CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW A. Theoretical Description ‘There are various components that eventually lead to such an approach like Task-Based Instruction (TBI). Psychological considerations are made before they are implemented, ie. how people lear, what kind of circumstances _ supporting learning to take place, what input should be given, etc. This chapter is dedicated to give a deeper topic understanding of the study. A number of discussions on related points of the topic will therefore be clarified. 1, From Acquisition to Learning In order to build a rationale for the study, I will put forward the background of the use of instructional strategy, why TBI is then chosen as the vehicle of learning instruction. As argued in the previous chapter, there is a certain period when one is potent to acquire a native speaker-like ability with less effort in a language, i.e. no instructional strategy is made, This assumption, known as the critical period hypothesis (CPH), is based on the fact that there are developmental changes in brain that influence the nature of language acquisition. Clark and Clark (1970) claim that after the onset of puberty and after the arrival of it, one’s brain is capable of set a certain limiting factor of a certain language. As Steinberg (1993) proposed, people who suffered a loss of language were able to recover the language fully before the age of twelve but failed to do so after puberty. His review of cases of recovery from traumatic aphasia shows that the role of plasticity of the left hemisphere of the brain, the centre of language inmind, was taken over by the right one, which made language acquisition possible. He further explains that brain has not experienced lateralization resulting in flexibility in learning a language. This belief is also supported by few studies of individual whose languages were deprived because of missing particular period of language acquisition. In the field of psycholinguistics, it was revealed that when ‘one, a girl named Genie, was isolated from a language for a particular period and did not learn a language until the age of thirteen, she then failed to acquire the grammatical rules of the language in spite of her development in her communicative ability. This example indicated that people inherit language ability, As Chomsky (1981) assumes that, as his hypothesis of UG suggests, there is modularity, i.e. language as a separate faculty of mind, and language acquisition is a matter of parameter setting of such modularity. He believes that if one is exposed to a language, his or her mind will set a certain parameters to the given language. He argues by giving a question of how children are able to learn the full grammar of their mother tongue even when the information they weed is not available in the input. Indonesian children, for example, might not say, “Loti au te onat nanas cama caya.” (Roti mau teh donat panas sama saya.), but rather, “Caya ‘mau loti donat cama te nanas” (Saya mau roti donat sama the panas.) when referring to certain objects. According to Chomsky, the answer is that children have prior knowledge as what is grammatically possible and impossible as a part of their biological nature. This refers to Language Acquisition Devices (LADs). Some errors like misplacement of word order might not occur since UG prohibit them. However, a question arises: what about in L2 learning? To answer such question, linguists and pedagogic researchers consider whether L2 learners still have continued10 access to UG or they depend on language learning mechanism, i.e., language learning methodologies in L2 acquisition. Here, they believe that access to UG is very much influenced by age (Ellis, 1994). He explains that the access to UG of L2 leamers is partial, meaning to say that language acquisition is both sustained by UG and learning strategies Another voice from interactionist also informs us that language acq ition is not only a matter of defaulting language parameters. Long (1983) argues that language acquisition takes place through conversational interaction, His view which is based on the observation of interactions between learners and native speakers which reveals that modifie fraction is the necessary mechanism for “language acquisition to take place. He adds that what learners need is opportunity to intermingle with other speakers of the target language so that learners may adapt the language exposure, The conversational adjustment by the L2 speaker and learners’ processing information in order to prevent communication breakdown may aid learners to comprehend what the target language speaker is trying to say. From this point on, one’s cognitive ability takes role and one may depend on this in acquiring a language. People apply their cognitive knowledge and use their past experience in understanding the rules of the language. This ability refers to the ability of processing information: to build up knowledge system that can eventually be called on automatically in terms of learning and performances. The next sub-chapter will give us a quite model of language learning methodology which is potent to aid learners’ L2 acquisition.HW 2. Task-Based Instruction Task-Based Instruction does not simply emerge as a counterpoint to the current teaching methods, but rather, its surfacing is deeply influenced by careful considerations of how people learn. Such a method pays a careful attention to what social setting and psychological factors would contribute to the acquisition of an L2. In these sub-chapters, a mode! of condition for language learning is given out. Nonetheless, before those sections are put forward, brief description of supportive conditions offered by TBI is discussed. a. The Rationale of TBI Teaching English as a foreign language is always related to some traditional and familiar methods such as 3Ps: presentation, practice, production, At the initial stage, a teacher might explain underlying principles of the language items being leamed. The learning process might be an implicit or explicit presentation of the language rules so that they will become learners’ declarative knowledge and be internalized within the learners’ language property. The + proceeding stage will be in a form of language practice dedicated to make learners capable in producing the newly-learned language item mindlessly by converting the declarative knowledge into procedural ones. The exercises may or may not be meaningful as long as they are clear-cut and accommodating the development of the procedural knowledge. At the final stage is the opportunity of the learners lay in producing meaningful language more spontaneously. Such a method is inevitably well-known to all of ELT teachers since it is systematic and comforting in syllabus planning, However, a traditional method that puts a teacher firmly as the person of charge in learning activity is out of date,12 Such a method does not meet the conditions in order that learning take place. Willis (1996) argues that instruction is not a definite warranty that learners will eventually learn, No matter how good and flawless an instruction, if it is not weighed up with a certain degree of other necessary features of learners, learning will not take place. The following sub-chapters will briefly explain a number of earning conditions that should be fulfilled i L2 learning. A couple of schematic layouts are also exposed. b. Conditions for Language Learning Despite the arguments of what methods are thriving in language teaching, it is agreeable that certain conditions are to be met in order that learning takes place. Willis (1996) proposes @ model of conditions that should be met in order that opportunity for acquiring an L2 is possible. She also argues that learning is enhanced when leamers are given the opportunity to experience the target language. To further state her argument, she carves up them as language exposure, language use, motivation, and if possible, instruction. The first three components are the most decisive and supportive. She believes that one without the others or even, two without the third will not be adequate for learning a language as those offer the learners higher opportunities to have direct experience to the target language, The role of instruction is secondary as learners can learn a language outside the classrooms—in their daily life from their surrounding as the learning resources, For example, learners whose interests lay on playing video game might get authentic language input playing the game itself. In brief, learning can be successfully done by living, working, socializing in an environment when the target language is used as the vehicle of communication.13 ‘The diagram below summarized the model of Willis (Willis, 1996, p. 11) toarich but of the language to to listen and read in language comprehensible ‘do things the language and (opportunity to input of real (exchange (9 speak and write focus on form) spoken and written meanings) It (fo process and language in use use the exposure) | | | sen Desirable Conditions for Language Learning Figure 2.1 Willis's Model of Condition for Language Learning This sub-chapters will exemplify the necessities of language exposure, language use, motivation, and instruction in language acquisition. 1) Exposure on Language Learning Exposure to a language may involve listening, or reaging, or both. The process might be conscious or subconscious with one thing for certain: learners try to make sense the given inputs, This may result into the noticing of small chunks of language, used in particular context. It involves separating words and phrases, finding out their meaning and usage. Therefore, in order that learners learn, learners need to be exposed to inputs of the target language. As Schmidt (1990) argues, it is only when language features noticed and processed in learners’ cognition will they become the part of their internalized language system. The input, however, should be comprehensible for learners. For a novice, language exposure from, for example, an English radio will be a frustrating one as learners will not be able to comprehend and identify the language items available on the input. Therefore, the best solution is by choosing an input that is, to some14 extent, beyond their existing proficiency (Krashen and Terrel, 1983), Richards and Rodgers (2001, p. 182) say that comprehensible input is “utterances the learners understood based on the context in which they are used and phrased.” For example, when learners initiate the conversation, they are likely to use strategies in order that they are understood. We might have seen learners rephrase their sentences and utter those again knowing what the topics and purpose of the exchange are when the person to whom they are talking look blank. Learners are therefore trying to choose input that best suits them. This modified input hence becomes comprehensible and should help learning to take place (Freeman and Long, 1991, p. 134-44), This is not to say that simplification on the input or reducing the quality of exposure is advantageous, On the other hand, itis highly recommended that the input should be given in its original form. Willis (1996) argues that there is no overall advantage in simplifying input since it will remove the linguistic features learners are likely to meet in real world setting. For instance, breaking up a complex compound sentence into one or two simple sentences will result in learners’ unfamiliarity with language feature of English newspaper. Willis further maintains that simplification of exposure will not make comprehension easier. In the case of simplifying the complex compound sentence into simple ones, omission of discourse markers often occur which often obscure the meaning of the input, This eventually may be a distorted input in which fearners have to unlearn, Therefore, it is highly recommended that teachers use authentic inputs in accordance with learners’ present competence. For teaching English, for example, teachers might want to use any English paper or download listening passage from the net. Language teachers need to pay careful attention in selecting inputs. Inputsshould be descent in quality does not only mean teachers’ good pronunciation, but ! also variety of target language inputs. This will give learners opportunity to experience a range of language variety that may hold up their motivation. 2) Language Use It is apparent that, in order to acquire a language, we have to use the | * language itself, We have known the benefit of authentic language use through interactions from the light of CLT (Littlewood, 1981; Johnson, 1982). The learning theory of such an approach stresses the importance of the one of the | elements of the communication principle: dctivities that involve real communication promote learning to take place. This is possible since free language use gives learners opportunity for acquiring. In order that language becomes an internalized system, leamers have to experiment with the language, undergo the trial-and-error phase, and then test their hypothesis of the language | Learners should be put in a setting where they are risk-takers (Breen and Candlin, | 1980). This way, learners would have an occasion where they may recall and use the language items they have already known, The chances of leamers to make error, of course, are certain. This, however, should be disregarded, for errors are natural parts of learning process. Should errors be corrected, then the way it is done is unobtrusive (Finnachiaro and Brumfit, 1983). 3) Motivation In doing just everything, people inevitably need thrusts and urge to make their effort and accomplishment into forms. Likewise, the same thing applies to the process of language learning, In spite of rich input or greater16 opportunity to language use, learning would be in vain if not scaled with sufficient motivation In learning language, motivation is discerned through the urge to process the input they receive and motivation to use the target language as often as possible, The motivation can be integrative, that is, learners want to get involved in the community where the target language is spoken, or purely instrumental— learners will use the language for certain goals. Either kinds of motivation is expected, be it will last for the short or long run, as long as learners” willingness is sustained, To uphold learners’ motivation, there should be a sense of achievement and satisfaction in their learning progress; learners have to see that learning is a pleasant and gratifying experience, In the recent view, learners are seen as affective beings whose psychological and emotional aspects should be paid attention to (Hutchinson and Waters, 1994). The entry point of any learning is the determination from the Jearners to learn, thus learners would apply their cognitive powers to acquire the target knowledge. If learning is successful, learners’ competence develops which in turn would build schemata for them. This prior knowledge helps them to acquire different knowledge in the future with less difficulty—learners would learn more easily. When learners’ learning is successful, this will bring a sense of achievement and are rewarding. This is the most important of part of the process as learners see learning as an enjoyable encounter which ultimately would generate another positive entry point and encouraging learning process to the learners. In the framework of task-based learning, a task is so adjustable to learners’ present cognitive ability that learners would find the task doable. When they manage to accomplish the task with quite a result, they might find the task7 rewarding as they have accomplished it and build their sense of achievement. The development of their self achievement promotes further learning. The following describes a positive learning cycle (As proposed by Hutchinson & Waters, ibid). Entry Point -——— "earners want to Learners see learning as an enjoyable and satisfying experience Sa) Increased knowledge enables learners to learn more easily yd learn Learners apply cognitive power to acquire knowledge Positive learning wie | Learning is successful Learners competence develop I* Figure 2.2 A Positive Learning Cycle 4) Instruction Instruction makes up the last sought after condition of language learning In spite of its capability of speeding up the rate of language development and raising learners’ level of attainment, formal instruction will only work if learners are ready to use it since it is simply because learners do not necessarily learn what they are taught. The effect of instruction on language learning often lasts for short-term only (Willis, 1996). She further adds that instruction works when accompanied by adequate amount of exposure. Ellis (2002) argues that instruction may be able to help learners improve their accuracy only if the input given is18 simple; meaning to say that, it does not involve multifaceted processing operations and is related 10 specific function and extensive as well as well- planned, otherwise instruction will only aids learning if it is intended for controlled performance. Instruction is beneficial if it helps learners notice specific feature of the target language. Therefore, to make the most use of instruction, we have to construct a syllabus that really suits the fearners, a syllabus that enables learners to process grammatical and lexical pattern and to form hypothesis about language use and meaning. An example of such a syllabus is offered within a framework of Task-Based Instruction which will be further discussed on the succeeding sub- chapters, ¢. The Background of TBI In the past three decades, there were extensive moves wi in language teaching to accept the communicative approach (Brumfit and Johnson, 1979) Subsequently, teaching activities were emphasized in terms of meaning and information exchange to one another. It was assumed that language teaching which focused only on language structure was not enough and needed to be accompanied by activity dedicated to develop the ability to express meanings. The consequence of this pedagogic reform inspired experts to propose the use of task- based approaches (Prabhu, 1987; Nunan, 1989). The term refers to an approach characterized by the use of task as the vehicle of learning activities, Task-Based Approach is considered as a development of Communicative Language Teaching sharing some key features of the latter approach, since both of the approaches believe that activities that involve19 real communication and the use of meaningful language for carrying meaningful tasks are essential for language learning. There is no evidence, as it is argued, that grammar-focused instruction within a classroom reflects the cognitive processes employed in naturalistic language learning situation (Richards & Rodger, 2001, p. 223). Therefore, the concern is then to create a language learning opportunity which learners can be involved in a task where the role of the learners is as a language negotiator. This way, leamers may engage in a real and natural L2 acquisition setting, The approach itself draws heavily on the theory of language assuming that (Richards & Rodgers, ibid) 1. The central role of language is meaning. The same proposition is also stated by Skehan (1998, 95) as ‘meaning is primary and not concerned with language display’ 2, Language is based on multiple models: structural, functional, and interactional. In term’ of structure, language is seen as a linguistic constitution of less-to-more complex language items. Skehan (ibid) proposes that a task includes code complexity which and therefore a task should be employed from less to more difficult as the assumption of this statement is that one task will require simpler language than others. In the view of function, a task is ipally didactic and phatic which require the language use, language is relating to the function of language as a communicating tool, rather than to its form, as what often takes place in communication engagement. In the sense of interaction, language is seen as a social interaction activity in which learners try to negotiate for meaning from the language modification done by the target languagespeakers, It is to say that language acquisition is done through two-way interaction. Lexical units are essential for language use and learning. ‘his view shares similarities with the Natural Approach suggested by Krashen and Terrel (1983) which emphasize the importance of vocabulary suggesting an assumption that language is essentially its lexicon. Unlike the Natural Approach, however, task-based instruction includes the consideration of lexical phrases (grammatical units, fixed expressions), sentence stems, or collocation. The significance of putting lexical units to use is the view that negotiation of meaning as does occur is primarily le al (Foster, 1998) and native language speech processing is very frequently lexical in nature. Thus, learners’ fluency may improve if they rely more on lexicalized mode of communication ce the pressure of real time speech production will only be met by evading disproportional rule-based computation. (Skehan, 1996). Conversation is the fundamental focus of language and the underpinning of language acquisition. Task-based instruction deems that communication through spoken language is unreservedly important. The reason of this view is the fact that speaking is the most common channel used by all language speakers to convey meaning and the mastery of such a will ultimately lead learners to the acquisition of the target language. This explains why the majority of tasks applied within the framework of task- based instruction consist of conversation and include speaking activities, Activities encompass meaning to negotiate which would later on promote learning to take place.21 In the sense of learning theory, this approach assumes that tasks may provide input and output necessary for learning to take place since it is viewed that tasks foster language negotiation, modification, and experiment. Krashen (1985), in his notion about comprehensible inputs, highly believes that inputs that are slightly beyond learners’ current competence should help language acquisition. Within a task, learners have wider opportunities to experience such an input. This argument is in the line with Richard and Rodgers’ (2001, p. 229) statement which says that “learning difficulty can be negotiated and fine-tuned for particular pedagogical purposes”. An example of this might be the activity when learners are asked to solve a jigsaw puzzle. No matter how difficult the puzzle is, as long as the task carried out in the activity is sheer for improving learners’ linguistic knowledge, say, in giving instruction or direction (Put that one on the left. This little piece should be put next to the red one), learners’ L.2 improvement * is prospective. Tasks are also said to improve learners’ motivation in using the language and this refers to the necessary outcome provided by a task. As have been stated previously, tasks often involve collaboration among learners which would enhance learning outcome (Willis, ibid) and hence tolerating various communication styles. Tasks help learners to generate productive language since the accomplishing of a learning task is often as similar as doing a task in a real- world setting. The accomplishment of the task itself would reward learners with a sense of achievement, which in turn would give learners the feeling of satisfaction and therefore give them confidence in using the language in a broader context. Successful learning is then said to take place when learners are successful in completing a particular task using the target language and employ the target22 language carried out in the process of task completion into the real setting, for the general aim of TBI is to enable learners to obtain L2 proficiency through tasks, 3. The Implementation of TBI Ideally, TBI should be based on a careful analysis of learners’ specific needs in order that they are able to respond adequately to the real world setting. The result of the need analysis is then carried out in syllabus, types of learning activities, learners’, teachers’, and instruction roles. The next sub-chapter will try to describe those elements before we come to an example of what procedures TBI takes in its classroom implementation. a, Syllabus The syllabus in TBI is process-oriented where learning progress is very much taken into account and learners are assessed based on their own term of, success. However, structuring the syllabus, a syllabus designer should consider the two types of tasks (Nunan, 1989): 1. Real world tasks, tasks which are important to learners as they are likely to encounter them in the real world setting, The design should be based on the initial need analysis in order to maintain its usefulness. 2. Pedagogical tasks, tasks which are designed for the sake of learners’ learning and may not necessarily be significant when applied in real world use. Skehan (1996) identifies strong and weak forms of tasks which will be a sound guideline for syllabus designer in designing a TBI syllabus. A strong form of tasks argues that tasks should be the central unit of language teaching and everything else should be supplementary. In this view, tasks accomplishment is23 enough for leamers to develop their L2. A weak form of task-based instruction is the view that tasks are a vital part of language instruction, but that they are embedded in a more complex pedagogic context: they are crucial, but may come before focused instruction, and after use, may be followed by focused instruction which is contingent on task performance. b. Learning Activity In the framework of TBI, learning activity should always involve meaningful communication, both spontaneous and planned language use. Hence, ‘tasks selection should have elements which will incite authentic language use such as specific objectives, clear instructions and procedures (See Appendix A). Willis (1996) lists some possible activities, starting from less difficult to more difficult, like listing, ordering and sorting, comparing, problem solving, sharing personal experiences, and creative tasks (See Appendix B) The activities, if further explored, will reveal several other characteristics that involve learner-leamer interactions. Richards and Rodger (2001, pp. 234-235) describes the characteristics of the learning activities as: one-way or two-way, whether the task encompasses a one-way exchange of information or two way; collaborative or competitive, that is, whether students have to work together to accomplish the goal or compete with each other, simple or complex processing, that is, whether the task requires simple or complex cognitive processing; simple or complex language, that is, whether the task demands simple or complex language in accomplishment; reality or pedagogical based, that is, whether the task reflects a real world activity or pedagogical activity not found in the real world setting,24 In doing tasks, learners are ideally put up in a small group or in pair so that, low or uneven participation are prevented to take place as each learner may have sheer amount of speaking time and peer interactions. Even though this implies that teachers cannot supervise learners’ speech all the time, this gives learners opportunity to have language practice. Teachers can assure themselves that learners use the target language in sufficient amount when it comes to the phase where learners have to report what they have learn, e.g. in a form of presentation, written work, etc. ¢. Roles of Teacher, Learners, and Material Richards and Rodger (2001, pp. 235-237) offer several points of teacher, learners, and material roles in TBI. Some of the roles overlap with the roles as in _ Communicative Language Teaching since TBI is the logical development of Communicative Language Teaching, The central roles of teachers in TBI are as the selector, sequencer, adapter, or creator of tasks and form these into instructions in accordance with learners’ needs. Teachers should also prepare learners before they do the tasks by giving clear instructions, topic introduction, helping students learn or recall language points necessary for doing the tasks, providing usefull demonstration of how the tasks should be done, and conducting consciousness-raising tasks, Learners role are more central in the learning activity as in Communicative Language Teaching. In TBI, learners often play role as group participants since ‘most of the tasks are done in group or pair work, Learners should also monitor their own language, that is, they are not only to attend the language contained in the task and how to employ them in completing the task, but also the form in25 Which they come and how to use them, The most significant role of learners in ‘TBI is learners’ role as language risk-taker and innovator. Many tasks will require “earners to construct their own understanding on the task where learners themselves lack linguistic resources. However, this is said to be the point of task Learners can practice restarting, paraphrasing, giving and asking clarification, and develop their communicative competences in doing the tasks. It is to say that learners will have opportunity to experiment with language use without being worried about the new language they meet since the framework of TBI allow learners to have language focus phase where new language points are explained, Authentic materials have often been the vehicle in promoting learners’ language learning as they offer rich contents of language inputs necessary for the exposure, The use of realia such as authentic written resources (newspaper, magazines, etc), audio-visual resources (television or radio programs in the target language), or multimedia resource such as the Internet seem to be supportive to promote learning. For example, learners can be given a task about making job opportunity advertisement after seeing one in a newspaper; students can be given a task to choose the best place to get married after watching a documentary in Travel Channel about Top Ten Places to Get Married and give reasons of their choosing; or learners can find the most luxurious restaurants in the Net using three different search engines and then compare the results. However, teachers can also use adapted resources to help learners develop their language. Teachers can, for example, make up an imaginary situation (What will you do if you won ten million dollars?) and let learners work on the objectives.26 B, Theoretical Framework Learning methodology is evidently vital for learners to acquire an L2, as their access to UG has been lateralized and therefore partial. Hence, learning methodology it is the only mechanisms available for learners to acquire an L2 since it allows learners to have opportunities of language acquisition, Among current methodologies, TBI is seen as one of the most supportive for learners to learn an L2 since it provides learners with natural settings of L2 acquisition. TBI is also comprised of conditions necessary for language acquisition since it involves social, interpersonal, and interactional contexts in the approach. The implication of these notions is that leamers are prepared to engage not only in a pedagogical context but also in a real-world setting because of the language and learning theory adopted in TBI The application of TBI has also been proven to be successful by several proponents on that field (Prabhu, 1987, Willis, 1996; Foster & Skehan, 1996; Skehan & Foster, 1997; Robinson, 2001; Vilches, 2002; Martin, 2002; Mohamed, 2004). However, the implementation of TBI in local setting is still questionable, for TBI is utterly poles apart with the current language teaching approach, which in turns makes it worth researching. This current study tries to see the possible implementation of TBI in a local context through a qualitative stady, It is expected that, by deregulating the phenomenon, several themes and pattems ‘would naturally come into surface. This study also attempts to figure out factors contributing to the implementation of the instruction and explain the impact to the implementation of TBI by conducting a classroom activity in a framework of TBI and then observing it for further analysis. Once a working hypothesis is induced,27 more rigorous study may be applied in some other time in order to attain certainty of the findings.