R: Concise Reviews

in Food Science
Essential Oils: Extraction, Bioactivities, and Their
Uses for Food Preservation
Phakawat Tongnuanchan and Soottawat Benjakul

Abstract: Essential oils are concentrated liquids of complex mixtures of volatile compounds and can be extracted from
several plant organs. Essential oils are a good source of several bioactive compounds, which possess antioxidative and
antimicrobial properties. In addition, some essential oils have been used as medicine. Furthermore, the uses of essential oils
have received increasing attention as the natural additives for the shelf-life extension of food products, due to the risk in
using synthetic preservatives. Essential oils can be incorporated into packaging, in which they can provide multifunctions
termed active or smart packaging. Those essential oils are able to modify the matrix of packaging materials, thereby
rendering the improved properties. This review covers up-to-date literatures on essential oils including sources, chemical
composition, extraction methods, bioactivities, and their applications, particularly with the emphasis on preservation and
the shelf-life extension of food products.

Keywords: antimicrobial, antioxidant, biodegradable film, essential oil, food product, volatile compound

Introduction Sources and Chemical Composition

Essential oils, also called volatile odoriferous oil, are aromatic
oily liquids extracted from different parts of plants, for example,
leaves, peels, barks, flowers, buds, seeds, and so on. They can be
extracted from plant materials by several methods, steam distil-
lation, expression, and so on. Among all methods, for example,
steam distillation method has been widely used, especially for
commercial scale production (Cassel and Vargas 2006; Di Leo Lira
and others 2009). Essential oils have been widely used as food
flavors (Burt 2004). Essential oils found in many different plants,
especially the aromatic plants, vary in odor and flavor, which are
governed by the types and amount of constituents present in oils.
Additionally, the amount of essential oil from different plants is
different and this determines the price of essential oil. Apart from
aromatic compounds, indigenous pigments contribute to varying
colors of essential oil. This can affect the applications as the in-
gredient in some particular foods. Essential oils have been known
to possess antioxidant and antimicrobial activities, thereby serving
as natural additives in foods and food products. It can be used as
active compounds in packaging materials, in which the proper-
ties of those materials, particularly water vapor barrier property
associated with hydrophobicity in nature of essential oils, can be
improved. Almost any part of a plant may be the source of the oil,
which could be extracted and fully exploited for food applications
or others. Modern technologies have been continuously devel-
oped to conquer the limitation of conventional methods, and to
enhance the extraction efficacy. Due to the increasing attention
in natural additives, essential oils from several plants have been
used more widely, especially in conjunction with other preserva-
tions under concept of hurdle technology. Thus, essential oils
can serve as the alternative additives or processing aid as green
technology.
MS 20131520 Submitted 10/23/2013, Accepted 4/9/2014. Authors are with
Dept. of Food Technology, Faculty of Agro-Industry, Prince of Songkla Univ., 15
Kanchanawanish Road, Hat Yai, Songkhla, 90112, Thailand. Direct inquiries to
author Benjakul (E-mail: soottawat.b@psu.ac.th).
Several plants contain essential oils, however, parts of plants,
which serve as the major source of essential oil can be different
(Table 1). Those include roots, peels, leaves, seeds, fruits, barks, and
so on. Plant essential oils are usually the complex mixture of nat-
ural compounds, both polar and nonpolar compounds (Masango
2005). Dominant compounds in various essential oils are pre-
sented in Table 2. In general, the constituents in essential oils are
terpenes (monoterpenes and sesquerpenes), aromatic compounds
(aldehyde, alcohol, phenol, methoxy derivative, and so on), and
terpenoids (isoprenoids) (Bakkali and others 2008; Mohamed and
others 2010). Compounds and aroma of essential oils can be di-
vided into 2 major groups: terpene hydrocarbons and oxygenated
compounds.
Terpene hydrocarbons
The hydrocarbons are the molecule, constituting of H and C
atoms arranged in chains. These hydrocarbons may be acyclic, al-
icyclic (monocyclic, bicyclic, or tricyclic), or aromatic. Terpenes
are the most common class of chemical compounds found in essen-
tial oils. Terpenes are made from isoprene units (several 5 carbon
base units, C5 ), which are the combinations of 2 isoprene units,
called a terpene unit. Essential oils consist of mainly monoter-
penes (C10 ) and sesquiterpenes (C15 ), which are hydrocarbons
with the general formula (C5 H8 )n . The diterpenes (C20 ), triter-
penes (C30 ), and tetraterpenes (C40 ) exist in essential oils at low
concentration (Mohamed and others 2010). Terpenoids (a terpene
containing oxygen) is also found in essential oils (Burt 2004).
Essential oils mostly contain monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes,
which are C10 H16 (MW 136 amu) and C15 H24 (MW 204 amu), re-
spectively. Although sesquiterpenes are larger in molecules, struc-
ture and functional properties of sesquiterpenes are similar to
the monoterpenes (Ruberto and Baratta 2000). For diterpenes,
triterpenes, and tetraterpenes, they have the larger molecule than
monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, but they are present at very low
concentration in essential oils (Bakkali and others 2008).
Oxygenated compounds
These compounds are the combination of C, H, and O,
and there are a variety of compounds found in essential oils.

C 2014 Institute of Food Technologists

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doi: 10.1111/1750-3841.12492 Vol. 79, Nr. 7, 2014 r Journal of Food Science R1231
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R: Concise Reviews Bioactivities and applications of essential oils . . .
in Food Science

Table 1Parts of plant material containing essential oils.

Parts Plants
Leaves Basil, bay leaf, cinnamon, common sage, eucalyptus, lemon grass, citronella, melaleuca, mint, oregano, patchouli, peppermint, pine,
rosemary, spearmint, tea tree, thyme, wintergreen, kaffir lime, laurel, savory, tarragon, cajuput, lantana, lemon myrtle, lemon
teatree, niaouli, may chang, petitgrain, laurel, cypress
Seeds Almond, anise, cardamom, caraway, carrot celery, coriander, cumin, nutmeg, parsley, fennel
Wood Amyris, atlas cedarwood, himalayan cedarwood, camphor, rosewood, sandalwood, myrtle, guaiac wood
Bark Cassia, cinnamon, sassafras, katrafay
Berries Allspice, juniper
Resin Frankincense, myrrh
Flowers Blue tansy, chamomile, clary sage, clove, cumin, geranium, helichrysum hyssop, jasmine, lavender, manuka, marjoram, orange, rose,
baccharises, palmarosa, patchouli, rhododendron anthopogon, rosalina, ajowan, ylang-ylang, marjoram sylvestris, tarragon,
immortelle, neroli
Peel Bergamot, grapefruit, kaffir lime, lemon, lime, orange, tangerine, mandarin
Root Ginger, plai, turmeric, valerian, vetiver, spikenard, angelica
Fruits Xanthoxylum, nutmeg, black pepper

Oxygenated compounds can be derived from the terpenes, in 1992). The proportion of essential oils extracted by steam distilla-
which they are termed terpenoids. Some oxygenated com- tion is 93% and the remaining 7% can be further extracted by other
pounds prevalent in plant essential oils are shown as follows: methods (Masango 2005). Basically, the plant sample is placed in
boiling water or heated by steam (Figure 1). The heat applied is
- Phenols: thymol, eugenol, carvacrol, chavicol, thymol, and so on. the main cause of burst and break down of cell structure of plant
- Alcohols: material. As a consequence, the aromatic compounds or essential
Monoterpene alcohol: borneol, isopulegol, lavanduol, - oils from plant material are released (Perineau and others 1992;
terpineol, and so on. Babu and Kaul 2005). The temperature of heating must be enough
Sesquiterpenes alcohol: elemol, nerolidol, santalol, -santalol, and to break down the plant material and release aromatic compound
so on. or essential oil. A new process design and operation for steam
distillation of essential oils to increase oil yield and reduce the
- Aldehydes: citral, myrtenal, cuminaldehyde, citronellal, cin- loss of polar compounds in wastewater was developed by Masango
namaldehyde, benzaldehyde, and so on. (2005). The system consists of a packed bed of the plant materi-
- Ketones: carvone, menthone, pulegone, fenchone, camphor, thu- als, which sits above the steam source. Only steam passes through
jone, verbenone, and so on. it and the boiling water is not mixed with plant material. Thus,
- Esters: bomyl acetate, linalyl acetate, citronellyl acetate, geranyl the process requires the minimum amount of steam in the process
acetate, and so on. and the amount of water in the distillate is reduced. Also, water-
- Oxides: 1,8-cineole, bisabolone oxide, linalool oxide, sclareol soluble compounds are dissolved into the aqueous fraction of the
oxide, and so on. condensate at a lower extent (Masango 2005). Yildirim and others
- Lactones: bergaptene, nepetalactone, psoralen, aesculatine, cit- (2004) reported that the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl hydrazyl (DPPH)
roptene, and so on. radical scavenging activities of essential oils from steam distillation
- Ethers: 1,8-cineole, anethole, elemicin, myristicin, and so on. process were markedly higher than those of oils extracted using
hydrodistillation (HD).
Different constituents in essential oils exhibit varying smell or
flavor (Burt 2004). Also, the perception of individual volatile com- Hydrodistillation. HD has become the standard method of
pounds depends on their threshold. essential oil extraction from plant material such as wood or flower,
which is often used to isolate nonwater-soluble natural products
with high boiling point. The process involves the complete immer-
Extraction of Essential Oils sion of plant materials in water, followed by boiling. This method
Essential oils can be extracted from several plants with differ- protects the oils extracted to a certain degree since the surround-
ent parts by various extraction methods. The manufacturing of ing water acts as a barrier to prevent it from overheating. The
essential oils, and the method used for essential oil extraction are steam and essential oil vapor are condensed to an aqueous fraction
normally dependent on botanical material used. State and form (Figure 2). The advantage of this technique is that the required
of material is another factor used for consideration. Extraction material can be distilled at a temperature below 100 C. Okoh
method is one of prime factors that determine the quality of and others (2010) studied the different extraction processes on
essential oil. Inappropriate extraction procedure can lead to the yield and properties of essential oil from rosemary (Rosmarinus of-
damage or alter action of chemical signature of essential oil. This ficinalis L.) by HD and solvent-free microwave extraction (SFME).
results in the loss in bioactivity and natural characteristics. For se- The total yields of the volatile fractions obtained through HD
vere case, discoloration, off-odor/flavor as well as physical change and SFME were 0.31% and 0.39%, respectively. HD oil contained
such as the increased viscosity can occur. Those changes in ex- more monoterpene hydrocarbons (32.95%) than SFME-extracted
tracted essential oil must be avoided. Extraction of essential oils oil (25.77%), while higher amounts of oxygenated monoterpenes
can be carried out by various means, as shown in Table 3. (28.6%) were present in the oil extracted by SFME in compar-
ison with HD (26.98%). Golmakani and Rezaei (2008) studied
Distillation the microwave-assisted HD (MAHD), which is an advanced HD
Steam distillation. Steam distillation is the most widely used technique utilizing a microwave oven in the extraction process.
method for plant essential oil extraction (Reverchon and Senatore MAHD was superior in terms of saving energy and extraction time

R1232 Journal of Food Science r Vol. 79, Nr. 7, 2014

 Table 2Major compounds in different plant essential oils.
Monoterpene Oxygenated Sesquiterpene Oxygenated
Essential oils hydrocarbons monoterpenes hydrocarbons sesquiterpenes Esters Others References
Basil -Pinene, -Limonene, endo-5,5,6-Trimethyl-2- -Elemene, 2,6-Dimethyl-6- Methyleugenol Methylchavicol,3- Teixeira and others (2013)
-Terpinene norbornanone (4-methyl-3-pentenyl)- Methoxycinnamaldehyde
bicyclo[3.1.1]hept-2-ene,
-Cadinene, -Muurolene
Citronella S-3-Carene, ()-Isopulegol, -Citronellal, -Elemene, -Selinene, ()-Cedreanol m-(Trimethylsiloxy) - Teixeira and others (2013)
Mentha-1,4,8-triene, - Citronellol -Selinene, -Muurolene, -cinnamic acid
2 -Carene, cis-2,6- (+)--Cadinene, methyl ester
Dimethyl-2,6octadiene, Eremophilene, -Selinene,
-Terpinene (+)--Selinene,
()--Amorphene
Clove trans-Caryophyllene, Methyleugenol Aceteugenol p-Eugenol Teixeira and others (2013)
-Humulene
Garlic 1(7),5,8-o-Menthatriene trans-Limone oxide, di-2-Propenyldisulfide, Teixeira and others (2013)
endo-5,5,6-Trimethyl-2- Dimethyl tetrasulphide, di-
norbornanone, 2-Propenyltetrasulfide,3,3 -
Thiobis-1-propene,
Sulfur
Bioactivities and applications of essential oils . . .

Lemon -Pinene, -Pinene, trans-Caryophyllene 1,2,3,5-Tetramethyl- Teixeira and others (2013)

Cymene, -Limonene,
-Fellandrene
Lemon -Pinene, -Fenchene, Citronellal, cis-Carveol,
Limonene, Camphene -Citral, Carvacol,
Terpniol,
Thymol, Carvacrol, Citral
Lemongrass -Pinene, 3-Carene, -Citral, -Citral,
Camphene -Cyclocitral,
Terpineol,2,3-Dehydro-
1,8-cineole
Mandarin -Pinene, di-Limonene, Neo-Dihydrocaveol,
Allo-Ocimene, cis-Limonene oxide,
Camphene, Sabinene Linalool, Borneol,
Limoneneglycol,
Carvone
Mint(Saturejacuneifolia) -Pinene, Myrcene, Thymol, Carvacrol,
Limonene, cis-Ocimene, Camphor, Linalool,
p-Cymene, allo-Ocimene Terpinen-4-ol, Neral,
-Terpineol, Borneol,
Geranial, Geraniol
Mintb(Satureja montana) -Thujene, -Pinene, Linalool, -Terpineol,
Myrcene, -Terpinene, Borneol,
-Terpinene, p-Cymene Thymol, Carvacrol
Orange Myrcene, -Phellandrene, cis-Limoneneoxide, Decanal,
-Terpinolene, Linalool,
Menthatriene Verbenol, Carvone,
Perilladehyde, cis-Carveol,
Citronellol
benzene,1-(1,5-
Dimethylhexyl)-4-
methylbenzene
Cyclohexane, Heptanal, Mohamed and others (2010)
Dihydroiso-pimaric,
Dihydro-abitec
-Caryophyllene m-Eugenol, Geranyl Leimann and others (2009)
N-butyrate, Isogeraniol
Farnesene, -Farnesene Linalyl acetate, Undecanoic Mohamed and others (2010)
acid, Methly-anthranilate,
Benzaldehyde
-Bourbonene, Caryophyllene oxide, Bezic and others (2005)
-Caryophyllene, aSpathulenol, Viridiflorol,
Aromadendrene,
-Cubebene, -Cadinene,
-Cubebene, -Cadinene Caryophyllene oxide, 1-Octen-3-ol, Thymol Bezic and others (2005)
Spathulenol methylether, Carvacrol
methyl ether, Thymyl
acetate
Farnesene Nonyl-aldehyde, Caprylic Mohamed and others (2010)
acid, Cinnamic-aldehyde,
Heptadecanol
(Continued)

Vol. 79, Nr. 7, 2014 r Journal of Food Science R1233

R: Concise Reviews
in Food Science

Table 2Continued.
Monoterpene
Essential oils hydrocarbons
Oregano -Terpinene,
Limonene, -Terpinene
Plai-Dam (Zingiber -Pinene, -Pinene,
ottensii) Sabinene, Myrcene,
-Terpinene, Limonene,
E--Ocimene, p-Cymene,
Terpinolene,
-Terpinene
Rosemary -Pinene, Camphene,
R1234 Journal of Food Science r Vol. 79, Nr. 7, 2014
-Pinene, Cymene,
-Fellandrene, S-3-Carene,
m-Cymene,
Mentha-1,4,8-triene
Sage -Pinene, Camphene,
-Pinene, Cymene,
-Fellandrene, m-Cymene,
Mentha-1,4,8-triene,
2 -Carene,1,3,8-p-
Menthatriene,
-Terpinolene
Tangerine -Pinene, Limonene,
-Terpinene, trans-
Menthadiene,
trans-Ocimene,
trans-Decalone
Thyme Camphene, -Pinene,
Cymene, -Fellandrene,
m-Cymene
Thymus longicaulis subsp. -Thujene, -Pinene,
longicaulis var. longicaulis Myrcene, Camphene,
-Pinene, -Phellandrene,
-Terpinene, p-Cymene,
(E)- -Ocimene,
-Terpinene, cis-Sabinene
hydrate, Terpinolene
in Food Science
R: Concise Reviews
Oxygenated Sesquiterpene Oxygenated
monoterpenes hydrocarbons sesquiterpenes Esters Others References
1,8-Cineole, Terpinen-4 -Caryophyllene, cis-Hydrate Aguirre and others (2013)
-ol, -Terpineol, Thymol, sabinene, trans-Hydrate
Carvacrol, sabinene
1,8-Cineole, Linalool, -Elemene, -Caryophyllene, Caryophyllene oxide, Bornyl acetate, Sabinene Thubthimthed and others
Terpinen-4-ol, Humulene Humulene oxide, hydrate, (2005)
cis-Menth-2-en-1-ol, -Eudesimol, 4-phenylbutan-2-one
Borneol, trans-Piperitol -Eudesimol, Zerumbone
Eucalyptol, trans-Caryophyllene ()-Bornylacetate Teixeira and others (2013)
(E)-2,3-Epoxycarane,()-
Bioactivities and applications of essential oils . . .
Camphor, endo-Borneol,
endo-5,5,6-Trimethyl-2-
norbornanone
Eucalyptol, trans-Caryophyllene, ()-Bornylacetate Teixeira and others (2013)
(E)-2,3-Epoxycarane,()- -Selinene, -Bisabolene
Camphor, endo-Borneol,
endo-5,5,6-Trimethyl-2-
norbornanone
Citronellal, Linalool, Ledol, Globulol Aloxiprin, Heptadiene, Mohamed and others (2010)
cis-Limonene oxide, Methyl- heptadiene,
trans-Carveol, Limonene Cyclooctanone, Benzyl-
dioxide, Perillyl alcohol dicarboxylic
Eucalyptol, trans-Caryophyllene (3E,5E,8E)-3,7,11-Trimethyl- Teixeira and others (2013)
(E)-2,3-Epoxycarane, 1,3,5,8,10-dodecapentaene
endo-5,5,6-Trimethyl-m-
Thymol,
Carvacrol
Camphor, Borneol, -Humulene, -Cadinene, Sarikurkcu and others (2010)
Terpinen-4-ol, Germacrene D
-Terpineol,
Thymol, Carvacrol,
-Caryophyllene
 R: Concise Reviews
Bioactivities and applications of essential oils . . .

in Food Science
Table 3Extraction of essential oils from various sources using several methods.

Extraction methods Plants References

Solvent extraction Solvent sage (Salvia officinalis), apiaceae (Ptychotis verticillata), chasteberry
(Vitexagnuscastus L.), lemon (Citrus x limon)
Supercritical CO2 rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), anise
(Pimpinella anisum), cumin seed (Cuminum cyminum), sage
(Salvia officinalis), lemon (Citrus x limon), carrot fruit (Daucus
carrota L.), marjoram (Majorana hortensis Moench), catnip
(Nepeta cataria L.), oregano (Origanum vulgare L.), lavender
(Lavandula angustifolia Mill), thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.),
hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis L.), anise hyssop (Lophantus anisatus
Benth), patchouli (Pogostemon cablin), cumin (Cuminum
cyminum), clove (Eugenia caryophyllata), coriander (Coriandrum
sativum L.), chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla), baccharises
(Baccharis uncinella, Baccharis anomala, and Baccharis dentata)
Subcritical water fructus amomi, marjoram (Origanum majorana), olive (Olea
europaea), coriander seeds (Coriandrum sativum L.)
Distillation - Steam rose-scented geranium (Pelargonium sp.), thyme (Thymus
kotschyanus), germander (Teucrium orientale), rosemary
(Rosmarinus officinalis), fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), anise
(Pimpinella anisum), eucalyptus (Eucalyptus citriodora), basil
(Ocimum basilicum L.), lavender (Lavandula dentata L.),
patchouli (Pogostemon cablin), clove (Eugenia caryophyllata),
orange (Citrus sinensis)
Hydrodistillation rose-scented geranium (Pelargonium sp.), germander (Teucrium
orientale), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), lemon (Citrus x
limon), oregano (Origanum vulgare L.), marjoram (Majorana
hortensis Moench), catnip (Nepeta cataria L), lavender
(Lavandula angustifolia Mill), hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis L.),
anise hyssop (Lophantus anisatus Benth), sage (Salvia officinalis
L), cumin (Cuminum cyminum), clove (Eugenia caryophyllata),
caraway (Carum carvi), thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.), basil
(Ocimum basilicum L.), garden mint (Mentha crispa L.)
Hydrodiffusion orange (Citrus sinensis), rosemary leaves (Rosmarinus officinalis)
Solvent-free microwave oregano (Origanum vulgare L.), fragrant fern (Dryopteris fragrans),
rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), caraway (Carum carvi), 5
flavor berry (Schisandra chinensis), cumin (Cuminum cyminum
L.), cardamom (Elletaria cardamomum L.), basil (Ocimum
basilicum L.), garden mint (Mentha crispa L.), thyme (Thymus
vulgaris L.), sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.),
spearmint (Mentha spicata L.), pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium L.)
Combination methods - cumin (Cuminum cyminum), tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum)
Solvent + Steam
Durling and others (2007); Matsingou and others (2003);
El Ouariachi and others (2011); Sarikurkcu and others
(2009); Koshima and others (2012)
Pereira and Meireles (2007); Reverchon and Senatore
(1992); Eikani and others (1999); Djarmati and others
(1991); Gironi and Maschietti (2008); Glisic and
others (2007); Dapkevicius and others (1998);
Donelian and others (2009); Li and others (2009);
Guan and others (2007); Mhemdi and others (2011);
Araus and others (2009); Xavier and others (2011)
Deng and others (2005); Jimenez-Carmona and others
(1999); Amarni and Kadi (2010); Eikani and others
(2007)
Babu and Kaul (2005); Sefidkon and others (1999);
Yildirim and others (2004); Pereira and Meireles
(2007); Rajeswara Rao and others (2003); Cassel and
others (2009); Donelian and others (2009); Guan and
others (2007); Farhat and others (2011)
Babu and Kaul (2005); Yildirim and others (2004);
Reverchon and Senatore (1992); Ferhat and others
(2007); Bayramoglu and others (2008); Dapkevicius
and others (1998); Li and others (2009); Guan and
others (2007); Farhat and others (2010); Gavahian and
others (2012)
Farhat and others (2011); Bousbia and others (2009)
Bayramoglu and others (2008); Li and others (2012);
Okoh and others (2010); Farhat and others (2010); Ma
and others (2012); Wang and others (2006); Lucchesi
and others (2007); Lucchesi and others (2004); Michel
and others (2011); Vian and others (2008)
Li and others (2009), Zhang and others (2012)

(75 min, compared to 4 h in HD). Ohmic-assisted HD (OAHD)
is another advanced HD technique (Gavahian and others 2012).
OAHD method had the extraction time of 24.75 min, while HD
took 1 h for extraction of essential oil from thyme. No changes
in the compounds of the essential oils obtained by OAHD were
found in comparison with HD.
Hydrodiffusion. Hydrodiffusion extraction is a type of steam
distillation, which is only different in the inlet way of steam into
the container of still. This method is used when the plant material
has been dried and is not damaged at boiling temperature (Vian
and others 2008). For hydrodiffusion, steam is applied from the
top of plant material, whereas steam is entered from the bottom
for steam distillation method. The process can also be operated
under low pressure or vacuum and reduces the steam temperature
to below 100 C. Hydrodiffusion method is superior to steam
distillation because of a shorter processing time and a higher oil
yield with less steam used. Bousbia and others (2009) compared the
HD and innovative microwave hydrodiffusion and gravity (MHG)
methods for their effectiveness in the isolation of essential oil from
rosemary leaves (R. officinalis). The MHG method exhibits the
excellent advantages over traditional alternatives including shorter
isolation times (15 min against 3 h for HD), environmental impact
(energy cost is fairly higher to perform HD than that required for
rapid MHG isolation), cleaner features (no residue generation and
no water or solvent used), increased antimicrobial and antioxidant
activities. Farhat and others (2011) studied the microwave steam
diffusion (MSDf), which is an advanced steam diffusion (SDf)
technique utilizing microwave heating process for extraction of
essential oils from by-products of orange peel. The essential oils
extracted by MSDf for 12 min had similar yield and aromatic
profile to those obtained by SDf for 40 min.
Solvent extraction
Solvent. Conventional solvent extraction has been imple-
mented for fragile or delicate flower materials, which are not
tolerant to the heat of steam distillation. Different solvents in-
cluding acetone, hexane, petroleum ether, methanol, or ethanol
can be used for extraction (Areias and others 2000; Pizzale and
others 2002; Kosar and others 2005). For general practice, the
solvent is mixed with the plant material and then heated to ex-
tract the essential oil, followed by filtration. Subsequently, the
filtrate is concentrated by solvent evaporation. The concentrate is
resin (resinoid), or concrete (a combination of wax, fragrance, and

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R: Concise Reviews Bioactivities and applications of essential oils . . .
in Food Science
essential oil). From the concentrate, it is then mixed with pure
alcohol to extract the oil and distilled at low temperatures. The
alcohol absorbs the fragrance and when the alcohol is evaporated,
the aromatic absolute oil is remained. However, this method is a
relatively time-consuming process, thus making the oils more ex-
pensive than other methods (Li and others 2009). Essential oil with
antioxidant activity from Ptychotisverticillata was extracted using
solvent extraction method by El Ouariachi and others (2011).
The oil was dominated by phenolic compounds (48.0%) with car-
vacrol (44.6%) and thymol (3.4%) as the main compounds. Ozen
and others (2011) studied the chemical composition and antioxi-
Figure 1Diagrammatic illustration of steam distillation method.
R1236 Journal of Food Science r Vol. 79, Nr. 7, 2014
dant activity of separated essential oils from Thymus praecox subsp.
skorpilii var. skorpilii (TPS) extracted using different solvents. TPS
essential oil was found to contain thymol (40.31%) and o-cymene
(13.66%) as the major components. The ethanol, methanol, and
water extracts exerted significant free-radical scavenging activity.
The water extract has the highest total phenolics (6.211 mg gal-
lic acid/g dry weight) and flavonoids (0.809 mg quercetin/g dry
weight). Moreover, Sarikurkcu and others (2009) reported that
the water extract exhibited higher antioxidant activity than other
extracts (hexane, dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, and methanol).
However, solvent residue could be retained in the final product
Figure 2Diagrammatic illustration of
hydrodistillation method.

Bioactivities and applications of essential oils . . .
due to incomplete removal. This may cause allergies, toxicity, and
affect the immune system (Ferhat and others 2007a).
Supercritical carbon dioxide. Conventional methods in-
cluding solvent extraction and steam distillation have some short-
comings such as long preparation time and large amount of or-
ganic solvents (Deng and others 2005). Moreover, the losses of
some volatile compounds, low extraction efficiency, degradation
of unsaturated compounds, and toxic solvent residue in the extract
may be encountered (Jimenez-Carmona and others 1999; Glisica
and others 2007; Gironi and Maschietti 2008). Therefore, super-
critical fluids have been considered as an alternative medium for
essential oil extraction. Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) is the most com-
monly used supercritical fluid because of its modest critical condi-
tions (Hawthorne and others 1993; Jimenez-Carmona and others
1999; Senorans and others 2000). Under high-pressure condition,
CO2 turns into liquid, which can be used as a very inert and
safe medium to extract the aromatic molecules from raw material.
No solvent residue remains in the final finished product since the
liquid CO2 simply reverts to a gas and evaporates under normal
atmospheric pressure and temperature. Despite high solubilities of
essential oil components in supercritical CO2 , the extraction rates
were relatively slow with pure CO2 (ca. 80% recovery after 90
min) (Hawthorne and others 1993). However, the combination
methods by a 15-min static extraction with methylene chloride
as a modifier followed by a 15-min dynamic extraction with pure
CO2 yielded high recoveries. The extraction efficacy was equiva-
lent to HD, which was performed for 4 h. The volatile compounds
such as monoterpenes can be collected from the supercritical fluid
extraction (SFE) effluent by >90%. SFE was able to recover some
organic compounds that were not extracted by HD (Hawthorne
and others 1993). Pereira and Meireles (2007) showed that the
supercritical fluid extraction is economically viable than steam dis-
tillation. This is mainly caused by the lower yield and the higher
energy consumption of the latter.
Subcritical water. The subcritical water or pressurized hot
water has been introduced as an extractant under dynamic condi-
tions (pressure high enough to maintain water under liquid state
and temperature in the range of 100 to 374 C). Jimenez-Carmona
and others (1999) reported that the efficiency (in terms of volume
of essential oil/1 g of plant) of continuous subcritical water ex-
traction was 5.1 times higher than HD method. This method is
quicker (15 min compared with 3 h), provides a more valuable
essential oil (with higher amounts of oxygenated compounds and
no significant presence of terpenes), and allows substantial savings
of costs, in terms of both energy and plant material. Kubatova
and others (2001) studied the subcritical water extraction of lac-
tones from a kava (Piper methysticum) root, compared to a Soxhlet
extraction with water. The extraction of ground samples with sub-
critical water at 100 C took 2 h, but the shorter time (20 min)
was required when extraction was carried out at 175 C. Boiling
for 2 h and extraction with Soxhlet apparatus for 6 h showed the
lower yields by 40% to 60%, compared with that obtained using
subcritical water.
Solvent-free microwave
The disadvantages of conventional methods such as solvent or
hydrodiffusion extraction are the losses of some volatile com-
pounds, low extraction efficiency, long extraction time, degra-
dation of unsaturated or ester compounds through thermal or
hydrolytic effects, and toxic solvent residue in the extract (Pollien
and others 1998; Luque de Castro and others 1999). These dis-
advantages have led to the consideration of the use of SFME.
R: Concise Reviews
in Food Science
It is a rapid extraction of essential oils from aromatic herbs,
spices, and dry seeds. SFME has several advantages, involv-
ing higher yield and selectivity, shorter time, and environmen-
tal friendly (Lopez-Avila and others 1994; Tomaniova and oth-
ers 1998). SFME is a combination of microwave heating and
dry distillation, performed at atmospheric pressure without any
solvent or water. Isolation and concentration of volatile com-
pounds are performed by a single stage (Lucchesi and others 2004;
Bayramoglu and others 2008). Using oregano as a raw material,
SFME offered significantly higher essential oil yields (0.054 mL/g),
compared to HD (0.048 mL/g) (Bayramoglu and others 2008).
When microwave power at 662 W was used in SFME, process time
was reduced by 80%, compared with conventional process. Ferhat
and others (2007b) reported that microwave method offers the im-
portant advantages over traditional alternatives, such as shorter ex-
traction times (30 min compared with 3 h for HD and 1 h for cold
pressing [CP]); better yields (0.24% compared with 0.21% for HD
and 0.05% for CP); environmental impact (energy cost is appre-
ciably higher for performing HD and for mechanical motors (CP)
than that required for rapid microwave extraction); cleaner features
(as no residue generation and no water or solvent used); and high
antimicrobial activities. Farhat and others (2010) reported that es-
sential oils of caraway seeds isolated by microwave dry-diffusion
and gravity (MDG) exhibited the similar yield and aromatic profile
to those obtained by HD, but MDG was better than HD in terms
of shorter process time (45 min compared with 300 min), energy
saving, and cleanliness. The present apparatus permits fast and
efficient extraction, reduces waste, avoids water and solvent con-
sumption, and allows substantial energy savings (Farhat and others
2010).
Role of Essential Oils as Food Additives
Essential oils from plants have been known to act as natural
additives, for example, antimicrobial agents, antioxidant, and so on.
Their activities vary with source of plants, chemical composition,
extraction methods, and so on. Due to the unique smell associated
with the volatiles, this may limit the use of essential oil in some
foods since it may alter the typical smell/flavor of foods.
Antimicrobial activity
The ability of plant essential oils to protect foods against
pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms has been reported
(Lis-Balchin and others 1998; Friedman 2006; Rojas-Grau and
others 2007). Among chemical components in several essential
oils, carvacrol has been shown to exert a distinct antimicrobial
action (Veldhuizen and others 2006). Carvacrol is the major com-
ponent of essential oil from oregano (60% to 74% carvacrol) and
thyme (45% carvacrol) (Lagouri and others 1993; Arrebola and
others 1994). It has a broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity
against most gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria (Friedman
and others 2002). Carvacrol disintegrates the outer membrane of
gram-negative bacteria, releasing lipopolysaccharides and increas-
ing the permeability of the cytoplasmic membrane to ATP (Burt
2004). For gram-positive bacteria, it is able to interact with the
membranes of bacteria and alter the permeability for cations like
H+ and K+ (Veldhuizen and others 2006). In general, the higher
antimicrobial activity of essential oils is observed on gram-positive
bacteria than gram-negative bacteria (Kokoska and others 2002;
Okoh and others 2010). Lipophilic ends of lipoteichoic acids in
cell membrane of gram positive bacteria may facilitate the pen-
etration of hydrophobic compounds of essential oils (Cox and
others 2000). On the other hand, the resistance of gram-negative
Vol. 79, Nr. 7, 2014 r Journal of Food Science R1237
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in Food Science
bacteria to essential oils is associated with the protecting role of ex-
trinsic membrane proteins or cell wall lipopolysaccharides, which
limits the diffusion rate of hydrophobic compounds through the
lipopolysaccharide layer (Burt 2004). The dissipation of ion gra-
dients leads to impairment of essential processes in the cell and
finally to cell death (Ultee and others 1999). The cytoplasmic
membrane of bacteria generally has 2 principal functions: (i) bar-
rier function and energy transduction, which allow the membrane
to form ion gradients that can be used to drive various processes,
and (ii) formation of a matrix for membrane-embedded proteins
(such as the membrane-integrated F0 complex of ATP synthase)
(Sikkema and others 1995; Hensel and others 1996). Antimicro-
bial mechanism of essential oil is proposed as shown in Figure 3.
The activity of the essential oils is related to composition, func-
tional groups, and synergistic interactions between components
(Dorman and Deans 2000). The removal of the aliphatic ring sub-
stituent of carvacrol slightly decreased the antimicrobial activity.
2-Amino--cymene has similar structure to cavacrol, except hy-
droxyl group (Figure 4). The lower activity by 3-fold of 2-amino-
-cymene, as compared to carvacrol, indicates the essential role of
hydroxyl group in antimicrobial activity of carvacrol (Veldhuizen
and others 2006). The hydroxyl group present in the structure of
phenolic compounds confers antimicrobial activity and its relative
position is very crucial for the effectiveness of these natural com-
ponents; this can explain the superior antimicrobial activity of car-
vacrol, compared to other plant phenolics (Veldhuizen and others
2006).
Plant essential oils have been known as antimicrobial agents. Es-
sential oil of rosemary (R. officinalis) exhibited both gram-positive
(Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis) and gram-negative (Es-
cherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae) bacteria (Okoh and others
2010). The major components of rosemary oil are monoterpenes
such as -pinene, -pinene, myrcene 1,8-cineole, borneol, cam-
phor, and verbinone (Santoyo and others 2005; Okoh and others
Figure 3Schematic illustration for the effect of essential oils on bacteria cell.
R1238 Journal of Food Science r Vol. 79, Nr. 7, 2014
2010), which possess strong antimicrobial activity by the disrup-
tion of bacteria membrane integrity (Knobloch and others 1989).
Aguirre and others (2013); Burt (2004); and Pelissari and oth-
ers (2009) also reported that oregano essential oil had higher
antimicrobial activity against the gram-positive bacteria (S. au-
reus) than gram-negative (E. coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa). The
main constituents of oregano essential oil are thymol, carvacrol,
-therpinene, and -cymene (Lambert and others 2001; Burt
2004; Aguirre and others 2013). However, Pseudomonas putida was
resistant to carrot seed and parsley essential oils (Teixeira and oth-
ers 2013). E. coli and Salmonella typhimurium were also tolerant to
carrot seed, grapefruit, lemon, onion, and parsley essential oils.
The greater resistance of gram-negative bacteria toward essential
oils may be attributed to the complexity of their double-layer cell
membrane, compared with the single-layer membrane of gram-
positive bacteria (Hogg 2005).
Antimicrobial activity of Callistemon comboynensis essential oil
was observed against gram-positive (B. subtilis and S. aureus), gram-
negative (Proteus vulgaris and P. aeruginosa), and a pathogenic fungus
Candida albicans. This might be associated with the high content
of oxygenated constituents (Abdelhady and Aly 2012). Essential
oil of C. comboynensis leave consisted of 1,8-cineole (53.03%),
eugenol (12.1%), methyl eugenol (8.3%), -terpineol (4.3%), and
carveol (3.4%) (Abdelhady and Aly 2012). Teixeira and others
(2013) found that the highest reduction (8.0 log CFU/mL) was
obtained when coriander, origanum, and rosemary essential oils
at a level of 20 L were used to inhibit Listeria innocua. Thyme
essential oil (20 L) was able to inhibit both L. innocua and Lis-
teria monocytogenes. However, rosemary essential oil exhibited the
highest MIC (90.8 mg/mL) against Brochothrix thermosphacta and
S. typhimurium. Thus, essential oils from the selected plants can be
used as antimicrobial agents for food applications as well as other
purposes; however, their activity depends on types of essential oil
used.

Bioactivities and applications of essential oils . . .
Antioxidant activity
Several compounds in essential oils have the structure mim-
icking the well-known plant phenols with antioxidant activity.
Among the major compounds available in the oil, thymol and
carvacrol were reported to possess the highest antioxidant activity
(Dapkevicius and others 1998). Essential oils have several modes
of actions as antioxidant, such as prevention of chain initiation,
free radical scavengers, reducing agents, termination of peroxides,
prevention of continued hydrogen abstraction as well as quenchers
of singlet oxygen formation and binding of transition metal ion
catalysts (Yildirim and others 2000; Mao and others 2006). With
those functions, essential oils can serve as the potential natural an-
tioxidants, which can be used to prevent lipid oxidation in food
systems. Phenolics are organic compounds consisting of hydroxyl
group (-OH) attached directly to a carbon atom that is a part
of aromatic ring. The hydrogen atom of hydroxyl group can be
donated to free radicals, thereby preventing other compounds to
be oxidized (Nguyen and others 2003). Teixeira and others (2013)
reported that the highest scavenging activity of DPPH radical was
observed for clove and origanum essential oils with the EC50 val-
ues of 35.7 1.2 and 46.8 0.4 g/mL, respectively. Clove and
origanum essential oils also showed the high ferric reducing power
(Teixeira and others 2013). The antioxidant capability of phenolic
compounds is mainly due to their redox properties, which permit
them to act as hydrogen donors, reducing agents, singlet oxygen
quenchers as well as metal chelators (Kumar and others 2005).
The antioxidant activity is generally related with the major ac-
tive compounds in essential oils such as eugenol in clove (Wei
and Shibamoto 2010), carvacrol in origanum (Bounatirou and
R: Concise Reviews
in Food Science
others 2007), m-thymol in thyme (Bozin and others 2006), and
-citronellol or -citronellal in citronella (Ruberto and Baratta
2000). However, the other antioxidant compounds in essential
oils such as terpinene, ()-camphor, ()-bornylacetate, eucalyp-
tol, and methylchavicol have been reported to exhibit antioxidant
activity, but their amounts were probably too low to exhibit an-
tioxidant activity (Ruberto and Baratta 2000; Mitic-Culafic and
others 2009; Teixeira and others 2013). Antioxidant activity varies
with source of essential oils. Tongnuanchan and others (2013a)
reported that among essential oils from roots, plai essential oil
showed the highest DPPH radical scavenging activity, followed
by turmeric and ginger essential oil, respectively. The highest
2,2-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS)
radical scavenging activity was observed in turmeric essential oil,
followed by plai and ginger essential oils. The differences in an-
tioxidative activity of different essential oils were mostly due to
the differences in types and amounts of antioxidative components
present in essential oils (Burt 2004; Kordali and others 2005).
Antioxidative activity of essential oil is also affected by extraction
method or solvents used. Sarikurkcu and others (2010) reported
that free radical scavenging activity (DPPH assay) and reducing
power of essential oil from Thymus longicaulis subsp. Longicaulis
var. longicaulis extracted using HD method was lower than those
extracted using methanol or water. Methanol extract of Salvia
tomentosa exhibited superior radical scavenging activity to other
extracts (IC50 = 18.7l g/mL) (Tepe and others 2005). Nonpolar
extracts showed less effective activities than polar extracts. There-
fore, antioxidative activity of essential oil is strictly related with
the polarities of their phytochemicals. The antioxidant activity of
Figure 4Structure of carvacrol and
carvacrol-related compounds
Source: Veldhuizen and others (2006).
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in Food Science
essential oil from T. longicaulis subsp. longicaulis var. longicaulis ex-
tracted by HD method at 2.0 mg/mL showed similar antioxidative
activity to synthetic antioxidants butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT)
and butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) when tested by -carotene
linoleic acid model system and was higher than those extracted
with other solvents (Sarikurkcu and others 2010). In contrast, the
inhibition of linoleic acid oxidation of model system by essential
oil of S. tomentosa (Miller) was lower than those extracted using
solvents with different polarities and BHT (Tepe and others 2005).
Abdelhady and Aly (2012) reported that C. comboynensis essential
oil exhibited the antioxidant activity at a concentration of 1000
g/mL (91.1 0.3% inhibition), comparable to 100 g/mL gallic
acid (95.7 2% inhibition). It has been reported that nonphe-
nolic antioxidants of plant extracts might also contribute to the
antioxidant activity (Newman and others 2002; Hassimotto and
others 2005).
Additionally, the harvesting period of plant also determines the
concentration of the major oil components such as phenolic com-
pounds, which directly related with the antioxidant activity of
essential oils (Malatova and others 2011; Zheljazkov and others
2012; Wu and others 2013).
Active Packaging Containing Essential Oils
and Applications
Development of active packaging
Nowadays, smart packaging has gained increasing attention, for
example, antimicrobial packaging, which can be applied to ex-
tend the shelf life of food and products (Appendini and Hotchkiss
2002; Quintavalla and Vicini 2002). To enhance the property of
those packaging, antimicrobial compounds or extracts with the se-
lected bioactivity are incorporated. Thus, several approaches have
been introduced, not only for increasing bioactivity but also mod-
ifying the property of biomaterials used for packaging. Among
biomaterials, proteins have gained attention, due to their vari-
ety in compositions, properties, as well as nutritive value. How-
ever, protein-based material for packaging is still encountering the
poor property, especially poor barrier property toward water va-
por. Chemical and enzyme treatment can be applied to modify
polymer network through the cross-linking of the polymer chains
to improve the properties of protein film (Mahmoud and Savello
1993; Yildirim and Hettiarachchy 1997; De Carvalho and Grosso
2004). Hydrophobic plasticizer can be used to improve water va-
por barrier property of films. However, it may yield films with
different properties. The incorporation of hydrophobic substances
such as lipid, fatty acid, wax, and so on, has been implemented to
improve water vapor barrier property (Prodpran and others 2007;
Limpisophon and others 2010; Soazo and others 2011). Hy-
drophobic materials such as essential oils have been incorporated
to improve water vapor barrier property of protein-based films,
for example, film from fish muscle protein, film from fish gelatin,
and so on (Atares and others 2010a; Tongnuanchan and others
2012, 2013a). Tongnuanchan and others (2012) reported that wa-
ter vapor permeability (WVP) of fish skin gelatin film decreased
markedly from 3.11 to 1.88, 1.89, and 2.45 1011 gm1 s1 Pa1
(P < 0.05), when films were incorporated with ginger, turmeric,
and plai essential oils, respectively, at a level of 100% based on pro-
tein. The incorporation of ginger, turmeric, and plai essential oils
at the highest level (100% based on protein) reduced WVP of film
by 39.54%, 39.22%, and 21.22%, respectively. The result suggested
different hydrophobicity of compounds present in different essen-
tial oils used. Monoterpenes are highly hydrophobic substances
found in essential oils, in which the content varied with types of
R1240 Journal of Food Science r Vol. 79, Nr. 7, 2014
essential oils (Turina and others 2006). Hydrophobic essential oil
could increase the hydrophobicity of films, thereby reducing the
water vapor migration through the film. Essential oils with low
density are separated and localized at the upper surface of film,
thereby forming the bilayer microstructure. In general, there was
no oil exudates on the film incorporated with low concentration
(25%) of essential oil; however, at high concentration of essen-
tial oil (100%), some oil exudates were found at the surface of
the films. The bilayer-morphological microstructure might con-
tribute to lower WVP of essential-oil-incorporated gelatin films
(Figure 5), compared with the control film. Atares and others
(2010a) studied the mechanical properties of soy protein isolate
incorporated with cinnamon and ginger essential oil at differ-
ent concentrations (protein to oil mass ratios: 1 : 0.025, 1 : 0.050,
1 : 0.075, and 1 : 0.100). A slight decreasing trend of elastic mod-
ulus (EM) was observed as the oil content increased. The WVP
was slightly reduced by both essential oils. The oil type signifi-
cantly affected both tensile strength (resistance to elongation) and
EM (capacity for stretching) (Atares and others 2010a). Essen-
tial oils may cause some degree of rearrangement in the protein
network, thus strengthening and increasing the film resistance to
elongation. Moreover, Pires and others (2011) studied the effect
of thyme essential oil incorporated in hake protein film. The ad-
dition of thyme oil significantly reduced the WVP. Nevertheless,
the addition of essential oil had impact on the transparency of film,
depending on type and concentration of essential oils. The addi-
tion of thyme oil decreased the transparency value of hake proteins
films (Pires and others 2011). Table 4 presents the properties of
protein-based films containing various essential oils.
The ability of plant essential oils to protect foods against
pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms has been reported by
several researchers (Lis-Balchin and others 1998; Friedman 2006;
Rojas-Grau and others 2007). Film or packaging incorporated
with essential oils can be employed as active packaging due to their
antimicrobial or antioxidant activities. Seydim and Sarikus (2006)
evaluated antimicrobial activity of whey-protein isolate-based edi-
ble films incorporated with oregano essential oil. Oregano essential
oil added films exhibited the larger inhibitory zone on S. aureus
with increasing levels of essential oil added. Table 5 presents the an-
timicrobial activities of biopolymer films containing various types
of essential oils.
Films added with essential oils are shown to possess antioxi-
dant activities, which can vary with type and amount of essen-
tial oil incorporated. Gomez-Estaca and others (2009) reported
that bovine-hide and tuna skin gelatin films supplemented with
oregano and rosemary extracts exhibited the reducing ability and
free-radical scavenging capacity. Antioxidant power was gener-
ally being proportional to the amount of added extract. Gelatin
films incorporated with different essential oils containing 30%
glycerol mostly had the higher antioxidant activity than those
with 20% glycerol (P < 0.05) (Tongnuanchan and others 2012).
More loosen structure of film network found in film contain-
ing 30% glycerol favored the release of essential oils with antiox-
idative activity (Tongnuanchan and others 2012). Antioxidative
activities of gelatin films incorporated with essential oils were
lower than those of pure essential oil, regardless of type of essen-
tial oil used. The interaction between gelatin and antioxidative
compounds in essential oil thus lowers the release of those com-
pounds (Tongnuanchan and others 2013a). Antioxidant activities
of protein-based films containing various essential oils are shown in
Table 6.
However, film or packaging may have the smell of essential
oils due to its volatilization. The smell intensity of essential oil in
 Table 4Properties of biopolymer films containing various types of essential oils.

Mechanical properties
Protein type, Plasticizer, Essential oils, WVP(101 0 Transparency
concentration concentration concentration Thickness(mm) TS (MPa) EAB (%) g/m s Pa) (%) References
Hake muscle Glycerol, 59% Thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.), 0.025, 0.05, 0.022 to 0.025 4.13 to 6.67,3.30 111.2 to 129.8, 0.35 to 0.43 1.8 to 6.5 Pires and others
protein,1.5% (w/w) of protein 0.1, and 0.25 mL oil/g protein to 8.49 N 87.87 to 115.41 (2011)
(w/w) of FFS (Breaking force) (Puncture
deformation)
Soy protein isolate, Glycerol, 30% Cinnamon(Cinnamomum verum), 0.025, 11.0 to 17.6 3.4 to 7.5 0.46 to 0.64a Atares and others
8% (w/w) of FFS (w/w) of protein 0.05, 0.075, and 0.1 mL oil/g protein (2010a)
Ginger(Zingiber officinale), 0.025, 0.05, 4 to 8 1.7 to 3 0.56 to 0.68a
0.075, and 0.1 mL oil/g protein
Sodium caseinate, Glycerol, 30% Cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum), 0.025 22 and 24b 13 and 22b 0.64 and 0.57d Atares and others
Bioactivities and applications of essential oils . . .

8% (w/w) of FFS (w/w) of protein and 0.075 mL oil/g protein 10.2 and 11.4c 67 and 76c 2.14 and 1.7e (2010b)
Ginger(Zingiber officinale), 0.025 and 22 and 22b 18 and 16b 0.57 and 0.52d
0.075 mL oil/g protein 10 and 11.6c 57 and 72c 2.1 and 1.8e
Sunflower protein Glycerol, 1.5% Clove(Syzygium aromaticum) 0.080 0.01 2.5 0.2 24.9 1.7 1.16 0.09aa Salgado and others
concentrate, 5% (w/v) of FFS (2013)
(w/v) of FFS
Fish gelatin Glycerol,20% and Bergamot (Citrus bergamia), 50% (w/w) 0.047 and 0.048 42.42 and 36.52 15.29 and 19.19 3.15 and 3.22aaa 4.28 and 4.45 Tongnuanchan
(tilapia), 3.5% 30% (w/w) of of protein and others (2012)
(w/w) of FFS protein
Kaffir Lime Peel (Citrus hystrix DC) 0.048 and 0.047 36.87 and 34.22 31.43 and 30.93 2.95 and 3.38 5.48 and 5.56
Lemon, (Citrus limon) 0.048 and 0.048 32.82 and 31.06 39.06 and 52.66 2.81 and 2.85 5.46 and 5.31
Lime, (Citrus aurantifolia) 0.049 and 0.047 27.32 and 25.87 52.21 and 69.79 2.91 and 3.37 5.66 and 5.46
Fish gelatin Glycerol, 30% Ginger(Zingiber officinale), 25%, 50%, and 0.041 to 0.057 18.58 to 35.73 41.70 to 72.03 1.88 to 2.61aaa 1.60 to 3.02 Tongnuanchan
(tilapia), 3.5% (w/w) of protein 100% (w/w) of protein and others (2013a)
(w/w) of FFS
Tumeric(Curcuma longa) 0.041 to 0.053 23.34 to 34.04 42.96 to 72.80 1.89 to 2.48 1.45 to 1.63
Plai(Zingiber cassumunar roxb) 0.041 to 0.055 17.20 to 32.06 44.96 to 74.68 2.45 to 2.91 1.49 2.17
Fish gelatin Glycerol, 30% Lemongrass, (Cymbopogon citratus) 0.056 to 0.073 18.42 to 25.13 52.81 to 77.25 1.41 to 1.79 2.48 to 3.24 Tongnuanchan
(tilapia), 3.5% (w/w) of protein and others (2013b)
(w/w) of FFS
Basil, (Ocimum sanctum) 0.054 to 0.084 18.70 to 21.37 46.53 to 85.06 1.20 to 2.11 2.18 to 3.26
Citronella, (Cymbopogon nardus) 0.068 to 0.080 17.39 to 21.85 44.63 to 97.29 1.07 to 1.42 3.67 to 4.41
Kaffir Lime Leaf, (Citrus hystrix DC) 0.066 to 0.081 25.07 to 26.21 43.95 to 95.08 1.03 to 1.59 4.25 to 6.08

FFS = Film forming solution; WVP = water vapor permeability; a WVP unit (g mm/m2 h kPa); aa WVP unit (1010 g H2 O/Pa m s); WVP unit (1010 g H2 O/Pa m s); b, c Final moisture content in the film: 5 and 10 g water/100 g film,
respectively; d, e WVP of films tested at 25 C and 2 range of relative humidity (RH) (33% to 53% and 53 to 75, respectively).

Vol. 79, Nr. 7, 2014 r Journal of Food Science R1241

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Table 5Antimicrobial effect of biopolymer films containing various types of essential oils.

Film forming Plasticizer, Essential oils,

materials, concentration concentration concentration Tested organisms Inhibition effect References
Soy protein isolate, 5% Glycerol, Oregano (Oreganum Staphylococcus aureus 27.50 to 49.50a Emiroglu and others
heracleoticum L.), (2010)
(w/v) of FFS 3.5% (w/v) of FFS 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, and 5% Escherichia coli 32.00 to 45.50
(v/v) of FFS
Escherichia coli O157:H7 35.50 to 50.50
Pseudomanas aeruginosa 27.00 to 39.50
Lactobacillus plantarum 22.50 to 37.00
Thyme (Thymusvulgaris L.) Staphylococcus aureus 30.00 to 49.50

R1242 Journal of Food Science r Vol. 79, Nr. 7, 2014

Bioactivities and applications of essential oils . . .

Escherichia coli 36.50 to 49.00

Escherichia coli O157:H7 36.50 to 49.50
Pseudomanas aeruginosa 32.50 to 42.00
Lactobacillus plantarum 20.50 to 36.50
Bovine-hide gelatin, Sorbitol and glycerol, 0.15 Clove (Syzygium aromaticum Pseudomonas fluorescens 9.07 0.13b Gomez-Estaca and others
and 0.15 g/g gelatin L.) (2010)
8% (w/v) of FFS 0.75 ml/g biopolymer Lactobacillus acidophilus 12.76 2.51
Listeria innocua 7.46 0.53
Escherichia coli 10.64 1.37
Gelatin-Chitosan, Sorbitol and glycerol, 0.15 Clove (Syzygium aromaticum Pseudomonas fluorescens 9.51 2.03b
and 0.15 g/g gelatin L.)
6% of gelatin plus 2% of 0.75 mL/g biopolymers Lactobacillus acidophilus 12.60 3.42 Gomez-Estaca and others
chitosan (w/v) of FFS (2010)
Listeria innocua 6.42 0.41
Escherichia coli 8.69 0.42
Whey protein isolate, Glycerol, 5% (w/v) of FFS Oregano (Origanum Escherichia coli O157:H7 Staphylococcus aureus Salmonella 0 to 37.09c 0 to 43.07 0 to Seydim and Sarikus (2006)
5% (w/v) of FFS minutiflorum) 1%, 2%, 3%, enteritidis Listeria monocytogenes Lactobacillus plantarum 40.59 0 to 41.650 to 13.45
and 4% (v/v) of FFS
Rosemary (Rosmarinus Escherichia coli O157:H7 Staphylococcus aureus Salmonella 0 to 11.36 0 to 13.45 0 to
officianalis L.) enteritidis Listeria monocytogenes Lactobacillus plantarum 10.48 0 to 11.96 0 to 9.21
Garlic (Allium sativum L.), Escherichia coli O157:H7 Staphylococcus aureus Salmonella N.D. N.D. N.D. N.D. N.D.
enteritidis Listeria monocytogenes Lactobacillus plantarum
(Continued)
 Table 5Continued.

Film forming Plasticizer, Essential oils,

materials, concentration
Sunflower protein
concentrate, 5% (w/v) of
FFS
concentration concentration Tested organisms Inhibition effect References
Glycerol, 1.5% (w/v) of Clove (Syzygium aromaticum), Aeromonas hydrophila, Aspergillus niger, Bacillus cereus, 32.66 17.59b 38.32 Salgado and others (2013)
FFS 0.75 mL/g biopolymer Bacillus coagulans, Bifidobacterium animalis- subespecie 11.24 25.61 5.22 37.21
lactis, 5.13 25.52 9.85
Bifidobacterium bifidum, Brochothrix thermophacta, 27.42 14.04 40.20 0.87
Citrobacter freundii, Clostridium perfringens, Debaryomyces 24.14 5.54 21.15 0.71
hansenii, Enterococcus faecium, Escherichia coli, 60.74 9.90 22.07 1.14
Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus helveticus, Listeria 25.68 1.43 22.00 1.81
innocua, Listeria monocytogenes, Penicilium expansum, 24.95 5.64 31.04 0.51
Photobacterium phosphoreum, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, 23.34 4.13 50.34 2.48
Bioactivities and applications of essential oils . . .

Pseudomonasfluorescens, Salmonella cholerasuis, Shewanella 38.20 6.43 27.09 2.47

Cassava starch-Chitosan, 77%
of starch plus 5% of
chitosan
Hake protein, 1.5% (w/v) of
FFS
Triticale protein, 7.5% (w/v)
of FFS
FFS = Film forming solution; N.D. = inhibition not detected; a Inhibition unit (inhibition zone diameters (mm)); b Inhibition unit (percentage of inhibition (%) of the total plate surface); c Inhibition unit (inhibition zone (mm2 )); d Inhibition
unit (Macrodilution method (% reduction))
putrefaciens, Shigella sonnei, Staphylococcus aureus, Vibrio 27.39 8.13 26.40 3.51
parahaemolyticus Yersinia enterocoltica 24.25 4.99 22.04 2.46
29.35 3.52 30.77 9.80
22.55 4.79
Glycerol, 18% Oregano (Oreganum Bacillus cereus Escherichia coli Salmonella enteritidis 6.28 to 19.50a 9.99 to 23.73 Pelissari and others (2009)
heracleoticum L.)0.1%, 0.5%, Staphylococcus aureus 13.26 to 30.81 13.98 to
and 1% of FFS 33.88
Glycerol, 59% (w/w) of Citronella (Pelargonium Brochothrix thermosphacta Escherichia coli Listeria innocua 48.7 0.3d N.D. 40.6 13.7
protein citrosum),0.25 mL oil/g Listeria monocytogenes Pseudomonas putida Salmonella N.D. 71.6 22.9 N.D.
protein typhimurium Shewanella putrefaciens N.D.
Coriander (Coriandrum Brochothrix thermosphacta Escherichia coli Listeria innocua N.D. N.D. 32.0 16.5 N.D. Pires and others (2013)
sativum) Listeria monocytogenes Pseudomonas putida Salmonella N.D. N.D. 77.5 12.8
typhimurium Shewanella putrefaciens
Tarragon (Artemisia Brochothrix thermosphacta Escherichia coli Listeria innocua 79.8 5.7 N.D. 14.1 7.6
dracunculus) Listeria monocytogenes Pseudomonas putida Salmonella N.D. N.D. N.D. 80.5 6.9
typhimurium Shewanella putrefaciens
Thyme (Thymus vulgaris) Brochothrix thermosphacta Escherichia coli Listeria innocua 51.0 5.3 N.D. 35.2 5.3
Listeria monocytogenes Pseudomonas putida Salmonella N.D. N.D. 45.2 18.99
typhimurium Shewanella putrefaciens 6.9 1.7
Glycerol, 20% (w/w) of Oregano, 1% and 2% (w/v) of Escherichia coli Staphylococcus aureus Pseudomonas aeruginosa 10.81 and 21.53a 166.90 and Aguirre and others (2013)
protein FFS 342.36 0.00 and 9.70

Vol. 79, Nr. 7, 2014 r Journal of Food Science R1243

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Table 6Antioxidative effect of protein-based films containing various types of essential oils.
Film forming Antioxidant activity
materials, Plasticizer, Essential oils, Reducing PCL
concentration concentration concentration DPPH ABTS power FRAP PCL-ACW PCL-ACL Chelatingactivity References
Fish gelatin Glycerol, 20% Bergamot(Citrus 0.25 and 0.42h 4.33 and 6.25i 1.17 and 2.15j Tongnuanchan
(tilapia), 3.5% and 30% bergamia), 50% (w/w) and others
(w/w) of FFS (w/w) of of protein (2012)
protein
Kaffir Lime(Citrus 0.04 and 0.13 1.98 and 3.99 0.36 and 0.68
hystrix)
Lemon(Citrus limon) 0.15 and 0.27 28.01 and 31.18 2.76 and 3.42
Lime(Citrus latifolia) 0.02 and 0.09 2.54 and 4.24 0.30 and 0.46

R1244 Journal of Food Science r Vol. 79, Nr. 7, 2014

Fish gelatin Glycerol, 30% Ginger(Zingiber 0.26 to 1.30h 3.47 to 13.43i Tongnuanchan
Bioactivities and applications of essential oils . . .

(tilapia), 3.5% (w/w) of officinale),25%, 50%, and others

(w/w) of FFS protein and 100% (w/w) of (2013a)
protein
Tumeric(Curcuma longa) 0.72 to 1.97 8.96 to 20.26
Plai(Zingiber cassumunar) 0.95 to 2.39 8.68 to 19.51
Fish gelatin Glycerol, 30% Lemongrass, 0.39 to 0.78h 5.40 to 7.66i 5.25 to 11.73k Tongnuanchan
(tilapia), 3.5% (w/w) of (Cymbopogon citratus) and others
(w/w) of FFS protein (2013b)
Basil, (Ocimum sanctum) 9.31 to 12.40 51.42 to 123.72 0.29 to 7.65
Citronella, (Cymbopogon 1.98 to 3.32 6.71 to 28.72 1.38 to 12.78
nardus)
Kaffir Lime Leaf, (Citrus 0.52 to 0.63 4.25 to 5.41 3.10 to 13.74
hystrix DC)
a b
Hake protein, Glycerol, 59% Thyme(Thymus vulgaris 18.5 to 40.1 17.5 to 25.4 Pires and others
1.5% (w/v) of (w/w) of L.), 0.025, 0.05, 0.1, (2011)
FFS protein and 0.25 mL oil/g
protein
Sunflower 1.5% (w/v) of Clove(Syzygium 1194.1 77.0 d 5733.3 92.5e 229.0 6.6 f 1767.0 11.8g Salgado and
protein FFS aromaticum L.), 0.75 others (2013)
concentrate, mL oil/g SPC
5% (w/v) of
FFS

FFS = Film forming solution; DPPH = 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl hydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity; ABTS = 2,2-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) diammonium salt (ABTS) radical scavenging activity, FRAP = ferric
reducing antioxidant power; PCL-ACW = photochemiluminescence-antiradical capacity of water-soluble substances; PCL-ACL = photochemiluminescence-antiradical capacity of lipid-soluble substances.
a
DPPH unit (%); b Reducing power unit (mg Ascorbic acid/g film); c Reducing power unit (mol Ascorbic acid/g film); d ABTS unit (mg Ascorbic acid/g film); e FRAP unit (mmol FeSO4 .7H2 O equivalents/g film); f PCL-ACW unit (mol
Ascorbic acid/g film); g PCL-ACL unit (mol Trolox/g film); h, i, j DPPH, ABTS, and FRAP units (mol Trolox equivalents (TE)/g dried film); k Chelating activity unit (mol EDTA equivalents/g dried film).

Bioactivities and applications of essential oils . . .
films increased with increasing essential oil levels. This might limit
the application of the film in food when it was incorporated at
the high amount. However, smaller amount (25%) of essential oil
added did not cause the detrimental effect on smell perception or
unacceptability of the film (Tongnuanchan and others 2012).
Active film containing essential oil can be applied to extend
the shelf life and maintain the quality of foods, such as meat,
fish, and their products. Films can serve as carriers for various
antimicrobial agent and antioxidant that can maintain fresh quality,
extend product shelf life, and reduce the risk of pathogen growth.
Table 7 presents the antimicrobial effect of active films containing
various essential oils in food systems.
Use of packaging for meat and meat products
Microorganisms are responsible for meat spoilage. Most essential
oils are classified as generally recognized as safe (GRAS). However,
their use as food preservatives is often limited due to flavoring
considerations (Zinoviadou and others 2009). The effectiveness
of bioactive films containing essential oils against the spoilage or
pathogenic bacteria in food system has been studied. Zinoviadou
and others (2009) studied the antibacterial effects of WPI film
containing oregano oil (0.5% and 1.5% w/w of Film forming
solution [FFS]) against total variable bacteria count, Pseudomonas
spp. and lactic acid bacteria on beef cuts. The use of films con-
taining the highest level of oregano oil (1.5% w/w of FFS) re-
sulted in a significant reduction of total variable bacteria count
Figure 5Simplified illustration for the formation of emulsified and bilayer films from fish skin gelatin incorporated with essential oil.
Source: Adapted from Tongnuanchan and others (2013a).
R: Concise Reviews
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and Pseudomonas spp. population during 12 d of refrigeration stor-
age (5 C). The total variable bacteria population of the samples
wrapped with films containing the high essential oil level at day
8 was 5.1 log CFU/cm2 , while the control had population of 8.4
log CFU/cm2 . Since microbial loads higher than 107 CFU/cm2
are usually associated with off-odors (Ercolini and others 2006), it
may be suggested that the use of WPI films containing 1.5% (w/w)
oregano oil could double the shelf life of fresh beef stored under
refrigerated condition. Oussalah and others (2004) reported the
application of milk protein films incorporated with essential oils
(oregano, pimento, and mixed) on meat surfaces containing 103
CFU/cm2 of E. coli O157:H7 and Pseudomonas spp. Film contain-
ing oregano essential oil was the most effective in inhibition both
bacteria, whereas film with pimento oils seemed to be the least ef-
fective against these 2 bacteria. The reduction of around 1 log unit
of E. coli O157:H7 and Pseudomonas spp. was observed at the end
of storage (day 7, at 4 C) when film containing oregano essential
oil was used, compared to samples without film coated. Ouattara
and others (2000) reported that chitosan film incorporated with
cinnamaldehyde reduced the growth of Lactobacillus sakei, Serratia
liquefaciens, and Enterobacteriaceae, on the surface of meat products
(bologna, cooked ham, and pastrami). However, the films had no
effect or little effect on the numbers of lactic acid bacteria on
bologna or pastrami, after 21 d of storage at 4 or 10 C. Zivanovic
and others (2005) tested the impact of chitosan film containing
oregano essential oil (1% and 2% of FFS) on microbial growth of
the inoculated bologna samples and stored for 5 d at 10 C. The
Vol. 79, Nr. 7, 2014 r Journal of Food Science R1245
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Table 7Antimicrobial effect of active films containing various essential oils in food systems.
Film forming Essential oils,
materials concentration samples
Chitosan Cinnamaldehyde, 1% (w/w) of FFS Bologna, Regular
cooked ham,
Pastrami
Milk protein Oregano (OR), Pimento (PI), Whole beef
Mixture (OR+PI, 1 : 1), 1% (w/v) of muscle
FFS
Chitosan Oregano, 1% and 2% of FFS Bologna slices Listeria monocytogenes, Escherichia coli O157:H7 Zivanovic and
Pigskin gelatin Oregano, Rosemary, 1.25% and 20% Cold-smoked
of FFS, respectively sardine
Whey protein isolate Oregano, 1.5% (w/w) of FFS Fresh beef
Soy protein Oregano (OR), Thyme (TH), Fresh ground beef Pseudomanas spp., Staphylococcus spp. Coliform
Mixture (OR+TH, 1 : 1), 5% (v/v) patties
of FFS
Bovine-hide Clove, 0.75 mL/g biopolymer Cod fillets
gelatin-Chitosan
Sunflower protein Clove, 0.75 mL/g biopolymer Sardine patties
concentrate
higher activity was obtained in films with 1% and 2% oregano
essential oil, which decreased the numbers of L. monocytogenes by
3.6 to 4 logs and E. coli O157:H7 by 3 logs, whereas the pure
chitosan films reduced L. monocytogenes by 2 logs.
Essential oils are able to extend shelf life of foods by lower-
ing lipid oxidation (Oussalah and others 2004; Zivanovic and
others 2005). Therefore, the incorporation of essential oils into the
biodegradable films could provide antioxidant activity for resulting
films. Oussalah and others (2004) reported that the incorporation
of oregano essential oil into milk-protein-based film increased the
ability to stabilize lipid oxidation in beef muscle samples during
refrigerated storage. Moradi and others (2011) studied the an-
tioxidant effects of chitosan film containing Zatariamultiflora Boiss
essential oil (ZEO) wrapped on mortadella sausage during 21 d of
refrigeration storage (4 C). Lipid oxidation of samples decreased
markedly at first 6 d when compared to samples wrapped with
control film (without ZEO incorporated) and unwrapped samples
up to the end of storage. The most effectiveness was observed
when samples packed with film containing 10 g/kg ZEO and
combination with 10 g/kg grape seed extract.
Use of packaging for fish and fish products
The antimicrobial effects of plant extracts including plant es-
sential oils on a wide range of microorganisms have been de-
scribed (Hammer and others 1999; Dorman and Deans 2000).
As a consequence, plant extracts have been used to preserve meat
and fish products due to their antimicrobial and antioxidant ef-
fects. Gomez-Estaca and others (2010) reported that the complex
gelatinchitosan film incorporated with clove essential oil was ap-
plied to fish during chilled storage and the growth was drastically
reduced for gram-negative bacteria, especially enterobacteria, and
corresponded with the delay in total volatile base (TVB) produc-
tion. Lactic acid bacteria remained practically constant during 11
d of storage. H2 S-producing bacteria were also inhibited since
their growth was interrupted with the application of the film.
This microbial inhibition could be attributed to the hydrophobic
nature of essential oil, which enable them and their components
to partition in the lipids of the bacteria cell membrane and mi-
tochondria while disturbing the structures and rendering it more
R1246 Journal of Food Science r Vol. 79, Nr. 7, 2014
Tested organisms References
Enterobacteriaceae, Lactobacillus sakei, Serratia Ouattara and
liquefaciens, Lactic acid bacteria others (2000)
Escherichia coli O157:H7, Pseudomonas spp. Oussalah and
others (2004)
others (2005)
Total viable bacteria, H2 S-producing microorganisms Gomez-Estaca and
others (2007)
Total viable bacteria, Pseudomonas ssp., Lactic acid Zinoviadou and
bacteria others (2009)
Emiroglu and
others (2010)
Total viable bacteria, H2 S-producing Gomez-Estaca and
microorganisms, Lactic acid bacteria, Pseudomonas others (2010)
ssp., Enterobacteriaceae
Total viable bacteria, Total mesophiles, Salgado and others
H2 S-producing microorganisms, Luminescent (2013)
colonies, Lactic bacteria, Pseudomonas spp.
Enterobacteriaceae
permeable (Sikkema and others 1995). The intrinsic properties of
the food (fat, protein, pH, and so on), as well as the environment
in which the food is maintained (storage temperature, packag-
ing, and so on), may influence the prevention effect of essential
oils (Tassou and others 1995; Burt 2004). Low pH and storage
temperature, decrease O2 concentrations, and high salt content
enhances the antimicrobial effect of essential oils, while high levels
of protein and fat and low water activity seem to protect bacte-
ria from the inhibition by essential oils (Gomez-Estaca and others
2010). However, soy protein film with oregano, thyme essential
oil, and mixture of those did not have significant effects on to-
tal viable counts, lactic acid bacteria and Staphylococcus spp. when
applied on ground beef patties. Nevertheless, the reduction in co-
liform and Pseudomonas spp. counts was observed. Gomez-Estaca
and others (2007) tested the antibacterial effects of gelatin-based
films added with an extract of oregano or rosemary against micro-
bial spoilage in preserving cold-smoked sardine. Coating the fish
with films enriched with oregano or rosemary extract lowered
the microbial growth by 1.99 and 1.54 log cycles, respectively, on
day 16.
Salgado and others (2013) tested the antioxidant activity of sun-
flower protein films enriched with clove essential oil in preserving
fish patties during 13 d of storage at 2C. The rate of malonalde-
hyde production was lower in patties wrapped with clove contain-
ing films during the first 3 d of storage, indicating a noticeable
delay in hydroperoxide (primary lipid oxidation products) degra-
dation exerted by the clove essential oil components. This allowed
thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) remaining at the
lowest values during storage. Use of natural plant extracts to pre-
vent lipid oxidation in fish has been reported (Gimenez and others
2004; Serdaroglu and Felekoglu 2005). Gomez-Estaca and others
(2007) developed gelatin-based film enriched with oregano or
rosemary essential oils to prevent lipid oxidation in cold-smoked
sardine during 20 d of storage at 5 C. Coating the muscle with
the films enriched with both essential oils, particularly oregano
oil, lowered the lipid oxidation rate (as measured by the peroxide
and TBARS indices) of the muscle. Therefore, the edible films
with the added plant extracts could lower lipid oxidation levels in
food systems.

Bioactivities and applications of essential oils . . .
Conclusions
In summary, essential oils from different sources can be exploited
as the natural additives in foods. Essential oils with other bioac-
tivities or functions from new sources should be further searched.
New technology for lowering the unique and undesirable smell
of essential oil, which can limit their use in foods, such as en-
capsulation, and so on, must be implemented. As a consequence,
essential oil can be widely used without any negative effect on
sensory property of foods. The development of release system for
essential oil from packaging or fuming system inside packaging
should be conducted to maximize the activity of active com-
pounds in essential oils. Therefore, it can serve as the convenient
packaging, which effectively extends the shelf life of foods.
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