Preliminary Chemistry Module 1: The

Chemical Earth
The living and non-living components of the Earth contain mixtures

1.2 Identify the difference between elements, compounds and mixtures

in terms of particle theory:

Element a pure substance composed of only one type of atom (and

cannot be further separated)
Compound a substance composed of two or more types of atoms
bonded together in a fixed ratio (and can be chemically separated into
the simpler chemicals)
Mixture Impure substances which contain a variety of elements and
compounds in a variable ratio

1.3 Identify that the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and

atmosphere contain examples of mixtures of elements and
compounds:

Biosphere refers to the part of the Earth where living things are
found, encompasses the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere,
examples of mixtures include: air (N2, O2, Ar), soil
Lithosphere is the crust and upper mantle of the Earth that contains
rock mixtures, some elements in these mixtures include: O, Si, Al, Fe
Hydrosphere is the liquid (water) part of the Earth, contains
mixtures of water such as: salt water, muddy water, and even
dissolved elements such as oxygen
Atmosphere Gaseous layer that encompasses the Earth, mixtures of
air which is a mixture of elements and compounds (such as CO2)

1.4 Identify and describe procedures that can be used to separate

naturally occurring mixtures of: solids of different sizes, solids and
liquids, dissolved solids in liquids, liquids, gases:

Solids of different sizes sieving, separating based on solubility

Solids and liquids filtration, sedimentation, decantation
Dissolved solids in liquids evaporating to dryness (like boiling),
evaporation
Liquids distillation, fractional distillation, separating funnel
Gases differences in boiling points (liquefying, then fractional
distillation), differences in solubilities in liquids (dissolving in water),
eg. LPG is separated into methane and ethane by a bubbler and 2
U-tubes
1.5 Assess separating techniques for their suitability in separating
examples of earth materials, identifying the differences in
properties which enable these separations:

1.6 Describe situations in which gravimetric analysis supplies useful

data for chemists and other scientists:

Gravimetric analysis is used to determine the mass and/or

percentage of different components in a sample (usually a mixture)
Scientists can use gravimetric analysis to determine the percentage of
pollutants in air
Chemists can use gravimetric analysis to determine the purity and/or
composition of different medicines

Although most elements are found in combinations on Earth, some

elements are found uncombined

2.1 Explain the relationship between the reactivity of an element and

the likelihood of its existing as an uncombined element:

The more reactive the element, the less likely it is of existing as an

uncombined element
This is because more reactive elements need to bond with other
elements in order to be stable
Gold (Au), Platinum (Pt) and the noble gases exist as uncombined
elements
 2.2 Classify elements as metals, non-metals and metalloids according to
their physical properties:

Metals Non-Metals Metalloids

Usually high MPs and Usually low MPs and Usually high to very high MPs and BPs
BPs BPs
Shiny Dull Shiny
Very hard or hard Brittle Brittle
Malleable Non-malleable Reactivity depends on properties of other elements in
reaction
Ductile Non-ductile Unique semi-conductor properties
Fine heat conductor Bad heat conductor Act like metals upon reaction with non-metals
Fine electricity Bad electricity Act like non-metals upon reaction with metals
conductor conductor
Solid Solids, Liquids and Variable chemical properties
Gases
Generally higher Generally lower
density density

2.3 Account for the uses of metals and non-metals in terms of their
physical properties:

Metals such as copper can be used for electrical wires because they
are generally ductile and good conductors of electricity
Helium is a gas that can be used in balloons as it is a gas at room
temperature and very light (and is a noble gas unreactive)

Elements in Earth materials are present mostly as compounds because of

interactions at the atomic level

3.1 Identify that matter is made of particles that are continuously

moving and interacting:

Matter is made up of particles that are continuously moving and

interacting
In solids, the particles are compact and vibrate
In liquids, the particles have more space between them and have
translational and vibrational motion (vibrate slightly and fill up what
its contained in)
In gases, the particles have a lot of energy, dont interact with each
other as much and have rapid translational motion

3.2 Describe qualitatively the energy levels of electrons in atoms:

There is less energy in electrons further away from the nucleus

Energy level: K shell n=1 row 1 2x12=2
L shell n=2 row 2 2x22=8
M shell n=3 row 3 2x32=18
N shell n=4 row 4 2x42=32
3.3 Describe atoms in terms of mass number and atomic number:

Mass number = protons + neutrons

Atomic number = protons = electrons (in neutral element)

3.4 Describe the formation of ions in terms of atoms gaining or losing

electrons:

Atoms attempt to fill their outer shells

Cation: Element -> Ion + e-
Anion: Element + e- -> Ion

3.5 Apply the Periodic Table to predict the ions formed by atoms of
metals and non-metals:

The number of valence electrons an atom has determines whether or

not it will form a cation or an anion
Atoms with 3 or less valence electrons (Group 1, 2, 3) are metals
form cations
Atoms with 5 or more valence electrons (Group 5, 6, 7) are generally
gases and form anions
The transition metals (may have more than one ion and) tend to have
a valency of 2 (Cr, Cu, Ag, Au have a valency of 1), forming cations
The valency of an atom is how many electrons an atom needs to gain
or lose to fill its outer shell
Noble gases dont form ions as they have a full outer shell

3.6 Apply Lewis electron dot structures to: the formation of ions and the
electron sharing in some simple molecules:
3.7 Describe the formation of ionic compounds in terms of the attraction
of ions of opposite charges:

When ionic bonding occurs, the newly formed cation and anion
attract each other (due to opposite electrostatic forces) and form an
ionic compound (held together by strong ionic bonds)

3.8 Describe molecules as particles that can move independently of each

other:

A molecule is the smallest particle of a substance that can have a

separate existence and can move independently of other molecules

3.9 Distinguish between molecules containing one atom (the noble

gases) and molecules containing more than one atom:

Monatomic molecules (noble gases) one atom in molecule, eg. Neon

Diatomic molecules two atoms in molecule, eg. Oxygen (O2)
Triatomic molecules three atoms in molecule, eg, Water
Tetratomic molecules four atoms in molecule, eg. Phosphorous (P4)

3.10 Describe the formation of covalent molecules in terms of sharing

electrons:

Covalent bonding occurs atoms share one or more pairs of electrons

to attain a stable configuration (full outer shell)
Covalent compounds are formed from covalent bonding and are
typically formed by non-metals
Covalent bonds are strong but the intermolecular forces between
them are weak

3.11 Construct formulae for compounds formed from: ions, atoms sharing
electrons:

Some ionic compounds include: Zinc Oxide ZnO,

Silver Nitrate AgNO3, Ammonium Chloride NH4Cl,
Lead (II) Sulphate PbSO4, Copper Sulphide CuS,
Aluminium Oxide Al2O3
Some common covalent compounds include: Water H2O,
Ammonia NH3, Methane CH4, Nitric Oxide NO, Chlorine Cl2,
Hydrogen H2
Energy is required to extract elements from their naturally occurring
sources

4.1 Identify the differences between physical and chemical change in

terms of rearrangement of particles:

The difference between a physical and a chemical change is that in a

physical change no new substance is formed whereas in a chemical
change a new substance is formed
Physical changes include: change of state, change of appearance,
dissolving a solid in a liquid, separating mixtures
Signs of a chemical change include: formation of a gas, formation of a
solid (precipitate), change in colour, significant change in
temperature, disappearance of a solid, an odour is produced

4.2 Summarise the differences between the boiling and electrolysis of

water as an example of the difference between a physical change and
a chemical change:

Electrolysis is the decomposing of a substance with an electric

current using electrodes in a liquid (or solution)
The differences between boiling water and the electrolysis of water
are: electrolysis produces two new substances whereas boiling
doesnt, electrolysis is difficult to reverse whereas boiling is easily
reversed and electrolysis requires much more energy than boiling

4.3 Identify light, heat and electricity as the common forms of energy
that may be released or absorbed during the decomposition or
synthesis of substances and identify examples of these changes
occurring in everyday life:

Light, heat and electricity are the common forms of energy released or
absorbed during a decomposition or synthesis reaction
Endothermic reactions absorb heat and exothermic reactions release
heat
Example of decomposition reaction in everyday life: when heat is
added to bicarbonate soda in baking, it is decomposed into sodium
carbonate, water and carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide causes the
dough to rise. 2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
Example of synthesis reaction in everyday life: the synthesis of
limestone from lime and carbon dioxide. Limestone is also known as
carbon carbonate and lime is also known as carbon oxide.
CaO + CO2 CaCO3
4.4 Explain that the amount of energy needed to separate atoms in a
compound is an indication of the strength of the attraction, or bond,
between them:

The stronger the chemical bonding in a compound, the more energy

that is required to break the compound into atoms
The stronger the chemical bonding in a compound, the more energy
that is released when a compound is formed from its atoms
Therefore the amount of energy needed to separate atoms in a
compound indicates the strength of the bonds between the atoms

The properties of elements and compounds are determined by their

bonding and structure

5.1 Identify differences between physical and chemical properties of

elements, compounds and mixtures:

Some physical properties include: lustre, hardness, ductility,

conductivity, malleability, etc
Some chemical properties include: reactivity, valency, etc

5.2 Describe the physical properties used to classify compounds as ionic

or covalent molecular or covalent network:

5.3 Distinguish between metallic, ionic and covalent bonds:

Metallic bonding is where a sea of delocalised electrons hold the metal

cations in a 3D array in the solid
Covalent bonding is where electrons are shared between atoms
Ionic bonding is where atoms give up electrons to each other to form ions
which bond with each other
5.4 Describe metals as 3D lattices of ions in a sea of electrons:

Metals bond by releasing their outer shell electrons to move freely

around the lattice structure of positive cations as a sea of delocalised
electrons
This bonding makes metals solids (except Hg), with high melting and
boiling points, malleable and ductile, generally good conductors of
electricity and heat (as liquids and solids) and typically hard.

5.5 Describe ionic compounds in terms of repeating 3D lattices of ions:

Ionic bonding forms crystals with the electrostatic attraction

extending throughout the entre lattice
This strong attraction makes ionic compounds hard but brittle (as if
two opposite charges are forced together they repel shattering)
This also makes ionic compounds unable to conduct electricity as the
ions are not free to move
When dissolved in water, the ions are broken up, allowing the ions to
move towards an electrode and hence conducting electricity

5.6 Explain why the formula for an ionic compound is an empirical

formula:

In ionic compounds the formulae specify the rations in which the ions
are present, not the composition of discrete molecules
This means that by definition the formulae for ionic compounds are
empirical formulae (because there are no molecules, so they tell the
ratio by atoms of elements)

5.7 Identify common elements that exist as molecules or as covalent

lattices:

Some elements that exist as molecules: H2, O2, N2, Br2 (liquid),
I2 (solid), P4, S8
Some elements that exist as covalent lattices: C (diamond or
graphite), the semi-metals B, Si, Ge, As, Sb and Te form what is
basically consider to be a covalent lattice though their bonding
electrons are not as firmly localised as in diamond
 5.8 Explain the relationship between the properties of conductivity and
hardness and the structure of ionic, covalent molecular and covalent
network structures:
Structural feature in Ionic Lattice Physical property determined by structure in
Ionic Lattice
Strong ionic bonds throughout the crystal. A lot of energy is High melting and boiling points. Hard.
needed to break these bonds. Crystalline
Heating makes the ions vibrate. This breaks the bonds and the Good electrical conductors when molten
ions are then free to move and carry the current.
Water moves between the ions, pushing them apart and Good electrical conductors when in solution
breaking the ionic bonds. The ions are then free to move and
carry the electric charge.
Ions are held in fixed positions by strong ionic bonds that Poor electrical conductors when in solid.
extend throughout the lattice. The ions can only vibrate, they
are not free to move and carry out the charge.

Structure features in Covalent Molecular Physical property determined by structure in

Covalent Molecular
No free electrons, no free ions present Poor conductors of electricity in all states
Weak dispersion forces between molecules result Not hard
in low boiling points so usually gases at room
temperature

Structural feature in Covalent Network Physical property determined by structure

in Covalent Network
No free electrons, no ions present Poor conductors electricity in all states
Strong covalent bonds that extend throughout the lattice Hardness

Structural feature in Metallic Lattice Physical property determined by

structure in Metallic Lattice
Outer shell electrons are delocalised (not held in Good conductor of electricity
place by an atom) and thus they are mobile and free
to carry charge
Strong metallic bonds between the positive metal High melting and boiling points. Hard
ions and the sea of negatively charged delocalised
electrons. A lot of energy is needed to break these
metallic bonds
The mobile, delocalised outer shell electrons can Good conductor of heat
carry heat
The rows of metallic ions in the lattice can slide over Malleable and ductile
each other without coming apart or disrupting the
bonds
The sea of delocalised electrons reflect light Shiny lustre