LEGAL MEDICINE PPT + Discussion JULY 15, 2017

DEATH INVESTIGATION
Objectives
Main objectives: To acquire knowledge about the investigation of death and significance of a
medico legal autopsy
Specific objectives:
1. To express the objectives of a death investigation
2. To identify the types of death that require investigation in the Philippines and
compare these with other countries
3. To identify the members of a death investigation team and discuss the
functions of the team.
4. To explain the aspects of the death investigation process. Particularly the
medico-legal autopsy
5. To describe the contents of a medico-legal report
6. To explain the use of the medico-legal autopsy to the legal system.

* As we can see here, death investigation is not what you think of the police. The
medical examiner must be part of the investigation and both should apply
forensic science to their investigation and that's what you call your crime scene
investigation. And remember, the body is a crime scene--not only the place
where you find the body but also the body itself is a crime scene.
*These are the objectives for this topic. Important to acquire the knowledge of
what death investigation and the relevance about autopsy. So very important is
that you should what the aspects of the death investigation causes with,
particularly what consists of a medico-legal autopsy. Because if you read,
because for now, the medico - legal autopsy that we are doing is being done, at
least here in Cebu is not the standard medico-legal autopsy. You should know
that. With your knowledge, the standard not being that, it's up to you how to
use the knowledge. Are you going to accept what standard or what's not
standard. So that's the challenge for you.
* I don't who's going to be if youre in the defense, or side of the victim, it's up to
you. But I'm going to tell you now, the medico-legal autopsy is really that, at the
present time, at least in Cebu City is not what the standard should be.

Death investigation

To identify and develop an understanding of death (natural, unnatural, unlawful)

Clinical death investigation
Medico-legal investigation
Natural death, MD signs death certificate dispose the body
Unnatural death or no MD can complete a death certificate investigate and certify the death,
Deaths that cannot be certified by a MD are examined by a variety of legal officers

o Coroners
 o Procurators fiscal (inquest officer)
o Medical examiners
o Magistrates judges
o Police officers

*Of course death must be investigated because I said very importantly the first thing
is to identify who that person is. And then, we would also understand how that
person died. Not only what caused the death but how that cause came to be.
*There are 2 types 1) Clinical death investigation and 2) Medico-legal investigation
*Clinical death investigation - happens in hospitals, in academic institutions where
you need to learn about why that person has died; could be also for research
*Medico-legal investigation - has something to do with the resorts(?) having to be
applied in a legal process
*We all know when a doctor signs a death certificate with natural disease-- that
body can be disposed of.
*Most of the time, almost 100%, death certificates would be signed
cardiopulmonary arrest. Everybody dies on cardiopulmonary arrest no matter
what--na accident ka ba, homicide, natural death--everybody dies on
cardiopulmonary arrest. So what's happening right now, we're slowly training
the doctors not to put cardiopulmonary arrest, we're teaching them now to put
what caused the cardiopulmonary arrest--the immediate cause of the
cardiopulmonary arrest.
*Unnatural death or no MD can complete a death certificate, then the death must
be investigated. Abroad they call those who investigate death, they call them
coroners, procurators, medical examiners, magistrate judges, and police
officers.

Medicolegal Cases (Phil.)

1. Deaths involving persons who have no means of being identified
2. Persons pronounced as dead on arrival
DOA at the ER
Death within a short period (1-24hrs) from arrival
Cases where Autopsy is Performed (Section 95(b), Code of Sanitation of the Phil. Or PD No. 856)
*In Med-al/Mental/(Maybe a place or something?), I believe they have extensive training on
doing death investigation. According to code of sanitation, these are the cases where autopsy is
performed:

Whenever required by special laws

Upon orders of a competent court, a mayor and a provincial or city fiscal
Upon written request of police authorities
Whenever the solicitor general, provincial or city fiscal as authorized by existing laws, shall
deem it necessary to disinter and take possession of remains for examination to determine the
cause of death
 Whenever the nearest kin shall request in writing the authorities concerned to ascertain the
cause of death

*But unfortunately, it is the nearest kin that's always asked of permission, even if the case is
suspected murder. They will ask the nearest kin. Unfortunately here in our country, we don't
have what we call mandated autopsy. As far as the police also, they do not know these other
means of getting the permission and order to have the body autopsied. They don't know these.
Medicolegal Cases (Phil.)

3. Deaths under the ff. circumstances:

Unexpected sudden death especially when the deceased was in apparent good
health
Death due to natural disease but associated with physical evidence suspicious of
foul play
Death as a result of violence, accident, suicide or poisoning
Death due to improper or negligent act of another person.

* As we said suicide is not investigated. This might change right now, I don't know if
you've seen it. She live streamed her death. But who set up the camera/gadget? Di
ba, who turned it on or who positioned it? Di ba you're going to pose2x in front of it
to make sure you're in it. *chika about the girl who live streamed her death;
suddenly child appears; who turned off the video*

Deaths Which Require Investigation (CDC Regulations, 1998)

Types of death that fall under the jurisdiction of a coroner/medical examiner:
o Non-natural deaths, accidents, suicides, homicides
o Suspicious deaths
o Sudden and unexpected deaths
o Unattended deaths
o Deaths which occurred in custody
o Deaths of persons whose bodies are to be cremated, dissected or buried at sea
o Deaths related to disease resulting from employment or to accidents on the job.
o Deaths related to disease that might constitute a threat to public health.

*So abroad, aside from that, they investigate death occurring in a custody. We have
deaths (?) in jails and I don't know why. Is it because of tb? Aids? Drugs? Because
I've been referred, teenagers ha, they've been rushed to government hospital, with
very rapid heart rates. Why should they have very rapid heart rates? No one will
save you an autopsy. It's not being investigated.
*When persons are to be cremated or dissected or buried at sea, why do you think the
other families, they have to investigate their deaths? What happens when you're
 cremated? You turn to ash and there's no body to look. It's going to be difficult
already noh.

*This is from a book I found, sent to me by a publisher:

Death Investigation Team (U.S.)
Coroner
Medical examiner
Forensic autopsy technicians
Investigate scenes
Investigate backgrounds
Conduct examinations in the laboratory
Obtain evidence
Consult with concerned parties
Testify in court
Death investigation team (PHIL)
Medical examiner
Forensic autopsy technicians *and these are the jobs they do:

Investigate scenes
Investigate backgrounds
Conduct examinations in the laboratory
Obtain evidence
Consult with concerned parties

Testify in court

*Funnily, it didn't even mention about doing an autopsy. There's nothing mentioned
about the body to be investigated.
* The term forensic autopsy technician was foreign to me so I asked Dr. Fortun who
trained in the US to be a forensic pathology because she would have worked with
this US death investigation.
*Forensic autopsy technician - embalmer; they're not part of the team at all.
*But in the Philippines, they are important part of the team because practically they're
the ones who cut up the body.
*Would they be in the scene of the crime? I've never heard of a medical examiner going
to the scene of the crime. They're all in Manila. Would they have the money to send
the facility?
*But yea they will testify in court. The medical examiner--they would not do
investigation/determination of the scene of the crime but will testify on court.

Death Investigation *these questions must be answered:

o Who died? (identification of the deceased) *most important

o Where? (place of death) *he may have been removed
o When? (time of death)
o Why? (cause of death)
o How? (manner and mechanism of death) *very important

Aspects of the death investigation process:

1. Scene
o Attendance by police officers, CID, family doctor, police surgeon, forensic
pathologist, forensic scientists
o Aim: to collect the maximum of information with the minimum of disturbance
o Photography, videos, trace evidence
*If we have to look at the scene, collect as much evidence as much as possible.
Pictures, videos to trace evidence.
2. History
o Social from relatives, friends, police
o Medical from GP, hospital notes. Often indicates the likely cause of death
*Medical examiners must interview people about the dead person--what kind of
life he had, medical records, mental records
3. The medico-legal autopsy
Postmortem examination, necropsy
Greek word, autopsia, to see with ones own eyes
The scientific examination of a dead body *the only way to know how a
person died is by doing a complete autopsy
Performed primarily to determine the cause of death and to identify diseases
states present
Academic institutions
Teaching and research purposes
forensic autopsies
o determine if a given death was an accident, homicide, suicide or
natural event
*It's the manner of death, it's the how that person died is very
important. That would give you information as to what case should
you deal with. Is it natural death? Accident? Homicide? Suicide?

Persons authorized to perform autopsy

Health officers
Medical officers of law enforcement agencies
Members of the medical staff of accredited hospitals
*It doesn't even say that they have to be trained. Unfortunately the law does not
indicate that they should have formal training in doing an autopsy. Maybe because
 before, a long time ago, just because you're a doctor, automatically you know how
to do autopsy--that's wrong.

Autopsy
Can be performed by any doctor
Ideally, should be performed by a properly trained pathologist
Medico-legal autopsies are a specialized version of the standard autopsy
Medico-legal autopsies are a specialized version of the standard autopsy
o Should be performed by pathologist who had the necessary training
and experience in mortuary with adequate facilities.
*A pathologist would be the best person

Medico-Legal autopsy
Performed on behalf of the state
Aims: to identify the body
To estimate the time of death
To identify and document the nature and number of injuries
To interpret the significance and effect of the injuries
To identify the significance and effect of the natural disease present
To identify the presence of poisons
To interpret the effect of any medical or surgical treatment
*If you can see, there's so many questions to answer when you do an autopsy to a body, so
meaning your autopsy report cannot just be 1 or 2 pages.

*So what consists of a medical autopsy? (below)

External examination
examination of the outside of the body (paying close attention to the presence
of injury or stigmata of disease)
collection of any trace evidence which may be present
*From the clothing; collection of any trace evidence is very important but
unfortunately we don't have a forensic science here to determine
*What are trace evidence? Fibers being carried underneath the nails, hair that
could have been dragged, any soil that could determine if the body was
moved. And then from the outside you go towards the inside.
Internal examination
Examination and dissection of internal organs
To identify and document injuries
To identify and document natural disease
*The body is cut up, different organs are removed and laid.
 Laboratory examination
Examination of retained tissues, fluids, weapon fragments, etc.
*These organs are further cut up into slices because they have to undergo what we
call histopathologic examination under the microscope in the laboratory.

IDENTIFICATION OF DECEDENT
Body must be identified to the pathologist as the decedent for whom autopsy authority has
been given.
o Identification in 2 doctor autopsies is performed in front of the two
doctors performing the autopsy
*There should be 2 doctors to whom the body should be identified.
Initial (provisional) identification may be:
o visual (relatives) *face
o circumstancial (address, car, papers, cards, keys, clothes)
o medical (scars, teeth, x-rays, DNA)
Permanent record is made of the method of formal identification:
o Personal (name, title, address)
o Body tag (record all details)
o Accompanying documentation
PERSONAL EFFECTS AND CLOTHING
Examination of the personal effects and clothing is an integral part of the medico-legal
autopsy
Provides information on
o Life style
o Events leading to death
o Often, actual cause of death
List of jewelry, valuables, and personal effects
Listed description of the clothing
o Type of garment, color, fabric type
o Location, if disarranged
o Wet/moist/dry
o Stains (blood, vomit, feces, urine, semen, dirt, oil, soot, etc)*stain on John F
Kennedy's shirt
o Damage (holes,cuts, tears)
Clothing findings are correlated with historical and scene information
o Appropriateness of clothing
o Source of stains
o trace materials
clothing findings must also be correlated with other autopsy data
o injuries
o source of blood stains
 *like for example there's a bullet hole on this part so they have to look for a bullet
entry in the back of the person who was shot

EXTERNAL EXAMINATION
detailed head to be examination of the naked body *examined naked from head to to;
everything is peeled off layer by layer; everything must be documented
documenting
o stains and soiling
o general and specific individualistic characteristics
o post-mortem changes (temperature, lividity, rigor mortis, putrefaction)
*On post-mortem changes, we will have one topic of this
EXTERNAL EXAMINATION
o location, extent and type of staining or soiling of the body are described
*position of the body at death, if it was moved
o dual flow pattern of blood from a wound
o High velocity impact blood spatter from the gunshot wound
o Coffee grounds vomitus and melena
o Antiseptic from medical intervention
*In crime scene laboratory we even have experts who we call splatter experts, so
okay somebody was shot, this was how the bullet entered the body, this was
how it exited, and then the fabric shows blood splatter on the wall.
*The blood splatter experts, they are able to determine how far that person was
from the wall. The angle of exit of the bullet. Just by analysing the splatter on the
wall.
*We don't have that unfortunately.
GENERAL BODY CHARACTERISTICS
Racial group
Height, weight
Head hair (color, dyed, length, style, balding)
Eyes (color, pupil size, conjunctival congestion or petechial hemorrhages, jaundice, prosthesis
Nose and ear canals (blood,pus)
Earlobes (piercing, earlobe creases)
Face (hirsute woman, clean shaven, beard, mustache)
Mouth (vomit, blood, tablet, debris, teeth, dentures)
Breasts (normally developed, atrophic, hirsute)
Genitalia (pubic hair pattern, circumcised, palpable testes)
Feet (general hygiene, bunions, ingrowing nails)

Specific identifying characteristics

Tattoos (location,design, color, names)

Scars (surgical and non-surgical, needle, tracks, striae)
Skin lesions (nevi, senile keratoses, other skin diseases)
 Prosthesis
Pacemaker

Post-mortem changes

body temperature to touch (alternatively state if body has been refrigerated)

rigor mortis (extent and degree)
hypostatic lividity (distribution, dual pattern, color, contact pallor)
putrefactive changes

Injuries (evidence of injury)

described systematically either by grouping the according to

o anatomical location (e.g. right arm, anterior chest, left leg)
o numerical order (e.g. where the number of injuries is few or where each
and every injury is particularly important as in multiple stab wounds
if numbered, it is stated that the order of numbering does not
imply sequence of infliction or degree of severity.
described as to their type: e.g. abrasion, bruise, laceration, incised wound,
puncture or stab wound, gunshot wound, burn, fracture
described with regard to their location, size, shape, and color
Location of the wound is given by
o General description (e.g. on the left side of the face, over the rib cage,
immediately below the left breast)
o Precise location in relation to fixed anatomical landmarks (analogous to
latitude and longitude)
*Use landmarks, orbital ridge, 2cm to the left of the orbital ridge something
like that

LOCATION SUITABLE VERTICAL LANDMARKS

CROWN
ORBITAL RIDGE
SUPRASTERNAL NOTCH
SUPERIOR ANTERIOR ILIAC CREST
SUPERIOR MARGIN OF THE PUBIC SYMPHYSIS
HEEL
INTERNAL INJURIES
Described in continuity with the apparent injuries
Bruising and abrasion to the chest, then the fractured ribs, then the lacerated lung and
hemothorax
SIGNS OF MEDICAL INTERVENTION
 Described under a different subheading
Includes all medical equipment attached to, or accompanying, the body
Urinary catheters
Endotracheal tube
Rods for external fixation of fractures
External surgical incisions
o Described in continuity with the internal evidence of surgery
INTERNAL EXAMINATION
Systematic description of natural disease
Does not include recent injuries which have been previously described under the appropriate
heading
Negative observations are included
no pulmonary thrombo-emboli
no significant coronary artery atherosclerosis
no skull fracture
OTHER EXAMINATION
special dissections are described *may be needed
o neck dissections *not routinely done because during the wake the necks are
seen; but if the dead person was strangulated and they want to find out if the
cause of death was really strangulation then they have to cut up the neck
o further examination of organs, e.g. brain after formalin fixation
o microscopic studies
o biochemical studies
o toxilogical studies

AUTOPSY REPORT
Autopsy procedure and microscopic findings
List of diagnosis
Summary of the case
Opinion (conclusion or commentary)
Emphasizes the relationship or correlation between clinical findings (the MDs
examination, laboratory tests, radiology findings,etc.) and pathologic findings
(those made from the autopsy)

*His opinion must correlate his clinical findings with the pathologic findings from the autopsy
*Clinical findings: external examination on the body together with the scene of the crime,
history, information--and correlate these with what he found during the autopsy including the
microscopic findings
*The final diagnosis of the disease can only be made from a microscopic study. You cannot
make a diagnosis by just looking at your lung. You need a piece of your lung to be seen under
the microscope to be able to say yes this is pneumonia.
 OPINION (conclusion or commentary)
Interpretative and subjective
Representing the opinion of the author
Includes the cause of death as appearing on the death certificate
Brings together all the relevant information obtained from
Examination of the body
Scene of the death
History of the decedent
*As you can see, the autopsy report cannot be only 1 or 2 pages

OPINION (Conclusion or commentary)

Information obtained second-hand (hearsay) may be included

Police reports
Medical reports
Fire investigation reports

Relevant issues are addressed *must answer to these questions:

what happened
to who
when
where
why
how

Cause of death

The disease process or injury responsible for initiating the train of events, brief or
prolonged, which produces the fatal end result

Mechanism of death

The physiologic or biochemical derangement produced by the above cause, which is

incompatible with life, i.e. how the disease or injury leads to death
 *What was his biological derangement, what was his physiological derangement
that happened that made him die in the end--that is called mechanism of death.

Manner of death the fashion or mode in which the cause of death came into being:

Natural
Accident
Suicide
Homicide
Undetermined

*This refers to how did the cause come into being? Natural, accident, homicide,
undetermined?
*The medical examiner will only be able to state any of these depending on putting
together the information from the scene of the crime, history of the dead
person, and the autopsy of the dead person.

OPINION (Conclusion or commentary)

Cause Mechanism Manner

Atherosclerosis coronary artery Electrical arrythmia or heart

disease failure Natural

Stab wound
Internal or external blood Homicide, suicide, or accident

hanging Asphyxia suicide

Strangulation asphyxia homicide

*For example, somebody collapses suddenly, an autopsy is done, and it was found out in the
person's history that's he's overweight, doesn't exercise, loves to eat, a couch potato, stress in
life and all that (Somebody commented, I think Maye: law student man na), high cholestorol,
diabetes. An autopsy is done and they find in the heart that the arteries are clogged. So under
the microscope, they find that this person has coronary artery disease. So what happened?
Why did he suddenly collapsed? Most likely, he had what we call a reptical arrythmia--the
rhythm of the heart is in haywire. It was so so irregular that the heart did not put up enough
 blood causing you to collapse. So there's no blood going to your brain, no blood to climb the
heart muscles, so your heart will stop beating, so you collapse. Since it's coronary artery
disease, then the manner of death is natural. (Please look at table above)

*Stab wound. What happens when you stab? There's a hole, and when there's a hole what
happens? So a lot of blood loss and if it's not replaced of course you will die. So how did the
stab wound come to be? Scene of the crime again. So it can either be homicide, suicide (person
was still holding the knife, leaving a suicide letter), or an accident (somebody fell on the knife
that was upright or something like that lol). Very important in the manner of death, if you look
at the scene of the crime in the investigation is the location of the degree(?). So of course if it's
at the back, cannot be reached by the person. Why is the term murder not here? What's the
difference between homicide and murder? Qualifying circumstance? Showing what? Intent.
You cannot see intent in the wound. The medical examiner cannot see that intent. It's the
police and the investigators who will look for that intent that's why we do not say murder.

*When you hang yourself, you die of asphyxia--no oxygen to the brain. So that's suicide.

*Strangulation--around the neck or simply around the head; you also die of asphyxia, of course
you don't self-strangulate. You hang yourself, that's also strangulation, but by hanging--I mean
it's so hard to strangulate yourself you know. So that would be homicide unless you accidently
hang all your clothes (?)

*So this is really very important--the manner of death. If you're going to look at autopsy report-
-why, if somebody dies now, if an autopsy is done there's already a report tomorrow. But
there's no manner of death stated. There's none.

OPINION (Conclusion or commentary)

May be as brief or as detailed as the need dictates
Directed to the law officer investigating the death and any other legally interested parties
who may obtain access to the report subsequently
AUTHOR/MEDICAL EXAMINER
Original signature
may include relevant degrees and other qualifications

*So unfortunately according to Dr. Fortun, our probes are not science-based. They are coupled
with a policy of no aggressive complainant = no case.
*Practice of relying on witnesses
*So we have a defective system of investigating murder and homicides because we rely on
witnesses. Oh like this one they rely on a 2 year old:
 CASE *real case
2 year old girl CA died on a Monday morning
Apparently well 4 days prior to her death, the following day she didnt feel well and
complained of vague abdominal pain. She stayed in bed, ate what was fed to her. Two days
before she died, she refused to eat. She continued to complain of abdominal pain. Her mother
noted her abdomen to become disintended. Still refusing to eat the next day,her mother's live
in boyfriend beat her with a piece of doubled-over electric wire. The child died the ff day.
mother's live in boyfriend was arrested and imprisoned. He was charged for violating RA 7610
The autopsy report concluded that the child died of pneumonia
Manner of death: no report

*The mother did not believe that the child died of pneumonia. So she called for help. So we were
able to find Dr. Fortun. She did an autopsy. Why do you think the mother did not believe that
the child did not die of pneumonia? (class answer: no fever, child was beaten, complained
abdominal pain) Pneumonia has nothing to do with abdominal pain. If she had pneumonia what
would she have? Cough, fever, and then of course if not treated it will progress into respiratory
stress even gas(something) towards the end, was there such a history? None.

*So Dr. Fortun did an autopsy a week after her burial and she asked for the medico legal officer
from Cebu to join us. And the one who stayed behind was the guy who autopsied the child. As
soon as Dr. Fortun cut open the chest, he told her "you know when I opened the chest, there
was so much pus that flowed out from the lungs". There's no such as thing as pus coming out
from the lungs in pneumonia.

*So she cut up and remove and weigh each organs. And then apparently the child was physically
abused--there were bruises on the body--she also cut up the bruises and check.

*She found something abnormal along the rib. She told the medico officer at that time "can you
please feel this" because she was going to cut it up and look it up under the microscope to see
if this is a fracture. So "can you feel this and so you'll know this is not normal". She also told the
embalmer to feel it.

*So what did she find out exactly? The child complained of abdominal pain so where will you
concentrate? To the abdomen. So what we found out there was that the child's intestines--you
know there's telescope that you can shorten? with one end going inside the other end--your
intestines can do that especially if its attachments are not very strong. So intestine scoped into
itself. We call it intussusception. So when a telescope is in itself it causes an obstruction. So you
have intestinal obstruction. So if you intestinal obstruction what's going to happen? Will you
still eat? No because no food is anymore going through right? So what happens to your
abdomen also? So what happens after the obstruction, it is going to be secreting fluids.
*And of course you die, because of the obstruction, she wasn't eating, she became dehydrated,
and when you become dehydrated, we have what we call metabolic imbalances. And this
dehydration and metabolic imbalances will kill you.

*Cause of death: Intussusception.

*Mechanism of death: Dehydration and metabolic imbalances
*Manner of death: Homicide

*Why not natural? Because they could have brought her to the hospital but the man refused to
bring the child to the hospital. If she was brought to the hospital, get the surgery done, the
child would have lived. It was the man who did not want to bring the child to the hospital.
*So that's how it should be done. If it's pneumonia lang, then the man would just be released. No
justice for the child. Kasi pneumonia eh, what's your case? None right?
*So now, I challenge you, you're the lawyers, I encourage you to challenge the qualifications of the
doctor doing the autopsy. And did they do a standard autopsy, or was it just an external
examination? Did they go to the scene of the crime?

*If they interviewed the mother, okay fine, she may have not done something, but she may have
been an accessory. Interview the mother--complete immunization, if they're complete we know
the child was not neglected. Because these immunizations are given for free already in the
health centers so there's no need for them to refuse because they're not paying for anything.
You also ask, when was the child last seen by the doctor? About 2 or 3 weeks ago because she
had cough and cold. So meaning the mother was really caring for her child.

*So this is how you go about it. There's no justice for this child actually. I don't know what
happened to the man.

DEATH INVESTIGATION
*We need:
Competent law enforcement
Competent medical death investigation and forensic pathology
Competent forensic science
Competent public health system
POOR PERFORMANCE BY ANY ONE OF THESE ELEMENTS ABSOLUTELY IMPAIRS DEATH DEATH
INVESTIGATION
IT IS ONLY THE PATHOLOGIST WHO HAS THE FORMAL TRAINING AND EXPERIENCE IN
PERFORMING AN AUTOPSY

*Yung mga tokhang, the police will claim that they shot first, but we have seen the victims,
who saw close-up shooting. What will the PNP doctors report? Will they describe the injuries as
close-up contact? There are different characteristics for a contact--near-contact, long distant
shooting.
*Dr. Poca said that victims of rape/vawc should be covered by philhealth because sila pa ang
mugasto basta mag pa medical sila. Looy kayo sila kay sila mu bayad sa ila medical examination
na sila wala may sala.
Legal Medicine PPT August 5, 2017

INJURIES FROM FIREARMS

Main Objective: To recognize the forensic importance of injuries from firearms and explosives.

Specific Objectives:
1. To differentiate the injuries that results from firearms and explosives.
2. To discuss the principles and methods in the investigation of injuries and deaths from
firearms and explosives.

FIREARM
A weapon that fires either single or multiple projectiles propelled at high velocity velocity
by the gases produced through rapid, confined burning of a propellant.
Any object sent through space by the application of a force
Bullets, pellets or shot made of metal (usually lead)
Designed to deform and fragment inside a target significant damage

TWO BASIC CATEGORIES OF FIREARMS

1. Artillery pieces
Large pieces mounted on a movable carriage with barrel bores up to 18 inches
Range of accuracy ~ 42km

1. Small Arms
Generally small, very portable with a barrel bore of up to about 0.50 inch
Aimed visually at their targets using sights
Range of accuracy < 1 mile (1.6km)
2 kinds: rifled weapon (pistol,rifle)

Rifled Weapons: Handgun/Pistol

Fire one projectile at a time through a barrel that has spiral grooves (4-6)

Handgun

After bullet is fired, the brass case which contains the explosive remains in the
cylinder
Automatic
After a bullet is fired, the empty cartridge case is automatically ejected to the
ground several feet away
CSI: look for empty cartridges which can help identify the type of automatic used.

Small Arms Ammunition (Round/cartridge)

 Catridge: packages the bullet, gunpowder and primer into a single metallic case precisely
made to fit the firing chamber of a firearm
1. Cartridge case: expands and seals chamber against rearward escape of gases
2. Primer: explodes on compression igniting the propellant
Centerfire centrally placed primer assembly comprising primer cup ( struck by
firing pin), primer, anvil with flash holes
Rimfire no primer assembly. Primer spun into rim of cartridge case ( rim struck
by firing pin) and in contact with propellant
3. Propellant: burns to produce large volumes of gases under pressure
Composed of smokeless powder (black powder in the past)
4. Bullet: part of the cartridge which exits the muzzle
Lead bullets
Revolvers, .22 caliber rimfire ammunition, . 22 caliber high velocity rimfire
ammunition
metal-jacketed bullets
semi-automatic pistols, high velocity rifles

Description of Gunshot Wounds

Firing of a weapon
Smoke, flame, gases of combustion
Portion of unburned, burning and burnt propellant
Follow the projectile; may also precede them
Will soil hands or clothing
Important: accurate description and location of the wounds sustained
Help indicate the circumstances surrounding the shooting
Description of entrance and exit wounds, their number
Caliber and type of weapon used
Severity of the assault

Skin Surface Characteristics of Gunshot Wounds

Term Synonyms Cause

Skin defect Permanent cavity Passing of the projectile
through the skin (a)
Abraded Margin Abrasion collar, marginal Forward motion of bullet
abrasion, contusion ring, indenting the skin and
abrasion ring abrading the margin of entry
wound (b)
Micro- tears High velocity centerfire rifle
bullets tend to produce these
rather an abrasion ring
 Grey ring Contact ring, bullet wipe Lubricant and debris on bullet
surface wiped off onto the
wound edge
Smudging Fouling, blackening Deposition of soot from
partially burnt gases
Tattooing Involuntary tattooing, Unburned, partially burned
stippling, peppering and burning propellant grains
abrading and embedding in
skin (sine qua non of
intermediate/close/near
range)
Singeing Branding burning Hot gases from muzzle at
close range
Muzzle impression Muzzle contusion, muzzle Skin impact against muzzle
imprint produced by discharge gases
or temporary cavity
formation in contact and near
contact wounds

Entrance Wounds: Rifled firearm

Firing weapon bullet, hot gases from exploding gun powder, metal fragments from
bullet and gun barrel propelled out of the muzzle at the same time

Contact Range (Rifled firearm)

Muzzle target distance

Muzzle in contact with body (or a very short distance a few cms from body)
Wound characteristics
Edges seared by gases and blackened by soot and propellant (baked into skin)
More or less a concentric or eccentric seared blackened zone around wound
More or less soot deposition in a wider band around wound (can be wiped off)
Soot, propellant, vaporized bullet, primer and cartridge case metals and CO
in/along wound track

Entrance Wounds: Rifle firearm

Contact wounds over bony supported skin

Expansion and tearing of tissues by gases being blown into the wound stellate
or lacerated appearance
Clothing, body and head hair will show evidence of singeing and stippling, etc.
Assists in the interpretation of wounds, estimation of range of fire.
Contact Range (Rifled firearm)

Hard Contact
Muzzle- target distance: muzzle jammed hard against skin
Wound characteristics
Edges seared by gases and blackened by soot and propellant (baked into skin)
Loose contact
Muzzle- target distance: muzzle in light but complete contact with skin
Wound characteristics
Soot deposition in band around wound (can be wiped off)

Close Range (intermediate, near)

Muzzle-target distance
Muzzle to target distance within about arms length, i.e., 3 feet
Wound characteristics
Sine qua non is individual, red- brown to orange-red propellant grain tattooing
Eccentric if muzzle at angle to skin
May be blocked by hair or clothing;
Post mortem is moist grey or yellow

Distant (Rifled firearm)

Muzzle-target distance
Muzzle to target distance greater than about 3 feet
Wound characteristics
Produced by mechanical action of bullet penetration of skin only, i.e., skin defect
typically with abroad with abraded margin

Exit wound (handgun/rifle)

Usually everted with split flaps stellate appearance
Absence of burning, smoke, or powder soiling
Fragmented or distorted bullet larger and more irregular exit wound
Fragments of bullet or bone may produce multiple exit wounds.
Exit wound in area where skin is firmly supported (e.g., by a belt, tight clothing, leaning
against a partition wall)
o May be as small as the entrance wound
o May fail to show the typical eversion
o May also show a rim of abrasion which is commonly broader than that of as an
entry wound.
Shotgun
Firearm with a smooth bored barrel designed to fire multiple pellets and to be fired from
the shoulder
Designed to quickly hit a moving target and are pointed
Has large impact area with less range (30-50m) and accuracy
 Types: single shot, over and under, double barrel, bolt action, lever action, pump action,
auto loading

Shotgun Shell
Cartridge (cylindrical) with a plastic or cardboard tube and a brass base (containing the
percussion cap)
Contains a mass of about300 tiny lead shots held in place by a disc of wad.
Wad acts as a piston to propel the shot down the barrel
Bottom of the cylinder is the explosive powder
Center of the cartridge is the detonator
Leaves the barrel as a composite missile compound becoming separate individual shots
as the missile moves farther down the barrel

Shotgun wounds: entrance wounds

Firing of shotgun the shot and wadding travel down the barrel and exit the muzzle in a
concentrated mass large contact entrance hole with significant damage to the margins
and gunshot residue deposits
Close-range (< 5 ft) wounds
Produce single, large defect approximating the weapon bore
May have a rectangular contusion from the plastic cup that holds the shot
Muzzle imprint is common
Loose contact or interposed clothing produces soot smudging
CO produces cherry-red discoloration of underlying muscle
Close range tattooing begins at about 1-2cm and is always lost by about 36-40in;
it is less dense than with handguns
Intermediate range (5-10 ft) wounds
Have a central defect produced by the shot and wadding with surrounding lead
shot wounds.
Wadding material will be blown into the wound tract with the pellets
Long-range (>10ft) wounds
Shot mass starts to break up multiple smaller wounds from individual pellets
around the edge of an entrance hole.
Wadding may or may not enter the victim
o As the wadding slows down separate trajectory from that of the shot
abrasions or bruises to the area around the entrance wound; fall
harmlessly to the ground at distances of around 20 ft.
As pellets get further away from the shotgun, the pattern will become more
dispersed only individual pellet holes are present in the target
Rarely produced when fired into the chest or abdomen
Can be seem when shotgun is fired into the head, neck or mouth
Exit wound: huge ragged aperture, especially in the head, where the skull may
virtually explode with the gas pressure from a contact wound ejecting part or even all
of the brain from the cranial cavity
Investigating Firearm Deaths

Scene
1. Handle the body as little as possible to avoid artifacts and loss of trace evidence
2. Paper bag the hands to preserve trace evidence.
3. Transport the body in clear plastic sheeting or a body bag to preserve trace evidence
and avoid contamination.
Autopsy
1. X- ray prior to removing clothing
2. Recover primer residues from hands by acid (10% nitric) moistened swab or adhesive
tape.
3. Examine hands for trace evidence,soot and propellant grains, and blood spatter.
4. Examine and remove the clothing without cutting
5. Examine the body, photograph wounds if appropriate, correlate with clothing.
6. Use dissecting microscope to examine clothing defects and wounds for soot and
propellant
7. Clean the body, photograph and describe the wounds.
8. Trace the wound tracks and recover the projectiles
9. Complete dissection.

Description of wounds
1. Describe each wound in turn completely i.e., including the internal wound track
revealed by dissection
2. Describe wound location relative to (a) local landmark, (b)the midline and heel (or top
of the head).
3. Describe wound appearance by size, shape, abrasion ring (width and symmetry), soot
and propellant (presence, distribution and dimension) and wound entry searing.
Describe shotgun pellet pattern
4. Describe muzzle imprint and compare with alleged weapon
5. Describe lodged projectile or exit relative to entrance; describe general direction
wound track.
6. Describe any recovered projectile or fragments.
Recover
1. Propellant grains from skin surface or wound track
2. Projectile, taking care not to scratch the surface by contact with a metal instrument
3. A representative blood sample or shot gun pellets and all wadding.
4. Blood for grouping and blood and tissue for toxicology
X-rays in gunshot wounds
1. Is the projectile present?
2. If present, where is the projectile located?
3. If the projectile exited, are projectile fragments present and where are they located?
4. What type of ammunition or weapon was used?
5. What was the path of the projectile?
Firearm Identification

A comparative examination
Ammunition components of unknown origin (from scene of the shooting or body)
are compared with bullets, cartridge cases and shotshells of known origin that
have been produce in the laboratory by test firing the suspect firearms
Known and unknown items are compared microscopically using a comparison
microscope.
Compare bullets and match them to a specific firearm
Accurately estimate the distance of a shooting
Detect gunpowder residue around wounds and on shooters
Restore obliterated serial numbers

Ballistics
Rifling in rifled barrels of rifles and handguns
The means by which a firearm imparts a spin to a projectile to gyroscopically
stabilize it to improve range and accuracy
Refers to the spiral grooves along the lengh of the interior or bore of the barrel
o Grooves spaces that are cut out
o Lands the resulting ridges
o Lands and grooves vary in number, depth, shape, direction of twist (right
or left) amd twist rate (turns per unit of barrel length)
Discharged rifled weapon produces marks on the bullet as it passes down the barrel
Class characteristics: indicative of the make and model of the firearm
Individual characteristics: reflect the imperfections peculiar to a particular firearm and
may allow its specific identification.

Bullet
Class characteristics
Number of lands, grooves (usually 4-6 but range from 2-22)
Diameter of lands, grooves
Width of lands, grooves
Depth of grooves
Degree of twist (twist the number of inches/cms of bore required for once
complete rifling spiral)
Direction of rifling twist (commonly right/clockwise, less commonly
left/counterclockwise)
Individual characteristics
Imperfections of grooves (most pronounced in led bullets)
Imperfections of lands (most pronounced in jacketed bullets)

Firearm Identification
Bullet identification
 Caliber
Rifling impression
Cartridge case identification
Striated action marks
Chamber marks
Shear marks
Firing pin marks
Extractor marks
Ejector marks
Impressed action marks
Firing pin impressions
Breech marks
Ejector marks
Other Markings
Cartridge case and primer also show class and individual characteristic markings
Type of breech block marking
Size, shape and location of extractor marks
Size, shape and location of ejector marks
Size, shape and location of firing pin marks (most important identifying marks in
rimfire cartridge cases)
Fingerprints rarely recovered from firearms but may be obtained from cartridge cases.

Firearm Function Testing

An examination of a firearm concerning its mechanical condition and operation

Test of all the safety features in the firearm to determine if they function as the
manufacturer intended
Determine the amount of trigger pull that is required to cause the firearm to
discharge
Determine if its capable of accidentally discharging without the trigger being
pulled, or if the firearm is capable of being fired at all.

Distance Determination

To answ questions as to the location of the firearm or the positions of the victim and the
shooter and their relationship to one another
A shooting victims clothing is examined for bullet holes, other evidence that may allow
for a determination of the distance from the muzzle of the firearm to the clothing
Area around bullet entry holes are examined for patterns of gunshot residues
compared with test targets produced by firing the firearm in question at various
known distances estimation of the distance from the object that was shot to
the muzzle end of the firearm
 Pellet pattern is used for determining distance when the firearm used contain
multiple projectiles.

Detection of Gunshot Discharge Residues: Paraffin Test

Dermal nitrate test or diphenylamine test

Tests the presence of nitrates and nitrites that may have come from gunpowder or
primer inside the bullet casing that ignites when a gun is fired.

Paraffin Test

Cast of the subjects hand is made using melted paraffin wax

Diphenylamine acid is applied to the cast/wax
Visible blue violet color on the wax: reaction of nitrites and nitrates with the
diphenylamine

Reliability of Paraffin Test

Nitrates, nitrites are also found in soil, food, water and other chemicals false (+)
results
Scanty amounts of gunshot residues (GSR) lifted from the suspects hands by the paraffin
wax or there was a delay in the collection or processing of the alleged shooters hands
false (-) results
Positive blue reaction reported as a streaming fleck-type reaction is very subjective and
difficult to identify.
disappears fast and requires magnification.
Reaction may not be objectively documented.

Conclusion and Recommendation

A Study of the Paraffin Test by Crown and Purdon

a critical evaluation of the type, site and numbers of reactions obtained on casts from
hands of persons known to have fired guns and comparison of these characteristics in
similar reactions on casts from a control group of persons known or presumed not to
have fired guns failed to establish any significant distinction.
First ICPO- Interpol Seminar on Scientific Aspects of Police Work in 1964
21 country representatives agreed
that the traditional paraffin test does not have any value as evidence to put before the
courts and that it should no longer be used.

Conclusion
There is still no chemical test known to conclusively determine whether an individual
fired a gun or not
 It is still important to look at the totality of the testimonial and physical evidence
Paraffin test is an ancient examination; it should be discarded and replaced with newer
and more reliable testing methods.

Detection of gunshot discharge residues

Detect traces of the metals barium, antimony and lead originating from the primer of the
cartridge
Cotton tipped swabs moistened with either 10% hydrochloric acid or 5% nitric acid
Used to recover residues for analysis by
Flameless atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS) and neutron activation analysis
(NAA)
Adhesive material is used to recover residues for analysis using scanning electron
microscopy *EDAX

National Integrated Ballistic Information Network (NIBIN)

Developed by a partnership between the FBI and the ATF

Uses the Integrated Ballistic Identification System equipment to compare firearms
related evidence stored in the database
Digitally captures the images of fired bullets and fired cartridge cases from crime
scenes and test fires from recovered firearms.
When a new image is entered, the system searches the existing database for a
match
When a possible match is observed, a firearms examiner must compare the actual
evidence with a comparison microscope
Once an ID has been made by the examination of the actual evidence, a hit is
noted in the system.

Restoration of Obliterated Serial Numbers

Serial numbers are stamped on items, e.g., firearms, for the purpose of identification
Attempt to hide identity: obliterated or removed by mechanical methods
(grinding, peening, punching)
Stamped on metal frame or plate with hard steel dies
Dies are applied with enough force to sink each digit into the metal

Restoration of obliterated serial numbers can be accomplished

Metal crystals under the stamped numbers are placed under a permanent strain
When a suitable etching agent (solution of copper salts and hydrochloric acid) is
applied dissolution of the strained crystals at a faster rate as compared to the
unaltered metal appearance of the etched pattern in the form of the original
numbers
 Non-restorable serial number
If the number is ground to a depth that removes the strained crystals
If the area has been impressed with a different strain pattern

Accident,Suicide, Murder?

Suicide
No notes left behind in majority of cases
Wound site and range within the reach of the deceaseds arm except when a device has
been used to reach the trigger
(+) contact wound presumed to be of suicide rather than an accident
Sites of election: head (80%) chest (15%), abdomen (<5%)
An unusual location raised a presumption of homicide
Wound site
Rifle and shotgun wounds to the trunk: trajectory may corroborate suicide
Weapon butt on the ground, the body hunched over it: trajectory is
downwards reaching the trigger with the right hand body rotates
trajectory is right to left (vice versa if left hand is used)
Weapon
Must be present at the scene
May be at a distance from the body: thrown away from the body by recoil or by
movement of the individual if immediate death did not occur
Clutched in the hand (20%)
Accident or homicide
If suicide is ruled out by
Range of discharge
Absence of weapon
Other features of the injury or scene
Multiple firearms wounds suggest homicide

INJURIES FROM EXPLOSIVES

Explosives

A mixture of an oxidizing agent and fuel

2 types
Low explosives
o Exert a throwing effect hurling any objects or people nearby
High explosives
Explode at rates between 1000-8500 m/sec more shattering and devastating
effects
 Explosives is a result of an endothermic chemical reaction: generation of huge amounts
of gas with release of vast amounts of heat energy that occurs very quickly
Volume of gas generated is further expanded by the heat generated
Chemical reactants used determines the power of the explosive
Sudden generation of gas compression wave to sweep outwands ( at the origin, this is
at many times the speed of sound)

Bombs

Classified generally according to the ratio of explosive material to total weight

Principal classes
General purpose
Fragmentation
Penetration
Cluster bombs

Damage Mechanisms

Blast
Fragmentation
Cratering effect
Shaped charge penetration
Incendiary effects

Pure Blast Effects

Physical fragmentation
Disruption of the victim solely from the effects of the wave of high pressure and hot
gases striking the body
Pressure effects upon the viscera which are far more damaging where there is an
air/fluid interface (e.g., in the airways,lung,bowel) rupture, hemorrhage of
these areas represent the classical blast lesion

Secondary Blast Effects

Burns
Directly: from the near effects of the explosion
Secondarily: from fires started by the bomb
Missile injuries from parts of the bomb casing or shrapnel or from adjacent objects
Peppering by small fragments of debris and dust propelled by the explosion
All types of injury due to collapse of structures caused by the explosion
Injuries and death from vehicular damage or destruction

Fragmented fracture
Complex Fracture

Investigation

Examination of either the living or the dead

Careful documentation of the sites and sizes of the abrasions, bruises, lacerations,
burns and any other injuries
Identification of the dead
Recovery of material that might have formed part of the bomb
Fragments collected at the scene
Identification of the explosive
Washed in a acetone which dissolves most of the chemical components
Solution is screened and analyzed using mass spectrometry
Identify the chemical composition