learners confidence
Respond to learners difficulties and build on them
Use a maximum-amount of student-to-student activities
Promote cooperation among learners
Address learners needs and interests (Richards & Rodgers,
2014, p. 353).
 Whether one takes a cognitive or sociocultural
view of SLA, researchers and educators agree on
the need for students to receive comprehensible
input and to engage in meaningful interactions
with other speakers of the target language.
When teachers know their students well and
understand the sociocultural contexts, they can
draw on their knowledge of language teaching
and learning theories, methods, and approaches
to inform their own principled approach to
providing the type of learning environment that
builds on their students strengths and addresses
their unique needs.
1. Of the language learning theories discussed in this chapter,
which one do you most agree with? Do you feel the
cognitive and sociocultural theories are incompatible? If not,
discuss some ways drawing on different theories can help
inform your instruction.
2. Describe your experiences with the various methods and
approaches presented in this chapter, either learning under
them or putting them into practice in your own
classroom. Which one did you find to be the most effective?
3. Why is it important to go behind methods and approaches
and develop your own personal approach to teaching ELLs?
What are some of the core principles you would draw on to
inform your personal approach?
4. View the video from the 1980s of Dr. Stephen Krashen
describing his second language acquisition
hypotheses. What does he argue are the most
important features of second language acquisition?
Compare and contrast his theories with the other
described in this chapter.
5. Review the document "Guiding Principles of Language
Development" from the WIDA Consortium, which
serves as the cornerstone of WIDA's ELD standards.
How can these ten principles help you develop your
own personal approach to teaching ELLs? What are
some ways you would put these principles into
practice in your own classroom?
 Form groups of 4 to 5 students
Read, discuss and complete the matching
activity sheets:
Second language acquisition perspectives
Linguistic subsystems
Approaches and methods
Check and share your answers with the whole
group
Activity forms available on the Companion Website
Activity Sheet 1, Activity Sheet 2
Wright, W. E. (2015). Foundations for Teaching English Language
Learners: Research, Theory, Policy, and Practice (2nd ed.).
Philadelphia: Caslon Publishing.
1. How has the policy context surrounding the
education of ELLs changed in the United States?
2. How do national state-led consortia and
individual state policies and initiatives influence
the education of ELLs on the local district and
school levels?
3. How have the courts influenced the education
of ELLs?
4. How can educators use their understanding of
the policy and legislative context surrounding
ELL education to enhance their ELLs access to
educational opportunities?
Origin of US Policies

Set and controlled by members of

Federal
Government

dominant groups
State
Governments
ELL educators need to be
Discriminatory
impact on
minorities
Voter
initiatives
aware of policies and
Protective of their impact on students
minority rights
Court
decisions
 False Assumptions:
The challenges of educating ELLs and the need for special
programs for them are a relatively recent phenomenon

Immigrants in the past quickly gave up their native languages

and cultures to become Americans
English is the official language of the United States

Bilingual education is an experiment that began with the

1968 Bilingual Education Act
 Facts
The United States is now,
always has been, and will
continue to be a
multicultural and
multilingual country

Since the beginning, the

U.S. has faced issues related
to language and cultural
diversity, particularly in
education

Americas first German language newspaper,

1732, printed by Benjamin Franklin
 Facts
The founding fathers
never declared an
official language
Unnecessary because
English was already well
established as the
dominant language
Respected the diversity
among those who had
fought for independence
Bilingual education has
been in the U.S. since
the 17th century
For over a dozen different
languages Bilingual German primer used in Texas
and other German schools in the US in
the early 1990s
 Throughout history, the use of languages other than English by
minorities has been tolerated, even promoted or restricted:

Prohibited to speak native languages

Enslaved
compulsory ignorance laws prohibited learning to read and
Africans write English

American English only boarding school were designed to eradicate

Indians Indian languages and cultural practices

German- Heavy restrictions placed on German language instruction (WWI)

speakers,
English proficiency was required to become a citizen
others
 Bilingual Education
Prior to 1900 several states and local school districts
had laws to allow (or not restrict) bilingual education
Late 1880s and early 1900s, several states passed laws
requiring English as the language of instruction
Linguistic restrictions tend to come in waves and
are rarely about language itself, but about the
people who speak it (Wiley, 2012)
Recent efforts to restrict bilingual education coincide
with and take place within the context of:
Changing demographics and a growing Latino population
Debates over immigration
 U.S. Constitution makes no mention of education
Education is a state responsibility
But federal government has a strong interest in having
well-educated citizens
Federal
influence
1980 through
U.S. funding
1965
Department If a state
Elementary of Education
1953 accepts
and
Department federal funds,
Secondary
of Health, it must follow
Education Act
Education federal
and Welfare policies ALL
states accept
federal funds

Civil Rights Movements
Greater sensitivity to needs
of language minority
students
1968 Bilingual Education Act
1966 Conference in Tucson,
(Title VII)
Arizona
Bill Introduced by Senator
Noted high drop out rates
Ralph Yarborough from
of Mexican American
Texas
students
Ultimately combined with
Reported on needs of
several similar bills
students
Provided federal
identified innovative
competitive grant funding
bilingual programs
for bilingual programs
Recommended bilingual
Became Title VII of the
education and ESL
Elementary and Secondary
instruction
Education Act (ESEA)
 The Elementary and Secondary Education Act was
reauthorized 6 times between 1968 and 2001
Changes made to BEA at each reauthorization
More explicit definitions and clearer goals of the program
Reflected debates and compromises over types of bilingual
programs eligible for funding
Some increased support for non-bilingual program models
Greater recognition of personal and societal benefits of
bilingualism and bilingual education
Title VII BEA was reauthorized for the last time in
1994 and remained in effect until 2001
 President George W. Bushs plan to reauthorize ESEA
Signed into law in January 2002
Before NCLB After NCLB
Title VII Bilingual Education Title III Language Instruction for
Act Limited English Proficient and
Immigrant Students
Office of Bilingual Education Office of English Language Acquisition,
and Language Minority Language Enhancement, and Academic
Affairs (OBEMLA) Achievement for Limited English Proficient
Students
National Clearinghouse on National Clearinghouse on English Language
Bilingual Education Acquisition and Language Instructional
Education Programs (NCELA)
LEP student issues also in Title 1
Improving the Achievement of the
Economically Disadvantaged
 Title III
Provides formula grants to state education agencies
State distribute funds to school districts for ELL programs
No distinction between bilingual and non-bilingual programs
Requires ELLs be placed in language instruction education programs,
defined as an instructional course:
(A) in which a limited English proficient child is placed for the purpose
of developing and attaining English proficiency, while meeting
challenging State academic content and student academic achievement
standards; and
(B) that may make instructional use of both English and a childs native
language to enable the child to develop and attain English proficiency,
and may include the participation of English proficient children if such
course is designed to enable all participating children to become
proficient in English and a second language. (NCLB 3301(8))
 Any program for ELLs must meet only two requirements
Teach English as outlined in state English language proficiency
standards
Teach academic content as outlined in state academic standards
Sole focus of Title III is English
Instruction in the native language is optional
Allowances for bilingual education programs
Authority is given to each state to determine which types of
programs it will support
To identify ELLs, each state gives a home language survey to
determine if they speak another language at home, then, they
are given an ELP test
 English Language Proficiency (ELP) Standards
Each states standards must have
a label for each level
description of each proficiency level
what students can do in content at each level
the assessment score which determines each level
When NCLB went into effect few states had
language proficiency standards and assessments
that met these requirements
Most states faced substantial challenges in meeting
federal deadlines for the development of these
standards and assessments
 State requirements for English Language Proficiency
(ELP) Assessments
Must create assessments, given annually to all LEP students, to
measure student progress in learning and attaining English
proficiency
Must set annual measureable achievement objectives (AMAOs)
Adequate yearly progress (AYP) determined by annual
increases in number of LEP students
Meet AYP requirements under Title I (i.e., passing regular state
tests)
Must show how students are making progress in learning
English and attaining English proficiency
Failure to make AYP includes consequences ranging from
improvements plan development to replacing teaches and
cutting off funding
 Title I Improving the Achievement of the
Economically Disadvantaged
Each state must:
Create content and achievement standards, tests or assessments to
measure these standards
Use the results to hold schools, districts, and the state accountable
ALL students were expected to meet or exceed state
standards by 2014 (i.e., pass all tests)
Test score data must be disaggregated each year to
determine if each of the following subgroups made AYP
Economically disadvantaged
Limited English Proficient (LEP)
Students with disabilities
Race/Ethnicity
Gender
 If any subgroups does not make AYP, the entire school or
Failing district is designated as failing

Must develop and submit a school improvement plan

Fails for State must provide technical assistance
2 cons. Allow students to transfer to a non-failing school
yrs

School must paying for supplemental education services

Fails for
3+ cons. (e.g., tutoring) from an outside provider
yrs

State or private takeover of the school

Fails for
4+ cons. Replacement of the entire staff
yrs
 Title I testing requirements tended to
discourage the use of bilingual education
programs
Some argued that NCLB brought attention to
the needs of ELLs
There is now bipartisan acknowledgement
that NCLB is flawed, rigid, unrealistic, has
failed to produce promised academic gains.
 Obama set stage for major education reform
through the American Recovery and Reinvestment
Act of 2009 (ARRA) called
Economic stimulus funding
Includes over $44 billion in funding for education
$10 billion for Title I school
July 2009 Race to the Top Grants Announced
ELL advocates expressed deep concern that the
emphasis on high-stake testing remains
$4 billion in competitive grants for education reform
Teachers of ELLs held accountable for test scores
of questionable validity, may be unfairly penalized
Four general requirements for the use of the ARRA funds and
Race to the Top Grants:
1. Adopting internationally benchmarked standards that prepare
students for success in college and the workplace, and high-
quality assessments that are valid and reliable for all
students, including English language learners and students
with disabilities;
2. Recruiting, developing, rewarding, and retaining effective
teachers and principals;
3. Increased transparency by building data systems that
measure student success and inform teachers and principals
how they can improve their practices;
4. Supporting effective intervention strategies to turn around
the lowest-performing schools.
 Elementary and Secondary Education Flexibility Act (ESEA
Flexibility)
2011: Most states were deemed failing
States invited to apply for ESEA Flexibility from Title I
accountability requirements of NCLB
Each state must submit a proposal outlining key principles
Adoption of College-and-career-ready expectations for all students (e.g.,
Common Core State Standards)
State-developed differentiated recognition, accountability, and support
programs
Adopt Common Core tests (PARCC or Smarter Balanced) or create own state
test
Supporting effective instruction and leadership
Develop rigorous teacher and principal evaluation systems based on student
test performance
2014: 43 states, DC and Puerto Rico approved, other requests
awaiting approval
Long overdue efforts to reauthorize ESEA did not begin in
earnest until late 2015.
 Initiated by the National Governors Association and the Council of Chief State
School Officers (CCSSO) to develop language arts and math standards
2014: 43 states, DC, four U.S. territories adopted by CCSS voluntarily
Rigorous, internationally benchmarked college- and career-ready next
generation standards
The kind needed to get ESEA Flexibility
Not a national curriculum but opens up a national market for common
textbooks, materials, digital media, and assessments
Do not specifically address ELLs, but do include academic language
standards for all students
Do not specify the language of instruction, thus are compatible with
bilingual education approaches
New York Bilingual Common Core Initiative
California CCSS in Spanish (Common Core en Espaol)
 Critics
Raising the bar for all
students and focus on
reading of complex texts
will leave ELLs further
behind
Greatly increases the
amount of high-stakes
standardized testing and the
burden on teachers and ELLs
Real agenda is to benefit
private companies who sell
educational products and
tests to the K-12 market
Supporters
An opportunity to make
much-needed policy,
instructional and assessment
changes that will lead to
increased academic
achievement for ELLs
Amplified focus on
language for all students
will help teachers focus on
ELLs language issues
Understanding Language
Initiative (Stanford)
Federal funding provided to two consortia to develop next
generation language arts and math assessments to measure
student achievement of the CCSS
Seriesof online formative and summative tests
Collaboration with ELL experts to develop policies, procedures and
accommodations for ELLs

PARCC Smarter Balanced

The Partnership for the The Smarter Balanced

Assessment of Readiness for Assessment Consortium
College and Careers 23 states and territories
13 states and territories Management partner: WestEd
Partnership with Achieve, Inc.
 Two consortia for ELP standards and computer-
based assessments that comply with Title III of
NCLB and which correspond with college- and
career-readiness standards
World-class Instructional Design and Assessment (WIDA)
35 states and territories
Assessing Comprehension and Communication in English State-
to-State for ELLs (ACCESS 2.0)
The English Language Proficiency Assessment for the 21st
century (ELPA21)
11 states
 1960s 1970s
Many states repealed English-only instruction policies and adopted bilingual
education policies
English for the Children voter initiatives placed restrictions on
bilingual education and mandated sheltered English immersion
CA Prop. 227 (1998); AZ Prop. 203 (2000); MA Question 2 (2002)
Analyses have found no evidence these initiatives have helped ELLs learn English
faster or attain higher academic achievement
Despite attempts at restrictions, bilingual education is alive and well
Continues in many schools in CA, AZ, and MA through waivers
Some states continue to require it
In other states bilingual education is neither required nor restricted
Nearly half the states have bilingual education professional organizations
California was the first state to establish the Seal of Biliteracy to recognize bilingual
skills of their graduating seniors
Now offered in a growing number of states
A legislative proposal (SB 1174) has been approved to place an initiative before
voters in November 2016 in California to repeal Prop. 227.
 Addressing Segregation
Brown v. Board of Education (1954)
States may not fully separate ELLs throughout their education under the
guise of helping them learn English
But states are required to provide students with equal educational
opportunities
The Rights of Communities to Teach their Native Languages
to Their Children
Meyer v. Nebraska (1923)
Farrington v. Tokushige (1927) and Stainback v. Mo Hock Ke Kok
Po (1947)
States have right to mandate the language of instruction in
public schools during school hours
Parents have the right to organize after-school and weekend
heritage language classes for their children
 Addressing the Linguistic and Educational Needs of ELL
Students
Lau v. Nichols (1974)
ELL Chinese students in San Francisco Unified placed in
mainstream classrooms and left to sink or swim
District argued that it was being fair by giving ELLs the same
education as all other students
U.S. Supreme court rejected this argument. Declared:
There is no equality of treatment merely by providing
students with the same facilities, textbooks, teachers, and
curriculum; for students who do not understand English are
effectively foreclosed from any meaningful education. . . . We
know that those who do not understand English are certain to
find their classroom experiences wholly incomprehensible
and in no way meaningful.
 Lau Remedies
Issued by the U.S. Department of Educations Office of Civil Rights
Essentially required districts to implement bilingual programs
Though court did not prescribe any particular instructional
approach
Equal Educational Opportunities Act (EEOA) (1974)
Codified Lau into federal law by requiring, in part, that each state
take appropriate action to overcome language barriers that
impede equal participation by its students in its instructional
programs.
Although other legal actions since then made it clear that
Supreme Court didnt mandate bilingual education, the EEOA
remains in effect and several subsequent lawsuits have been
based on this legislation
 Castaeda v. Pickard (1981)
Rejected argument that EEOA mandated bilingual education
Established a 3-prong test for ELL programs. Regardless of
program model, the program must be:
1. Based on a sound educational theory
2. Implemented effectively with sufficient resources and personnel
3. Evaluated to determine if effective in helping students overcome
language barriers
Issues with the law
Nearly any program can be justified by an educational theory
Some approaches require very little in the way of staff or funding
Under the third prong, a certain amount of time must pass to determine
the adequacy of the program
Many students may be harmed before inadequate programs are
identified and rectified
 Federal and State Policies make it clear that schools are
responsible for meeting the needs of ELL students
Important for schools and districts to develop their own local
language policies and implementation manual/guide
A document that outlines what the school intends to do to
address language issues
Dynamic action statement that changes along with the dynamic
context of the school
David Corsons 3 policy principles provide a starting point:
1. Children have the right to be educated in their home language.
2. If the first principle cannot be met, children have the right to
attend a school that respects and values their home language,
3. Children have the right to learn the standard language variety
(e.g., Standard English in the United States) to the highest level of
proficiency possible.
 The local language policy and implementation
guide provide a vehicle for
Creating a coherent vision of ELL education,
The institutionalization of effective programs district wide.
When every educator who is responsible for the
education of ELLs on the local level shares a
common understanding, a common language, and
a common practice committed to the equal access
to educational opportunities for ELLs, programs
improve, instruction improves, and ELL
performance improves (Field & Menken, 2015)
1. How has federal policy for ELLs changed since 1968? How does Title III
of NCLB compare to the Bilingual Education Act it replaced? In what
ways has the Obama administration enabled states to work around
NCLB, and why do you think his administration has encouraged this
action? Do you feel these have been positive or negative changes for
ELLs? Why?
2. How has federal policy for ELLs changed since 1968? How does Title III
of NCLB compare to the Bilingual Education Act it replaced? In what
ways has the Obama administration enabled states to work around
NCLB, and why do you think his administration has encouraged this
action? Do you feel these have been positive or negative changes for
ELLs? Why?
3. What has been the role of the courts in guiding federal policy for ELLs?
What has case law identified as the main responsibility of schools in
meeting their needs? Which case set forth a test for determining the
adequacy of an ELL program, and what are the three prongs of this test?
What are the shortcomings of this test in ensuring high-quality
programs for ELLs?

4. View the clip of Delia Pompa, vice president for education for the
National Council of La Raza and member of the Understanding
Language group, discussing policy advancements for ELLs under
the Common Core. What does she say about the need for teachers
to be familiar with policy for ELLs? Do you agree? What other
reasons might you add?
Veteran educator Susan Ohanian is one of the leading critics of
Common Core State Standards. Choose one of her postings about
the Common Core on her website. Summarize her main arguments
(or the arguments of the author of the posting) and share your own
opinions. Discuss the implication for ELL students.
 Form groups of 4 to 5 students
Activity 1
Identify the federal and state policies, programs,
and initiatives that matches each description
Activity 2
Identify the name of each course case
Discuss with group
Share results with the class

Activity forms available on the Companion Website

Wright, W. E. (2015). Foundations for Teaching English Language
Learners: Research, Theory, Policy, and Practice (2nd ed.).
Philadelphia, PA: Caslon Publishing.
1. What are the essential components of any
instructional program for English language
learners?
2. What is the difference between ESL and sheltered
instruction?
3. What are the pros and cons of each of the
English-medium and bilingual education program
models that we find in the field today?
4. How can educators determine what type of
program is appropriate for their context?
 No one-size-fits-all

Programs Differ in target populations,

program structure and goals,
effectiveness

Identify programs eligible for

States state and federal funding

Have restrictive or additive
laws on bilingual education

Educators
Choose programs based
policies, research and
students characteristics
 ESOL EAL
English for speakers English as an
of other languages ELD ENL additional language
English language English as a new
development language

Is a separate content area (like math, science,

language arts)
Has its own
content standards (English Language Proficiency Standards)
set of curricular materials
time slot within the daily teaching schedule
Must be provided to ELLs at ALL levels of English
proficiency
Is provided in class, or through a pull-out program
 Students learn best in the language they understand best
Especially learning to read and write
Only need to learn to read once
Transfer from home language to English (and vice-versa)
Ensures students learn complex academic content while learning
English
Ensures ELLs wont fall behind English proficient peers in academic
subjects
Requires
certified bilingual teachers
appropriate curricula materials in home language
Follows the same content standards established for native English
speakers
But some states have specific home language arts standards/progressions (e.g.,
TX, NY)
Typically, the amount of home language instruction is gradually reduced as
students learn more English
 Grade-level content-area instruction taught in English but
in a manner that makes it comprehensible to ELL students
while promoting their English language development
Sheltered is a metaphor for simplifying language without
watering down content while protecting ELLs from language
demands that may be beyond their comprehension
Is called Specially Designed Academic Instruction in English
(SDAIE) in California and other states
 Preparation

Building
Assessment
background

Developed in 1990s by
Echeavarria, Vogt, &
Short
A tool for teachers to Comprehensible
Review
systematically plan, input
teach, observe, and
evaluate effective
sheltered instruction for
ELLs
Lessons include both
Lesson delivery Language and Content Strategies
Objectives in each lesson

Practice and
Interaction
application
 SIOP model has become very popular
But SIOP training alone is not enough to prepare
teachers to work with effectively with ELLs
Teachers also need the knowledge of
L2 teaching, learning and assessment
Sociocultural, historical, economic and political
factors that affect students ELD and academic
content area learning
How sheltered instruction fits into their overall
instructional program for ELLs
 Involves the brief use of students home
languages during ESL and sheltered English
content instruction
May be provided by
The teacher
A paraprofessional
The students
Purpose is to make instruction in English as
comprehensible as possible
Learn the content
Develop greater English proficiency
English as a second English language arts class
language class (ESL) (ELA)
ELP standards should correspond ELA content standards
(Title III) (Title I)
Focuses on teaching English Focuses on English as an
as a language to students academic subject for all
who are new to the language students to master
ESL teachers are more like foreign Students refining skills in a
language teachers language they already know
Should not be combined with Traditionally focused on
or replace ELA class reading and wrting
Should have a separate, yet Under Common Core now
aligned curriculum includes focus on building
language and speaking and
listening skills for ALL
students
Thus raises the bar and threatens
to leave ELLs further behind
unless provided with substantial
sheltered ELA instruction AND
extensive ESL instruction
 Bilingual English-medium

One or more content- All content-area

areas is taught in the instruction in English
students home Supplemented with
language primary language
support as needed

Problem: Lack of consistency in how programs for ELLs are

labeled
Bilingual English-Medium
Transitional Bilingual ESL Pull-out
Education In-Class ESL
Developmental Bilingual Sheltered (Structured)
Education English Immersion (SEI)
Newcomer Programs
Dual Language
Submersion (Sink-or-Swim)
Bilingual Immersion
Heritage Language
Items Description Criticism
Target ELLs who speak the same Doesnt work when students speak
population L1 different L1s

Grade span K-3 Doesnt apply for ELLs in higher

grades
Language Learn English as quickly Language-as-problem orientation,
goals as possible to transition which leads to subtractive
to mainstream bilingualism
Academic Meet the same grade- May be segregated from interaction
goals level content-area from peers in the academic
standards as English- mainstream classes
fluent peers
Culture goals Acculturation to Deficit view of ELLs language and
mainstream school and culture
community assimilation
Primary Provided during sheltered Does not aim for full bilingualism or
language instruction and ESL biliteracy
support instruction as needed.

Effectiveness More effective than Less effective than stronger models

Items Description Advantages
Target ELLs who speak the same L1 Taught by qualified bilingual
population teachers

Grade span K-6 Some are available up to grade 8

Language Bilingualism and biliteracy, ESL Develop home language skills
goals instruction 30-60 minutes a day higher than in a TBE program

Academic Meet the same grade-level Are prepared to fulfill societal

goals content-area standards as needs requiring citizens with
English-fluent peers bilingual skills
Culture goals Biculturalism Empower parents who dont
speak English
Primary Provided during sheltered Home language is viewed as a
language instruction and ESL instruction resource and further developed
support as needed.

Effectiveness Achieve educational parity with their English-speaking peers,

become bilingual, biliterate and bicultural
Items Description Advantages
Target ELLs who speak the same L1 Taught by qualified bilingual
population and English speakers who want teachers
to learn ELLs L1
Grade span K-6 Available in higher grades
Language Bilingualism and biliteracy, ESL Develop home language skills
goals instruction 30-60 minutes a day higher than in a TBE program

Academic Meet the same grade-level Are prepared to fulfill societal

goals content-area standards as needs requiring citizens with
English-fluent peers bilingual skills
Culture Biculturalism, cross-cultural Empower parents who dont
goals understanding, cultural speak English
pluralism
Content- Sheltered English and sheltered Children are learning to read and
area other language class, 50/50 write in both languages,
instruction model; 90/10 model sequentially or simultaneously

Effectiveness English speakers and ELLs reach or exceed grade-level expectations

and become bilingual and biliterate with strong cross-cultural
communication skills
 Programs vary considerably in
Amount of time spent for instruction in each language
Which language is used for initial literacy instruction
Which subjects are taught in which languages
Most programs in U.S. are Spanish/English, but also available in
nearly a dozen other languages
Center for Applied Linguistics directory of two-way immersion
programs
Theoretically, ELLs and Non-ELLs are put on equal footing
Must rely on each other to learn new language
o But research suggests English is always more privileged
Move bilingual education from remedial to enrichment education
Educators must ensure they balance the interests of more vocal
middle-class English-speaking constituents and less vocal
minority constituents
Items Description Advantages
Target Language minority students who Addresses the needs of both ELL
population have little to no proficiency in and non-ELL students, e.g.
their L1 native-English speakers Native Americans, Hawaiians
who want to learn a world
language
Grade span K-6 Available in higher grades
ESL ESL instruction 30-60 minutes a Develop home language skills
instruction day if there are ESL students higher than in a TBE program

Academic Meet grade-level expectations. Are prepared to fulfill societal

goals needs requiring citizens with
bilingual skills
Content- Initially 90% to 100% in a non- Children are learning to read
area English language for 1-2 years, and write in both languages,
instruction then 50% and 50% sequentially or simultaneously

Effectiveness English speakers and ELLs reach or exceed grade-level expectations

and become bilingual and biliterate with strong cross-cultural
communication skills
Items Description Advantages
Target Heritage language speakers who Both ELL and non-ELL students
population have varying levels of proficiency who want to maintain their
in their heritage language home or heritage language
Grade span pre-K-12, and college/university Can be available in all grades
Language Broaden linguistic repertoire with Builds on students knowledge
goals attention to the standards variety and values varieties of heritage
and literacy in that language language
Academic Meet the grade-level content- Be prepared to fulfill societal
goals area standards related to foreign needs requiring citizens with
language learning or native bilingual skills
language arts standards.
Program The heritage language is taught Can be flexible and offered in
features as a separate subject in school, school, through community
for between 1 and 5 or more programs and in college
hours a week.
Effectiveness Little research is available, but heritage language students tend to
make faster progress and attain higher levels of proficiency in the
target language than traditional foreign language students
Items Description Criticism
Target ELLs Elementary school students are
population pulled out of regular class

Grade span K-6 In secondary schools ESL is

provided as a separate class
period
Language Help students attain proficiency Hard to coordinate ESL
goals in English. instruction with classroom
instruction
Academic Students miss out on classroom In isolation does not enable ELLs
goals instruction when pulled out to achieve parity with English-
speaking peers.
Culture Acculturation to mainstream Students may feel stigmatized
goals school and society; assimilation by need to be pulled out

Effectiveness Highly criticized as the least effective but most expensive model.
But much better than nothing (i.e., sink-or-swim submersion), ESL
classes often lack their own classroom
In-class ESL is a variation of pull-out ESL
Classroom teachers
The students do not miss anything in class by being pulled out
Can coordinate their ESL instruction to prepare ELL students for
specific sheltered content lessons
Take full responsibility for the education of all their students
Tan coordinate interactions between ELLs and English proficient
students in the classroom
What the classroom teachers learn about the ELLs through ESL
instruction can help them tailor their content-area instruction to
appropriate levels.
Items Description Characteristics
Target ELL (but class may also Should have a certified ESL teacher
population contain non-ELLs)

Grade span K-6 In secondary schools sheltered subject

areas may be provided
Language Help students attain
goals proficiency in English.
SEI = ESL + sheltered
Academic Meet the same grade-level
instruction + PLS
goals academic standards
required for all students
Content- All subjects taught in Classroom teacher provides daily ESL
area English through sheltered and sheltered content-area instruction.
instruction instruction Teachers should also use ample
primary language support to make
Culture Acculturation or English instruction comprehensible
goals assimilation is common

Effectiveness More effective than pull-out ESL in isolation but not as effective as
bilingual program models
Items Description Characteristics
Target ELLs who recently arrived to the US and May be at a separate
population have little to no English proficiency school, or a special class
and/or limited former schooling). within a school (part or
whole-day)
Grade span Any grade levels, pre-K-12 1-2 years
Language Help learn enough English to participate Develop students primary
goals in a SEI in a year or two language skills

Content area Sheltered instruction uses the content
instruction areas for vocabulary and other English
language skills development, with a
focus on beginning skills in English
reading and writing. Some programs
may also include L1 content-area
instruction.
Culture Acculturation to mainstream school and
goals society; assimilation
Tend to lack a focus on
content-area instruction
and are expensive to
operate
Guide students
acculturation to US schools

Effectiveness Little research on these innovative programs

 Doing nothing for ELLs at all
Throwing ELLs into a mainstream classroom
No ESL instruction
No sheltered instruction
No primary language support
Teachers are not certified to teach ELLs
Learn English or drown!
Declared illegal by Lau v. Nichols
Good mainstream teachers with ELLs can obtain
training and transform their classrooms into SEI
classrooms
 Many SEI classrooms are SEI in name only
Really just submersion (sink-or-swim) in disguise
Signs (see Box 5.9, p. 112 for full checklist)
All textbooks and materials used are identical to those used in mainstream
classrooms.
All in-class assignments and homework are identical to those used in mainstream
classrooms.
The teacher cannot immediately identify the ELL students in the classroom or
cannot describe their level of English language proficiency.
The teacher is unable to identify or describe each ELL students home country,
ethnicity, home language, prior schooling, literacy in L1, or length of time in the
United States.
The teacher makes little to no effort to modify his or her speech to make it more
comprehensible for the ELLs.
There is no regularly scheduled time for daily ESL instruction.
Content-area lessons do not contain both language and content objectives
The teacher claims that the strategies used are just good teaching.
 A single elementary school may have several different ELL
program models
Ex: An ESL specialist pulls out students from mainstream, SEI, and
bilingual classrooms
At the secondary level, ELLs typically have
1 or 2 periods of ESL
A combination of sheltered, bilingual, and/or mainstream classes
ESL, bilingual and sheltered classroom teachers can help each
other and help the mainstream teachers
Share ideas and resources
Help look over ELL student work
Teachers in a school need to move beyond my student/your
student to our students
Make a shared commitment to ensure ELL student success
 Must be determined by
teachers and administrators working collaboratively
to study the needs of ELLs
The desires of their parents and community
The current and potential resources of the school
Local, state and federal policies
See Box 5.10 (p. 116) for more considerations
Bilingual teachers and resources are more
readily available in languages such as
Spanish, and may be nonexistent in
languages such as Somali, Maay, or Karenii
But bilingual teachers can still be recruited and trained, and can
develop the curriculum needed
 Monoglossic perspective
Views monolingualism as a norms and treats the
languages of bilinguals as two separate distinct
systems (two monolinguals in one)
Erase the natural fluid ways bilingual students use their
language in everyday life
Heteroglossic perspective
Views bilingualism as the norm and treats the
language of bilinguals as co-existing
This view is realized through translanguaging practices, wherein
teachers can help students draw on all of their linguistic
resources as they engage in academic tasks
1. Consider the program models described in Chapter 5. What
factors should a school take into consideration when deciding
which program model to offer? Discuss the types of ELL
programs offered by a school you are familiar with. Do you feel
these programs are appropriate and effective? Why or why not?
2. What minimally should be included in any program model for
ELLs? Why are these components critical? What can result if one
or more of these components are left out of a program for ELLs?
3. One of the major issues involved in meeting the unique
language and academic needs of ELLs is whether or not they
should be taught in separate classrooms or programs. This
consideration raises the sensitive issue of segregation. When
might separate classrooms or programs be needed? What are
some possible solutions to the segregation problem that still
address the needs of the ELLs?
4. View the video of a 3rd-grade sheltered English
immersion classroom. What are the key features
that distinguish this classroom from a mainstream
classroom? What specific strategies and techniques
does the teacher appear to be using to make the
instruction comprehensible? What model does the
teacher use to guide her sheltered instruction? Do
you feel the instruction is effective? Why or why
not?
5. Review one of the bilingual education program profiles
from Portraits of Success, a joint project of the National
Association of Bilingual Education (NABE), Boston College,
and Northeast and Islands Regional Education Laboratory at
Brown University. How would you classify this program
based on the typology of program models in Table 5.4?
Discuss what you see as the key features that contribute to
the program's success.
02 Greenway Middle School, Transitional Bilingual,ESL Program
03 Rachel Carson Elementary, Transitional Bilingual Education
04 Madawaska Elementary School and Gateway Elementary School, L'Acadien du Haut
St.
05 William Barton Rogers Middle School, Bilingual Program
06 Robert F. Kennedy School
07 Barbieri Elementary, Two-Way Bilingual
08 Brophy Elementary School
 Activity 1 Program Models
Indicate which program model would be most
effective based on descriptions of students
Activity 2 Identifying Program Models
Read description and determine the program
model
Form groups of 4 to 5 students
Discuss and share your answers with the
class

Use links to access Activity Forms on the Companion Website