Janine Imee G.

Laurente
BSChE IV
Introduction to Biotechnology
Nitrosamine

H2N2O
1. EFFECTS OF NITROSAMINE
Nitrosamines are chemical compounds, most of which are carcinogenic. They are used in the manufacture of
cosmetics, pesticides, tobacco products and in most rubber products like balloons.
Nitrosamines are produced when nitrites and amines combine in acidic places like the human stomach. High
temperatures and frying can increase the formation of these nitrosamines. Significant levels can be found in beer, fish,
non-fat dry milk and cured meats (primarily bacon and hot dogs) and cheese preserved with nitrite pickling salt.
Originally they were added as preservatives to prevent salmonella infection from contaminated meat. Nitrites are
added to some processed foods to increase the shelf life. For example, sodium nitrate is responsible for the pink colour in
bologna. They are often used to transport fish across the Pacific Ocean and added to preserve flavor and colouring.
Nitrites can also be found in fertilizers which end up on our produce like potatoes and beets.
Nitrosamines can cause cancer in animals which suggests that they may be carcinogenic in humans. Some studies
suggest an associations with gastric and oesophageal cancer.
Some researchers believe nitrosamines can play a part in Alzheimer's brain degeneration. Adding high fat to the
diet makes things worse.
The same experiments showed that nitrosamines in low, limited exposure can also cause diabetes, fatty liver
disease and obesity. They have also been linked to Parkinsons disease. Nitrosamines can cause DNA damage, cell
death and have been associated with insulin resistance.
2. EFFECTS OF NITROSAMINE AS MUTAGEN
Vitamin C may prevent some cancers by inhibiting the formation of mutagenic N-nitroso compounds
(nitrosamine). Flavonoids, such as EGCG in green tea, have also been shown to be effective antioxidants and may have
anti-cancer properties. Epidemiological studies indicate that a diet rich in fruits and vegetables is associated with lower
incidence of some cancers and longer life expectancy, however, the effectiveness of antioxidant supplements in cancer
prevention in general is still the subject of some debate.
3.PLASMID
A Plasmid is a small DNA molecule within a cell that is physically separated from a chromosomal DNA and can
replicate independently. They are most commonly found in bacteria as a small circular, double stranded DNA molecules;
however, plasmids are sometimes present in archaea and eukaryotic organisms.
Plasmid carry genes that may benefit the survival of organism, for example antibiotic resistance. While
chromosomes are big and contain all the essential genetic information for living under normal conditions, plasmids are
usually are very small and contain only additional genes that may be useful to the organism under certain conditions.
Artificial plasmids are widely used as vectors in molecular cloning, serving to drive the replication of recombinant DNA
sequences within host organisms.

Plasmid are considered replicons, a unit of DNA capable of replicating autonomously within a suitable host.
However plasmids, like viruses are not generally classified as life. They are transmitted via three mechanisms:
transformation, transduction and conjugation.

There are five main classes:

Fertility F-plasmids, which contain tra genes. They are capable of conjugation and result in the expression of sex pili.
Resistance (R) plasmids, which contain genes that provide resistance against antibiotics or poisons. Historically
known as R-factors, before the nature of plasmids was understood.
Col plasmids, which contain genes that code for bacteriocins, poteins that can kill other bacteria.
Degradative plasmids, which enable the digestion of unusual substances, e.g. toluene and salycilic acids.
Virulence plasmids, which turn the bacterium into a pathogens.
Plasmids can belong to more than one of these functional groups.

Methods of Gene Splicing

Gene Splicing is a post-transcriptional modification in which a single gene can code for multiple proteins. Gene
splicing is done in eukaryotes, prior to mRNA translation, by differential inclusion of regions of pre-mRNA. Gene
splicing is an important source of protein diversity. During a typical gene splicing event, the pre-mRNA transcribed from
one gene to can lead to different mature mRNA molecules that generate multiple functional proteins. Thus, gene splicing
enables a single gene to increase its coding capacity, allowing the synthesis of protein isoforms that are structurally and
functionally distinct. Gene splicing is observed in high proportion of genes. In human cells, about 40 60 % of the genes
are known to exhibit alternative splicing.
Exon Skipping: The most common gene splicing mechanism in which exon(s) are included or excluded from the final
gene transcript leading to extended or shortened mRNA variants. The exons are the coding regions of a gene and are
responsible for producing proteins that are utilized in various cell types for a number of functions.
Intron Retention: An event in which intron is retained in the final script in Humans 25 % of the genes have been
reported to retain introns. The gene splicing mechanism retain non-coding (junk) portions of the gene and leads to
demornity in the protein structure and functionality.
Alternative 3 Splice Site and 5 Splice Site: Alternative gene splicing includes joining of different 5 and 3 splice site. In
this kind of gene splicing, two or more alternative 5 splice site compete for joining to two or more alternate 3 splice site.