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Contents
Unit 1: Variable Frequency Drives
Chapter 1: What are Variable Frequency Drives ........................................................................................2
Chapter 2: What to Consider Regarding VFDs ..........................................................................................3
Chapter 3: Potential VFD Problems ...............................................................................................................4
Chapter 4: VFD Rebates ....................................................................................................................................6
UNIT 2: Predictive Maintenance
Chapter 1: Predictive Maintenance Components ..................................................................................... 7
Chapter 2: How to Start a Predictive Maintenance Program................................................................8
Chapter 3: The Internet of Things and Predictive Maintenance ........................................................10
Chapter 4: Vibration Analysis for Your Predictive Maintenance Program ..................................... 12
Chapter 5: Online Motor Testing as a Great Predictive Maintenance Tool...................................... 14
UNIT 3: Ball Bearings
Chapter 1: Ball Bearing Basics ...................................................................................................................... 16
Chapter 2: Types of Ball Bearing Failure .................................................................................................... 18
Chapter 3: Proper Handling for Ball Bearings ......................................................................................... 21
Chapter 4: Beware of Counterfeit Ball Bearings..................................................................................... 22
UNIT 4: Electric Motors
Chapter 1: Motor Failures .............................................................................................................................. 25
Chapter 2: Tips for a Successful Electric Motor Inspection ............................................................... 26
Chapter 3: Diagnosing Electric Motor Problems ....................................................................................27
Chapter 4: Electric Motor Failure: What Can You Do? .......................................................................... 28
Chapter 5: The Efficiency Level of Repaired Motors ............................................................................. 29
Chapter 6: Repair or Replace? That is the Question .............................................................................30

L&S Electric 2017 Written by Dave Manney

 Unit 1: Variable Frequency Drives
Chapter 1
What are Variable Frequency Drives
A Variable Frequency Drive (also called an AC drive, inverter, or Variable Speed
Drive) controls an AC motors speed and torque. It adjusts the input frequency
and voltage to synchronous motors. While recent technologies in VFDs are ca-
pable of simplifying the entire process of adjusting the speed of AC motors with
three phases, there was a point in history when it was a challenge to operate AC
motors that come with a single or dual speed. Whats more, there are issues re-
garding the construction of the AC motor, as well as the magnetic poles present,
and these all affect the cost of VFDs in AC motors.

3 Types of VFDs
There are three basic types of VFDs available, each of which has its benefits
and potential problems. Regardless of the type or design of the VFD, it serves
the same purpose of varying the voltage supplied to the motor and adjusting the
speed of the motor and its torque.

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Drives

The PWM drive is most commonly used in numerous applications, including

operating motors that are up to 500 hp or higher. It tends to be reliable in com-
parison to other types of VFDs and is also an affordable choice as well. PWM
drives regulate the voltage by turning the switch between load and supply on and
off on an ongoing basis. By regulating the amount of time that the switch is off in
comparison with being on, it can regulate the power being supplied to the load.

The PWM drive is a popular choice among users because of its low initial cost
and high-efficiency. It is often a very stable option as well, although there can be
problems with the insulation breaking down due to heating in certain applications.

Current Source Inverter (CSI) Drives

This type of variable speed drive converts the incoming power to DC voltage,
which is regulated to produce the variable DC bus voltage that drives the motor.
They have the advantage of being fairly reliable to operate, but there can also be
some issues associated with them, including HV spikes and they make use of a
large inductor. They are also not the best choice for applications where multiple
motors are being operated from the same VFD. Cogging may also be a problem
when it is operated at low frequencies.
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L&S Electric 2017 Written by Dave Manney
 Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) Drives

The VSI drive is very similar to the CSI Drive, but it uses the DC voltage as a source rather
than the DC versio. The benefits or potential problems are similar to those of the CSI Drive
listed above.

Maintaining Your VFDs

The operation of VFDs is often imperative to the overall operation of the business. That is
why it is important to make sure that they are being maintained properly, both on an ongo-
ing basis and if issues should happen to occur.

VFDs are, in essence, both a power supply and a computer so you would want to apply the
same precautions when maintaining this equipment that you would to any other computer.
In most cases, maintaining VFDs consists of checking the connections to ensure that they are
tight and making sure that the unit is kept clean and dry.

Chapter 2
What to Consider Regarding VFDs
It was only during the 1980s when the cost and dependability of VFD technologies have
improved. Although VFDs are becoming more popular as the DC motor control, it is still
essential that you have an in-depth understanding of how to configure, install and apply
VFDs. After all, there are some issues involved in the application and operation of VFD such
as over-voltage, overload, selection, grounding problems, electromagnetic field or electromag-
netic interference and poor parameter settings or configurations.

Primarily, VFDs have the capacity to prevent overload and adjust deceleration/ accelera-
tion. These can also minimize the inrush current in motors during startup, which is crucial
when controlling the maximum power load to its corresponding peak demand. So, when you
specify a VFD, you need to be able to choose the appropriate drive and know the application
process involved. Be sure to take into account the loads operating profile, whether it is a
constant torque application or a variable torque application.

To prevent drive overload, you need to make it a point that the peak torque demand and
maximum current requirements are considered when selecting the size of the VFD. This is
important since considering the horsepower alone would not be able to meet the maximum
demands on the motor. In the case of an oversized motor, it is expected to be less efficient
regarding its function, as compared to the right size of the motor. However, this is where the
benefit of using VFDs come in since they reduce inefficiency and any oversizing penalties
instead of requiring you to oversize the motor and drive.

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L&S Electric 2017 Written by Dave Manney
 Oversizing VFDs

Heat dissipation and accommodation of other related components in a motor are made
possible when you oversize the VFD. But you have to realize that while having an oversized
drive can reduce negative impacts, this is unlikely to work in all instances. With this in mind,
it may be better just to utilize dynamic braking units equipped with large resistors, as these
can facilitate the conversion of the excess amount of energy into heat. Having an additional
external braking resistor also enhances the braking torque of a VFD.

When it comes to overhauling, a typical problem that may arise during the deceleration
process is an over-voltage drive fault. To prevent this concern, you may simply use the right
size of braking resistor since excess energy coming from the motor only dissipates as heat
with the help of the resistor. Another solution, although quite expensive, is the use of regen-
erative drives that bring back energy to the drives line size. In this case, VFDs come with
their own DC bus attached to a common bus. This allows other drives to utilize excess power
accordingly. Concerning cost, this option is more practical, particularly when there is a high
level of excess power.

Noise Source

It is essential to specify the right accessories that can address any noise issues during the
installation and application of VFDs. There are times that you can hear the electrical noise at
the load size or line side of the drive, and even the drive itself can generate the sound. Recent
models of VFDs are barely affected by noise on the line side, but the drive can create har-
monic noise that may impact the rest of your devices.

There is also the concern that the VFD including the motor controlled by it can result in
electromagnetic interference that will affect some sensitive devices in proximity to it. To min-
imize EMI, you can implement the right grounding techniques. You can also use isolation
transformers and power filters to address EMF or EMI concerns from the drive.

Chapter 3
Potential VFD Problems
VFDs certainly benefit your business in many ways. Like any piece of technical equipment,
however, they can also lead to problems that would leave you staring at them with a blank
look on your face. In this article, were going to identify some of the potential problems that
could occur with VFDs and the potential solutions that may be associated with those prob-
lems. Of course, if you are experiencing any of these difficulties, a simple phone call to one of
our technicians may also be the path that you want to follow for troubleshooting and reme-
dying the situation.

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 Harmonics or EMI/RFI One of the difficulties that may be associated with VFDs are
low-frequency noises. If you are experiencing any noise from the unit that is out of the ordi-
nary, it is typically a sign that something has gone awry. The presence of low-frequency noise
can be a sign that something significant is taking place, including the failure of the drive or
the motor burning out. It may also indicate that there is overheating taking place in the dis-
tribution transformer, or the circuit breaker may be tripping. It is also important to recognize
that the noise you are hearing may also be intermittent.

The presence of electromagnetic interference (EMI), sometimes known as radio-frequency

interference (RFI) may also be problematic as well. It can affect sensitive equipment, perhaps
even activating the security alarm, and it can cause static on the AM radio band. Conduction
may also be an issue that results in electromagnetic interference as well.

There are some simple solutions that may provide temporary relief from these symptoms.
When the problem is harmonics, you may be able to reduce the issue through the use of
harmonic traps. Installing line reactors or increasing load impedance may also be able to help
with the problem as well. If the issue is with EMI or RFI, you may be able to install EMI/
RFI filters, or electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) filters to allow the equipment to operate
without being affected by electromagnetic interference.

Output Reflective Wave (DV/DT) The reflective wave phenomena can certainly result
in the deterioration of a motor and could cause it to fail if it is not managed properly. It can
be one of the first signs that you are having difficulty with motor failure, particularly in the
first turn. This phenomenon only occurs when VFDs are running at 380 volts or higher. It
does not take place in 208/230/240 volt systems.

If youre having a difficulty with the reflective wave phenomena, it may be possible to
reduce the difficulty by adjusting the distance between the drive and the motor. It may vary
from one circumstance to another, but typically, the spacing should be anywhere from 50 to
350 feet.

Bearing Currents Although this is a less likely problem than thermal or mechanical
issues when it comes to bearing failure, it can certainly lead to that difficulty as well. When
current is flowing through induction motor bearings, premature failure of the bearings is
likely to take place.

If bearing currents are a problem, there may be some simple solutions that can help to
reduce it temporarily. These solutions would include proper grounding, DV/DT filters, the
use of insulated bearings, shaft grounding brushes, and common mode filters.

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L&S Electric 2017 Written by Dave Manney
 Chapter 4
VFD Rebates
One of the greatest benefits variable frequency drives (VFDs) offer is the ability to save you
money by running your equipment most efficiently. There are, however, additional benefits,
such as receiving incentives or rebates from federal, state, and local agencies.

Buildings account for more than a third of U.S. energy use, so they are an important
target for energy efficiency improvements. Research by the American Society of Heating,
Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers shows that approximately 50% of all energy
used in a typical building goes into HVAC operation. Using VFDs to reduce HVAC energy
consumption can thus result in significant energy savings, and the payback on investment
can be substantial.

Even without rebates, payback periods for installing VFDs are usually less than three
years and sometimes can be less than a year. Rebate programs can reduce payback periods
to a matter of months. The Database of State Incentives for Renewables & Efficiency is one
resource that offers comprehensive information on federal, state, local and utility incentives
that promote renewable energy and energy efficiency.

States often lead the way in adopting progressive policies promoting energy efficiency.
Many states offer incentives for energy efficiency upgrades that include a direct rebate pay-
ment due upon installation. The federal government also provides tax deductions or credits
for attaining defined levels of efficiency or for supporting specific energy-saving technologies,
and many states do as well.

Rebate levels vary widely within the U.S., but the American Council for an Energy-Effi-
cient Economy (ACEEE) estimates that rebates usually cover from 15 to 35% of installed
cost. However, the ACEEE warns that utility and government-funded rebates are not guar-
anteed. Such rebates often depend on funding accessibility and are often doled out based on
a competitive ranking system. Because of the energy markets volatility, the ACEEE suggests
applying for rebates in the planning stages of construction or upgrades but keeping potential
rebates out of the installation budget.

Although each utility can have its variations, rebate programs contain similar standard
features. For example, Austin Energy offers rebates of 20% for qualified VFD use in HVAC
applications. These levels are typical of those available from other utilities.

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L&S Electric 2017 Written by Dave Manney
 UNIT 2: Predictive Maintenance
Chapter 1
Predictive Maintenance Components
Ensuring the excellent performance of your electric motors is important. They have a mas-
sive impact on the productivity and profit of your business. Although operating these motors
may seem rather straightforward and simple, the last thing you should do is to overlook their
condition. This is why you need to perform predictive maintenance checks on your electric
motors as a part of managing your assets in the facility.

By preparing a checklist for your predictive maintenance program, you can make sure that
every motor is properly examined and monitored. This also provides you with an opportunity
to detect potential issues and address these ahead of time. By doing so, you can prevent costly
repairs or unplanned expenses in case there is a need to replace your motors completely.

Here, we look into the essential components of a predictive maintenance program for elec-
tric motors. Something every business owner must implement regularly.

Perform Visual Inspections on the Motor

There are so many things to discover by just conducting a visual check on your electric
motor. Take a good look at its physical condition and be sure to record pieces of information
you acquire from doing so. If you have been operating the motor in a rugged environment,
it is possible to find signs of corrosion or dirt buildup on its components. These all present a
potential internal problem since any debris can limit the performance of the equipment.

Make it a point to observe the motor windings and look for a burned odor from overheat-
ing. The contacts and relay should also be free from dirt and rust, which are detrimental to
the life of your motors. Situate your equipment in an environment without exposure to dirt,
moisture, toxic elements, and harsh conditions.

Maintenance Checks on the Commutator and Brush

Do not wait until your electric motors stop working or experience inconsistencies in per-
formance. As a part of your predictive maintenance schedule, you should take a closer look at
the brush and commutators. Make sure there are no signs of wear and tear. An excessive wear
in the brush can lead to commutation problems with the motor. This is why you will have to
change the brush to regain the integrity of the equipments function.

In the same way, you need to keep the commutator in check. The natural condition of a
commutator is smooth and polished. It should also have no dents, scratches, or grooves since
any rough spot suggests brush sparking. While you are at it, make a thorough inspection
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L&S Electric 2017 Written by Dave Manney
 of the motor mount, stator, rotor, and the belts. Replace any worn components, which no
longer serve their purpose.

Conduct a Motor Winding Test

After you have inspected the different components of your machinery, the next thing to do
is to test the motor windings. This will give you a better idea on existing anomalies or failures
in the windings of your motor. Moreover, if you have discovered burn marks and odors, as
well as cracks in the windings, it is mandatory to perform motor winding tests.

To prepare for the test, be sure to disassemble the motor. This will allow you to determine
any abnormalities that the motor has been undergoing. In case the windings have experi-
enced overheating, then there is a high chance that serious damage is present. Rewinding the
motor is a crucial part of this test, along with the testing of the wind insulation that reveals
information on the resistance level.

Check the Bearings

Inspect the bearings if there is any vibration or noise. These are signs of potential problems
including dirt buildup, poor lubrication, or wear and tear. The bearing housing may also end
up too hot to the touch. This could signal issues such as an insufficient amount of grease or
overheating of the motor.

Depending on the bearing type, a particular predictive maintenance task is necessary.

Other factors that affect the type of predictive maintenance include the motor application
and the environment where the equipment is situated. There are some motors with a low
horsepower that no longer need lubrication as these have sealed bearings. Thus, you have to
be aware of the bearing and the kind of repair it requires.

Keep Records
Each time predictive maintenance schedules occur, you should document the tests per-
formed, and the results gathered for the purpose of establishing trends. Record all repairs or
replacements made on every motor component. This allows you to have a better understand-
ing of each piece of equipment. Which includes issues addressed or parts replaced, which can
guide you for future inspections.

Chapter 2
How to Start a Predictive Maintenance Program
Most businesses recognize the benefits of having a predictive maintenance (PdM) program
in place, but they dont necessarily know how to initiate such a program. It could be due to
a thin workforce or a tight budget that has caused maintenance crews to be more reactive
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L&S Electric 2017 Written by Dave Manney
 about the problems that are taking place rather than being proactive to avoid those problems
before they occur.

There are steps to be taken that can help to push your maintenance crew in the right direc-
tion. Following these steps will certainly assist in making the change from reactive to proactive
maintenance, and overall, it will help in the finances and general operations at your facility.

Analyze Your Maintenance System

It is of primary concern to know where your maintenance system is at this point so that
you can move forward with the predictive maintenance program.

Every piece of equipment should be listed and time should be taken to determine the
overall health status of the equipment. If it is not operating according to manufacturers or
managements expectation, it should be moved to the top of the list.

Systems Review
Evaluate the amount of downtime associated with each piece of equipment, starting from
the highest priority asset. Take note of how many parts were purchased for that asset in the
past year, including any rush delivery charges because the system was down.

Set Priorities
Begin with the highest priority and establish a reasonable goal to get the system up to
100% capacity. You should then look at all of the assets to determine which needs attention
first and come up with a list of items necessary to get it up to capacity. It may not be possible
to get up to 100% capacity, depending on the age of the equipment.

Training
The switch from reactive maintenance to proactive maintenance is more than just a change
in mindset. The staff must be adequately trained to provide the service and repair necessary
for any equipment at your facility. At times, it may also be a need to hire out the preventative
maintenance to a third-party, such as when working with high-voltage electrical components.
Provide the proper personal protection equipment (PPE) and material safety data sheets
(MSDS).

Implementation
A few minutes can be set aside at the beginning of the working day or the start of each shift
for basic maintenance, such as inspection and lubrication. There should also be time set aside
for cleaning after each shift.

Establish your predictive maintenance schedules, ensuring that you have everything nec-
9 essary to make any proactive repairs. In doing so, you will help to save time and money by
L&S Electric 2017 Written by Dave Manney
 avoiding more costly, catastrophic machine failures.

Chapter 3
The Internet of Things and Predictive Maintenance
With newer technologies introduced year after year, there are many ways for industries to
improve their operations. These advancements are a positive impact their bottom line. One
of these advancements is the Internet of Things (IoT). IoT refers to the interconnection of
devices used in everyday life to the web. Many companies are adopting this next generation
of the internet to their business processes. They are especially choosing to use the internet
when the process refers to their predictive maintenance programs and asset management.

We will look into the different and innovative ideas that companies are implementing the
IoT for their maintenance programs designed to make every task more efficient.

Determining the Health of Railroad Tracks

KONUX, a German company, is using the IoT to ensure the condition of the track. The
startup deploys sensors with algorithms on the track. These sensors are responsible for mon-
itoring the amount and level of vibrations sent for each passing train. This system aids in
identifying potential issues on the track. Addressing issues at their early stages before becom-
ing worse gives engineers the advantage. It is quite a brilliant concept. According to the team
implementing this method, it cuts the cost of rail maintenance by as much as 25%. Consid-
ering the massive expenses of maintaining rails, their ideas on incorporating IoT is a serious
game changer.

SNCF, a railway company in France, also makes use of innovative techniques in enhancing
the reliability, accuracy, and performance of their system. The Big Data Fab serves as SNCFs
data expertise center. This center is where the company generates new products and services
for their business units and engineers. Big data solutions also help in refining levels of diag-
nostics and control, along with the implementation of predictive technologies that include
yield prediction and predictive maintenance.

The companys use of advanced data technologies enables it to produce a new value. They
combine data and increases access to such information so their engineers can analyze the data
as soon as possible. The data gathered also offers insights to engineers. They evaluate weak
signals while analyzing potential causes of failures. Through real-time monitoring, they antic-
ipate potential incidents or malfunctions and receive alerts before failure arises.

SNCF also handles various projects designed to implement machine learning. This learning
aids in gaining insights from massive volumes of data captured by the rail networks function
and condition. Overall, their efforts resulted in a proactive system in detecting early signs of
10 failure. This system allows them to address and rectify issues before they become detrimental
L&S Electric 2017 Written by Dave Manney
 to their service delivery processes.

Safeguarding Power Lines

Predictive Maintenance Near Power Lines

At present, US electric firms spend about $6 billion to $8 billion each year to maintain the
condition of vegetation that surrounds power lines through ground crews and helicopters.
In addition to such high cost of maintenance, the current inspection method implemented
remained limited in terms of the expected results obtained. For instance, electric companies
experience the difficulty in accessing remote areas of power lines, as well as inspecting long
stretches of lines in a shorter amount of time.

Thus, through the use of Beyond-Visual-Line-of-Sight (BVLOS) drones, it is possible

to conduct a more efficient, much safer, and more efficient inspection of vegetation man-
agement. In fact, inspections performed using drones reduce the cost by up to 4 times the
regular expenses when using flights in the line of sight.

Using Drones for Predictive Maintenance

Drones are also capable of capturing a more comprehensive and broad scope of data. This
data assists electric firms in making an informed decision when it comes to their predictive
maintenance tasks in the facility. Sharper Shape, the Finnish company that has introduced
the use of drones in mapping utility networks, claims to capture in-depth information on
millions of trees for a better analysis of power lines that are at high risk of damage due to
vegetation.

Tero Heinonen, Sharper Shapes CEO, stated that the deployment of drones for vegeta-
tion management cuts down costs by up to 30%. Aside from the cost-effective value of this
form of technology, it performs tasks at a much faster rate while providing daily assessments.
Unmanned aerial vehicles, combined with an automated analysis of data gathered, allows
companies to maintain the condition of power lines minus the high cost.

Increasing Popularity of the Internet of Things

Gartner Inc., a US research, and advisory company that offers IT-related insights to busi-
nesses predicts that there will be almost 26 billion devices on the IoT by the year 2020. The
company believes that this massive growth is due to the greater access to very reliable mobile
networks without requiring a fixed line connection. Thus, it is expected that more business-
es use IoT in increasing their efficiency and productivity. As a result, it can improve power
management and cut energy consumption at plants since this technology can help adjust the
environmental control systems by remote and automatically.

Accenture is optimistic about the popularity of IoT in various facilities and companies.
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L&S Electric 2017 Written by Dave Manney
 In its report, the projected investment in IoT would reach up to $500 billion in 2020. This
investment includes the utilization of powerful and robust data processing, machine learning,
and inexpensive sensors at plants. These all contribute to the efficiency in performing diverse
industrial processes while reducing costs.

IoT and Predictive Maintenance

For the most part, many companies rely on the IoT for their predictive maintenance tech-
niques in managing their assets. Instead of conducting the frequent calendar-based inspec-
tions combined with component repairs and replacement, predictive techniques help inspect
equipment for potential issues. Recent technologies also send alerts or notifications when
there is a need for a part replacement. Sensors placed in the equipment are responsible for
determining abnormal conditions. These sensors trigger work orders once there is a breach in
the safe and reasonable operating limits.

By having a more effective predictive maintenance strategy set in place, conducting main-
tenance tasks will only be done when necessary. This approach helps cut down labor and
parts costs that come with component replacement and repairs. Predictive maintenance is
bound to expand as various systems are carried out with internet connectivity, thus making
the IoT an essential part of every business.

Chapter 4
Vibration Analysis for Your Predictive Maintenance Program
Machines have become an indispensable part of each industry these days. Mechanical tools
and equipment have influenced every single aspect of our daily life greatly. Hence, taking
special care of these mechanical instruments is of utmost importance to ensure their smooth
functioning. Here comes the importance of vibration. With vibration analysis software, one
can test the consistency of various machinery components efficiently. It is one of the most
reliable methods that are used for analyzing the reliability of different machine-based prod-
ucts. Let us have a look at why the method of vibration analysis is necessary and how it can
be performed accurately with the help of software.

Why Vibration Analysis?

There are many reasons for which testing and analysis of vibration of every part of the
machinery, be it heavy or light, has become necessary. Automobile industry, manufacturing
industry, power, and control system etc.are some of the important areas where this analytic
method is carried out effectively.

There are four phases during the life process of a machinery product where it has to under-
go shocks and throbs, irrespective of whether it is movable or fixed. These phases are:

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 Assembly

In the assembling phase, the product has to endure lots of vibration. It might face sudden
shocks or get dropped suddenly on the ground while being manufactured.

Transportation

There are many machine-based products, especially heavy equipment, which are not assem-
bled in factories. Every single part of those mechanical products needs to be manufactured
separately which are then transported as well as assembled on site. While being carried, these
machinery parts can face lots of mechanical strains.

Installation

The installation process of mechanical products requires them to be handled manually.

Eventually, it leads them to go through excessive stress. Vibration analysis software can be
used to test the functionality of these products, once they start running right after the instal-
lation.

Operation

There is no doubt that a machine has to undergo the maximum amount of shocks during
the span of time in which they operate. Also, they also go through different types of vibra-
tions at that point which is stimulated by various factors present in their surroundings. So,it
is necessary to keep a close eye on the performances of these machines regularly during their
operational period.

Process of Analysis
During the process of analysis, the defects and problems of various machines come up on
their own. The main aim of this testing method is to find out the exact faults and solve it
accordingly to improve the productivity of different mechanical equipment. To make this
process easier, a virtual vibration analyzer is used.

Some analytic plans are carried out during the process of vibration analysis. Some of them
are:

Narrow-band spectral analysis

This method can detect several faults of a machine accurately as it uses the principle of
relative acceptance. Useful information is gathered at a single point on the product by using
two frequency ranges. Alignment problem, resonance fault, etc. can easily be found out using
this method.
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 Vibration of High Frequency

The efficiency of machines, which face vibrations of high frequency, is analyzed by using
ultrasonic energy, shock pulse, etc. These systems can easily detect the problems of machinery
products at an early stage.

Hence, it can be said that vibration analysis software is genuinely helpful for the smooth
functioning of every machinery part.

Save Money with Vibration Analysis

All equipment vibrates. Whether you are dealing with a pump, mill, fan, conveyor, crush-
er or elevator vibration occurs. Vibration also occurs at an individual component level. For
example, you can take a bearing and place a vibration probe on it, and you will see the trend
of vibration. The amount and type of vibration, however, is what is important when it comes
to analysis. As a piece of equipment degrades, it begins to vibrate more and more. By using
some techniques, you can tell what condition the equipment is in, and to some degree what
components are on their way out.

Take a simple example though; a pump. Most industrial factories have pumps. They are
used for a multitude of purposes, and they are often heavily relied upon. When one fails, the
problems can be significant, and often the downtime is expensive. Wouldnt it be nice to be
able to determine when the equipment is going to fail, and when it needs maintenance? With
Vibration Analysis you can easily trend the vibrations and watch it degrade. Then, you can
plan maintenance to take place and fix the issues.

The problem with preventive maintenance is that a lot of parts are often replaced before
their lifetime period is over, which means money is being lost. If you can replace things only
when they need to, and entirely eradicate downtime, then there are some massive savings to
be made. Vibration Analysis isnt free though. You need equipment to be installed, and then
people to analyze data (not continuously though). However, the cost is rapidly paid back in
most industries due to the benefits that it provides.

Chapter 5
Online Motor Testing as a Great Predictive Maintenance Tool
When correctly installed in the correct application, electrical motors fill a particular need.
If well cared for; they can operate safely and economically for many years. In fact, they were
designed to work indefinitely. But in most cases; issues are going to occur that need to be
addressed. After all, we may operate the motors in a facility that subjects it to any number of
different environmental, or operational problems. This could place stress on the motor and
potentially, result in motor failure.
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 When the electrical systems fail at our place of business, regardless of whether it is a motor
failure or a power outage, it can result in unexpected losses. Those losses can be felt financial-
ly, as well as through our level of production. The problems are more likely considered when
the failure occurs unexpectedly, which is why it is so important to have a preventative main-
tenance program in place.

A preventative maintenance program can test the motors at your facility to determine if
they are operating within acceptable limits. In many cases, the testing of the equipment will
determine if problems do exist, even before they become apparent with a visual inspection.
Do not think of a maintenance program as being a system to diagnose the problem after it
took place. It should be an ongoing process, reducing the likelihood that a catastrophic fail-
ure would occur along the way.

Although there are several ways of testing of industrial motors, one of the better options to
consider is online motor testing. There may be a need for periodic off-line motor testing, but
online, or dynamic, testing typically yields the most benefit with your preventative mainte-
nance program. This type of testing is done while the motor is operating within its normal
environment and at standard loads. It provides a variety of information, including the exis-
tence of undesirable conditions, such as imbalance, high or low voltage levels, and distortion.

Seeing the biggest benefit of online motor testing is watching how the test is performed.
Since the motor does not need to be taken out of service to be tested in this way, it is a non-
intrusive type of test. It can typically be done without any interruption in productivity and
depending upon the kind of test that is done; it can be done quickly as well. This type of data
collection is also safe, with some of it even being performed without coming into contact
with the motor itself.

Online motor testing can not only determine if there are any electrical problems with the
motor, but it can also test a variety of other issues within the system as well. This includes
any misalignment or vibration as well as problems with the bearings.

Although offline, or static, testing is an important part of a routine maintenance program,

the dynamic testing of the motors can be done more frequently and, in many cases, with
greater benefit.

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L&S Electric 2017 Written by Dave Manney
 UNIT 3: Ball Bearings
Chapter 1
Ball Bearing Basics
A ball bearing is sometimes called an anti-friction bearing. It is a small ceramic or metallic
sphere used to reduce friction between axles and shafts in many applications. A bearing is
also a type of rolling element bearing.Ball Bearings Targeted with Scope

The primary purpose of a bearing is to support axial and radial loads while reducing rota-
tional friction. It can achieve this by using a minimum of two races to contain different balls.
This allows the bearing to carry the loads through different balls. Most of the time, one of the
races are fixed.

When one bearing races rotate, the other balls also rotate. Since these balls start rolling,
they have a lower coefficient of friction than two flat surfaces rotating on each other. This had
led to numerous applications of ball bearings in various industries.

Ball Bearing Designs

When it comes to the design of ball bearings, you can choose from many options. Ball
bearings are made from different materials, including chrome steel, ceramic and stainless
steel. A bearing made from a combination of ceramic balls with races of metal is called a
hybrid ball bearing.

Here are the most common designs.

Axial

An axial bearing uses side by side races. In such ball bearings, the axial load is directly trans-
mitted through the bearing. However, the radial load is poorly supported and tends to sepa-
rate the races. Anything besides a slight radial load can easily cause damage to the bearing.

Deep Groove

In a deep groove radial bearing, the race dimensions are quite close to the dimensions of
individual balls running on it. These ball bearings have much higher load ratings than a shal-
low groove. However, they are also much less tolerant of misalignment of the outer and inner
races. If theres misalignment, a shallow groove bearing will be able to support a larger load
than a misaligned deep groove bearing.

Angular Contact

Angular contact ball bearings are also quite popular. These ball bearings use axially asym-
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 metric races. The axial load passes through the bearing in a straight line. On the other hand,
the radial load features an oblique path. It separates different races axially. Due to this, the
angle of contact on the bearings outer race is the same as the inner race.

Ball Bearing Maintenance

Most people dont realize, but the standard performance of ball bearings can be significant-
ly affected by the most microscopic particles. The ball bearings must always be clean. It is
extremely vital to avoid exposure to any external environment where particles may be pres-
ent. If these particles come in contact with the bearing, they can cause abrasion, shortened
life, and raceway scratches. These particles may also cause vibration and noise.

It is extremely crucial to use seals or shields to keep external particles out. However, a gap
still exists between the inner ring of the shields and non-contact seals. Such gaps may allow
easy particle entry. Therefore, manufacturers and warehouse managers need to follow these
procedures:

The bearing handling area must always remain perfectly clean. You should never
remove the ball bearings from the package until theyre ready to be used. If the ball
bearings are being moved to a container, it is necessary to ensure that the container is
perfectly clean. The lid should be closed tightly and cleaned every day to prevent any
particle accumulation on top of the lid.

Never use ball bearings that have been dropped. The race track may have been dented
because of the drop. Such ball bearings can cause a lot of acoustic noises. While apply-
ing adhesives to the ball bearings, use a cloth soaked in an alcohol agent. This prevents
outer and inner rings from corrosion and rust.

While applying any lubricant to the outer surface of the ball bearings, you should make
sure the lubricant has not been contaminated. Ball bearings should never be handled in
a place where they could be easily exposed to external elements and outside air. Season-
al wind may also bring in contaminants.

Understand that Ball Bearings Rust Easily

Since most ball bearings are metallic products, they can easily rust. Therefore, handling of
ball bearings requires some precautions.

While handling ball bearings, you should use pincers, gloves, or finger caps. The gloves
should not contain any cotton fibers. If you need to use your bare fingers, you should make
sure your fingers are clean and free from dust and moisture. Before touching the ball bear-
ings, you should apply some quality mineral oil on your fingertips.

If theres dust around the shaft, it may lead to rust between the ball bearing and the shaft.
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 Therefore, you need to make sure the shaft is free from moisture and fingerprints. While
handling ball bearings, you should choose an area which is dry. Bearing boxes need to be
placed on a pallet or shelf. You should avoid placing bearing boxes on the floor or some other
locations where dirt and moisture may be present.

Similarly, ball bearings should never be stored near direct sunlight or air conditioners.
When placed in an area where sunlight and dust can enter easily, the ball bearings may rust.
The temperature difference can also cause condensation. In extremely cold conditions, ball
bearings should be unpacked at room temperature.

In recent times, there have also been some cases of ball bearings rusting overnight. This
happens when sulfuric acid falls around the packages. If heating stoves are turned off at
night, combustion gas can easily turn to sulfuric acid. Rust also occurs on ball bearings when
CFC gas from cleaning equipment becomes overheated and is converted to chlorine. For
this reason, ball bearings should always be stored in properly ventilated and centrally heated
environment.

Last but not least, varnish applied to the winding can also cause ball bearings to rust. This
occurs when the acid generated by the varnish is absorbed into the bearings grease. Thus, you
should always test for such conditions to make sure ball bearings dont rust and last for a long
time while maintaining their prime condition.

Chapter 2
Types of Ball Bearing Failure
Ball bearing failure occurs due to a wide range of causes and scenarios. Below are among
the types of failure in ball bearing, as well as essential information on each.

Flaking
This issue is referred to as the splitting off of some pieces of the ball bearing material from
the raceways smooth surface. Flaking commonly occurs because of rolling fatigue. Hence,
the different regions of the bearing tend to have coarse and rougher texture over time.

Several factors contribute to flaking concerns with ball bearing. These issues include con-
tamination with foreign debris, moisture, misalignment or poor mounting, incorrect lubri-
cant, brinelling, smearing and corrosion pits. Unevenness in the rigidity of the housing, as
well as improper precision for the housing or shaft, are other aspects that contribute to this
problem.

Pitting
Bearings may also feature a pitted surface that comes with a dull quality or roughness.
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 Pitting is commonly found in the raceway or rolling element surface. Inadequate lubrication
and moisture or humidity present in the workplace can both lead to this problem. The same
holds true once debris gets caught and mixed in the lubricant.

To address these concerns, it is important to use the right lubricant and be sure to filter
well the lubrication oil. You should also check and ensure the quality of the sealing mech-
anism. By doing so, you can prevent dust and contamination that are some causes of this
problem.

Improper Fitting
Tight fits can cause a worn path at the bottom portion of the raceway, which can extend
to the outer and inner rings entire circumference. Once there is an excess of the interference
fits on the radial clearance at the optimal temperature for operating motors, overloading of
the ball hearings arises. Several problems will occur such as high torque that goes with a rapid
increase in temperature.

As you continue to operate the motor with this condition, premature wear, and tear, as well
as serious damages can result. To address this issue, it is best to perform a corrective action
such as a reduction in the total interference.

Poor Alignment
You will notice this type of failure once the ball wear path appears to be no longer parallel
to the edges of the raceway. Usually, a rise in abnormal temperature occurs along with mis-
alignment that is more than 0.001 inch. Moreover, the cage ball-pockets may also depict a
heavy wear.

A way to solve these issues is by performing some corrective actions including inspection
of the housing and shafts, which can help you identify any existing run out of bearing seats.
You can also use high-quality locknuts, and single point turned threads on shafts that are not
hardened. On the other hand, hardened shafts will require ground threads.

Lubricant Failure
In the case of lubricant failure in ball bearing, you will notice a bluish or brownish ball
track because of this concern. With a combination of excessive wear and tear of balls, cages
and rings will soon become less efficient. Overheating will also arise, which is followed by
serious damages and failure.

Ball bearings need proper lubrication between the races and balls, as well as between the
balls, rings, and cage. As the problem persists, excessive production of heat can become an
additional concern. Furthermore, it is important to note that the lubricants properties are
damaged because of excessive temperature and restricted flow of lubricant.
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Corrosion
Several signs of corrosion in ball bearings include red or brown-colored areas on the cages,
ball bearing bands, balls, and raceway. These are all problems that are caused by corrosive flu-
ids and elements that get into bearings. Additionally, corrosion can be a cause of fatigue and
failures in motors, which are worst situations that arise from this problem.

Some techniques can prevent this issue. For instance, you may use bearings that are inte-
grally sealed to prevent corrosion. Another way is by diverting any corrosive fluids to keep
these away from areas surrounding the bearing.

Excessive Loads
Premature wear and fatigue are commonly linked with excessive loads on a ball bearing.
Other issues that cause early failure due to fatigue are brinelling, poor pre-loading and tight
fits. Over time, serious damages can result, which will require unplanned downtime because
of repairs or replacement.

To prevent this concern, you can consider reducing the load. You may also want to use a
bearing the has a greater capacity for heavy loads for better support.

Brinelling
Once loads go beyond the ring materials elastic limit, brinelling occurs. Indentations
found in the raceways are signs of brinelling. These marks also cause an increase in the
bearing vibration. Other issues that cause this type of failure include severe impact and static
overload.

The best way to solve this problem is by isolating the bearings from the external vibration.
You can do so by using greases that have anti-wear components in them.

Reverse Loading
An angular type of contact bearing is intended to accept axial loads in a single direction.
Once loading is done in the opposite direction, a truncation of the elliptical contact area
found on the outer ring occurs. This is caused by the low shoulder located on one side of the
external ring. Thus, excessive stress can arise, and this is followed by greater vibration, exces-
sive heat, and premature failure.

Loose Fits
Aside from tight fits, loose fits can result in failure in ball bearings. Fretting can also arise
once there is a slight, yet continuous relative motion that occurs between the mating parts.
Fretting is the production of fine metal particles, and these oxidize and leave a brown color on
the surface. This is an abrasive type of material that further increases the looseness of the fit.
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L&S Electric 2017 Written by Dave Manney
 Spalling
Also known as fatigue failure, this is a fracture of the bearings running surfaces. It can oc-
cur in the balls, outer or inner rings. Since this is a progressive failure type, it can spread and
worsen because of further operation with this condition. An increase in vibration will result
from this problem, and it is advisable to replace the bearing to improve life span.

Chapter 3
Proper Handling for Ball Bearings
It is essential to handle ball bearings properly to prolong their lifespan and improve their
performance. Among the different techniques involved in ball bearing maintenance practices
include the following:

Proper Storage
The ideal location to store bearings is in an environment free of dust, high humidity levels,
vibrations, and shocks. Never store bearings in a standing position to prevent false brinelling
or wear of rolling elements and raceways linked with residual vibration.

Mounting
Before mounting a bearing, you need to make sure that the housing and shaft do not have
any damage or dirt. The dimensions should also be accurate with the right tolerance and
fit. Necessary tools must be within reach to facilitate the correct mounting process. When
mounting a bearing, never strike it directly with any hard object, such as a steel hammer or
chisel to avoid damages.

When it comes to small or medium-sized bearings, it is ideal to perform cold mounting us-
ing the appropriate fitting tools. This makes sure that the right amount of force is applied to
the bearing rings. On the other hand, larger bearings may be mounted through hot mount-
ing method. Expanding the bearings make it easier to install and ensure the proper fit.

Lubricating Bearings
One of the most important aspects of healthy bearings is proper lubrication. As weve
talked about before, the amount and type of lubrication are critical. Choosing the proper
lubricant helps bearings perform as long as intended. Good lubricants primarily provide a
separating film between a bearings rolling elements, raceways, and cages. This lubrication
prevents metal-to-metal contact and friction that generate excessive heat, lead to adhesive
wear, and cause subsequent metal fatigue and spalling of the bearing contact surfaces. The
proper lubrication inhibits wear, corrosion, and contamination damage.

Maintaining Your Bearings

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 Promote the health of your bearings through predictive maintenance techniques. You may
perform vibration analysis to identify possible defects. To correct an issue, laser shaft align-
ment may be effective and beneficial to use.

Replacing Your Bearings

Removing old bearings may lead to problems with the replacement bearings if not handled
correctly. Improper methods may result in shaft damages, which can compromise a machines
efficiency and significantly influence the service life of the new bearing. Make it a point to
use the right tools, depending on the fit, size, and type of the bearing in question.

When a bearing must be replaced because of premature failure, bearing and grease analysis
can help determine root causes, which can include inadequate lubrication, contamination,
errors in mounting or dismounting, and electrical damage. Pinpointing the actual causes will
contribute to prevent a repeat failure.

Chapter 4
Beware of Counterfeit Ball Bearings
If counterfeit ball bearings were easy to recognize or limited to one size or market, we
would not have the problem we have today. Counterfeit ball bearings are a global challenge,
and all markets, all segments, all types, and all sizes are affected. In fact, fake bearings cur-
rently account for 60% of Chinas total bearing trade.

Counterfeiters have become so skilled that its almost impossible to detect a fake. Those
counterfeit bearings enter the market in some ways. According to SKF, counterfeit bearings
have been discovered when:

Counterfeiters have become so skilled that its almost impossible to detect a fake. Those
counterfeit bearings enter the market in some ways.

Bearings are re manufactured then sold with no indication that they have been re
manufactured.

Timeworn bearings are cleaned, polished and supplied without informing the buyer of
how old they are.

And just as there are some ways counterfeit bearings can enter the market, there are many
ways they can affect your business.

Financial Problems
Anticipated cost savings is what keeps the fake ball bearing machine functioning. However,
any value that is saved by paying less for counterfeit ball bearings isnt saved for long. Liken
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 this to any counterfeit product. If you buy a watch that claims to be a Rolex but isnt a Rolex,
would you expect it to keep time as well and last as long as a Rolex? And, if that imitation
watch breaks, then what? Is the person or place that sold you the watch going to stand be-
hind their product? Of course not.

The same is the experience with counterfeit ball bearings. Counterfeit bearings are not
made with the same high-quality material, attention to detail, and held to the same techni-
cal manufacturing standards as quality ball bearings. As such, they have a high likelihood of
being faulty. And, if they do fail, the distributor you purchased them from will not offer a
warranty.

As such, the money you saved by buying these less expensive bearings multiplies in cost
to your business. Especially when you realize equipment downtime, plant shut-downs, and
repair costs.

Safety Problems
This is where the repercussions of counterfeits exceed all other counterfeits. A real danger is
posed to your employees when a machine in your plant fails. Lives can be lost if bearings fail
on cars, buses, planes, or any other machinery we rely on for transportation. No amount of
money saved is worth the cost to human lives.

Reputation Problems
Counterfeiting is illegal and unethical. Your company will be the one taking responsibility
if your product fails or someone is injured.

When the products you manufacture do not work as well as promised or break down early
(because of faulty counterfeit ball bearings) harming your good name. Whether you make
escalators, skateboards, garage door openers, blenders, wash machines, mechanical tooth-
brushes or any number of products that use ball bearings, your reputation is on the line if
your product fails. Consumers have excellent memories, and your competition will be sure to
capitalize on your mistake.

Tips to Avoid Counterfeit Bearings

Educate Yourself

Knowledge is power. The more you know about the counterfeit ball bearing problem,
the more you can do to ensure that you do not become a victim. We at L&S Electric have
published some blog posts on this issue, and we encourage you to explore them for more
information. Further, talk to your dealers and your staff about the problem and make sure to
educate everyone.

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Only Buy From a Trusted Source
L&S Electric 2017 Written by Dave Manney
 We cannot stress the importance of this enough. By purchasing your bearings from a source
of confidence who is also an authorized dealer, you can feel confident about the product you
are buying. And, even if you end up with a sub-standard product, reputable distributors help
you resolve the situation by ensuring the replacement of the product and compensating you
for any losses.

Be Wary of Offers That Are Too Good To Be True

There is a saying that if a deal is too good to be true, it probably is. Counterfeits will fail,
either in your plant machinery or in the products you sell, and your company will be respon-
sible for the losses. This is not a chance worth taking, no matter how good the deal seems.

Get Checked

If you suspect that you may have purchased counterfeits and you did not buy from a trust-
ed, authorized supplier, contact the premium brand manufacturer first to report the problem.
If you have purchased them from an authorized vendor and still have suspicions, contact your
provider and arrange a test of your machinery. Catching the problem before disaster strikes
will save you downtime, money, and potential injuries to your employees and customers.

Its up to all of us to do our part to eliminate the counterfeit problem. By learning more
about the issue, only making purchases from authorized dealers, trusting your instincts when
it comes to the deals you receive, and sharing what you know with your employees and busi-
ness partners you will help to make great strides in making the problem of counterfeit ball
bearings just a memory.

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 UNIT 4: Electric Motors
Chapter 1
Motor Failures
Electric motors are an essential part of our daily life as many systems, applications, and
services depend on them. Motors today have a long service life and require a minimum level
of maintenance to make sure that they perform efficiently. In large buildings, motors have to
be maintained on a regular basis because they need to be in operation all the time; one small
problem could cause a significant loss to the organization.

Usually, in large organizations, a motor maintenance program is carried out in which the
causes of motor failures are identified, and some necessary steps are taken to avoid them or
lower their impact. Motors need to be regularly inspected, and other maintenance activities
need to be performed to ensure efficient operation. Whenever a problem occurs, it should be
corrected immediately to avoid further loss.

There are six leading causes of electric motor failures:

Over-Current (Electrical Overload)

In different operating conditions, electrical devices will sometimes start to draw more
current than their overall capacity. This random event will happen very suddenly and will
significantly impact the motor. To avoid an over-current, some devices need to be installed
that can prevent it from happening. These devices are usually wired in the circuits and will
automatically shut down the extra amount of current in the circuit.

Low Resistance
Most motor failures occur due to low insulation resistance. This issue is considered to be
the most difficult one to tackle. In the initial stages of motor installation, the insulation
resistance is observed to be more than one thousand megaohms. After some time, the insula-
tion performance starts to degrade at an alarming level because the resistance starts to decay
gradually. After a lot of research, a solution has been found which can prevent low resistance
failures. There are automatic devices that test insulation resistance from time to time and
safeguard rotating equipment is installed that prevents such failures. It is important that the
insulation performance is monitored at regular intervals.

Overheating
Overheating also occurs when an electric motor is forced to operate in a high-temperature
environment. For every ten centigrade rise in temperature, the insulation life is cut in half. It
has been concluded that more than 55% of the insulating failures are caused by overheating.
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 This causes the rate at which heat can be conducted to reduce at an alarming rate. The area
where electric motors are operating must have a proper cooling system, and a ventilation
system should be there in case the cooling system stops working.

Dirt
Dirt is one of the primary sources that cause damage to the electric motors. It can damage
the motor by blocking the cooling fan which causes its temperature to rise. It can also affect
the insulating value of the winding insulation if it settles on the motor windings. Proper steps
should be taken to prevent the motors from dirt. Shielding devices are available which are
used for this purpose.

Moisture
The presence of moisture greatly contributes to the corrosion of the motor shafts, bearings,
and rotors, as well as insulation failure. Thus, it is important to keep the motor inventory dry
all the time.

Vibration
There are many possible causes of vibration, such as misalignment of the motor. Corrosion
of parts can also cause the motor to vibrate. The alignment of the motor should be checked
to eliminate this issue.

There are numerous reasons an electric motor may fail. Thorough maintenance plans and
common sense help alleviate some of the causes listed.

Chapter 2
Tips for a Successful Electric Motor Inspection
When an electric motor has experienced some failure, it is important to diagnose it and to
determine what has taken place so that it can be repaired or replaced as is necessary. Often,
it is possible to diagnose an electric motor by doing some routine checks and by giving it a
visual inspection.

Here are some of the things you can do to achieve an effective electric motor inspection:

Conduct a Preliminary Visual Inspection

The first thing that you should do is to give the motor a thorough visual inspection to de-
termine if any exterior problems would indicate an internal issue. Check the mounting holes
and feet attached to the motor to determine if they are experiencing any problems. If they are
broken, it may mean that the electric motor was not seated correctly.

26 You should also examine the motor around the openings to determine if there is any debris
L&S Electric 2017 Written by Dave Manney
 that may have found its way into the motor and caused the problem. Any external damage
may also be an indication that there are problems internally as well. For example, if the paint
on the motor is discolored or damaged in one particular area, it may show that there is over-
heating take place on the inside.

Check the Bearings

Although it is possible to check the bearings by tearing the motor apart and looking at
them visually, it may also be possible to check them externally as well. It should be possible
to rotate the shaft by hand, although you may need to place another hand on top of the
electric motor to keep it from moving. The movement of the shaft should be smooth and
clean. If there is any indication of uneven movement in the rotor or if you hear a scraping or
grinding sound, there may be a problem with the bearings that need to be corrected.

While you are turning the shaft, you should also take a moment to push in on the shaft
and see if it is going to have adequate movement into the frame. A little bit of play in this
regard is not typically an indication that there is a problem with the bearings but if there is
excessive play, you may need to investigate further.

Determine the Fans Condition

The fan is very important for helping to keep the motor cool. A visual inspection of the
fan may show that it is damaged or that it has become obstructed in some way or another. If
any damage is found or if it has a significant amount of dirt in the area of the fan, it could
indicate that overheating was a problem.

Conduct an Inspection of the Windings

Using a test lamp or ohmmeter may make it possible to determine if the windings have
shortened. If they have, a problem with tripped circuit breakers may occur because it will be
drawing higher amps than it should.

Although these are only a few of the ways that you can inspect your electric motor, they
will often help you to determine the general reason why a failure has occurred. Having an
idea of where to look helps save you both time and money when it comes to having the mo-
tor repaired or recognizing that it needs to be replaced.

Chapter 3
Diagnosing Electric Motor Problems
Motors are susceptible to various faults in industrial applications. A motor failure cannot
be identified in an initial stage but may become disastrous, and the motor may suffer severe
damage if not identified earlier. Therefore, undetected motor faults may cause motor failure
27 which may lead to production shutdown. Nobody wants to keep the motors humming as
L&S Electric 2017 Written by Dave Manney
 this is a warning to a potential threat. Diagnostics can let you know when a motor is having
problems. If a motor fails, it could shut your process down for days causing a great financial
loss to your industry.

Motor failure includes inter-turn short circuits in stator windings, bearing failures and
broken end ring and rotor bars. It has been noticed that approximately 60% of motor failures
are caused because of bearing failure and 30% because of an inter-turn short circuit in stator
windings.

There are two new methods used for motor diagnosis which can determine the arrival of a
potential threat. This is important to ensure the seamless working of the industrial processes
and also to ensure a constantly growing profitability graph.

The first method is known as induction motor fault diagnostic technique. This method
classifies two types of motor faults such as broken rotor bars and inter-turn short circuits.
Moreover, this approach also identifies the severity of the motor fault.

The second method is motor fault monitoring techniques which identify whether the
operating condition of a motor is healthy or faulty. This method is quite robust because it
provides a high level of motor fault monitoring accuracy.

Chapter 4
Electric Motor Failure: What Can You Do?
As a business, you likely rely on your electric motors to provide you with steady, depend-
able service. Unfortunately, electric motors are imperfect, just as is any other type of equip-
ment that you may be used within your business. As a result of the imperfection, it is not un-
common for electric motors to fail or to malfunction. The problems that are associated with
such a failure can either be a mild inconvenience, or it could even be as serious as stopping
the production for a significant amount of time. Of course, there will be financial problems
that are associated with it as well.

When an electric motor fails, you have some decisions that need to be made. The first thing
that you need to do, however, is to determine the impact that it has on your operation. From
that point, you need to determine if it is necessary to replace the motor or if it is possible to
repair it in some way or another. Here are the options that you have available.

Replace the Motor

Depending on the size of the motor and the problem that caused it to fail, it may be
to your benefit to replace it. This is particularly the case when it comes to smaller electric
motors that are relatively inexpensive. It may not be worth the time and effort to repair the
motor when you can simply replace it at a minimal cost.
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 Even in larger electric motors, however, the best choice may be to replace the motor rath-
er than to give it an overhaul. For example, the motor may have completely failed, and it is
going to cost too much time and money to repair it. If your operation depends on that par-
ticular unit, obviously you would not want your entire line to be down as a result of a single
malfunction.

Is the motor suitable for the job? This is also something that needs to be considered, and
the time when the motor failure occurs is the best time to reconsider the possibility of up-
grading the motor to something that provides a suitable amount of power.

Rewind the Motor

The other option that you have available is to rewind the motor that has failed. You need to
consider the size of the motor, its importance in your operation and the expense of replacing
versus rewinding the motor to determine which is going to be the best choice for you.

In some cases, you may have a motor that is very difficult to manufacture, and it can take
quite some time before you can receive a replacement. If that is the case, you may want to
consider rewinding the motor, even if it is a better choice financially to replace it. This is es-
pecially true if the motor plays an important role in your business and you would not be able
to continue without its operation.

Chapter 5
The Efficiency Level of Repaired Motors
Considering the continuous spike in energy costs, it is only practical for businesses to ex-
plore ways on how to cut down expenses by ensuring the efficiency of the motors used in the
industry. When these motors begin to malfunction, however, you may wonder if it is better
to have these repaired or replaced and which option is more economical. Will rebuilt mo-
tor maintain the efficiency it had when it was brand new, or are you better off investing in a
new one instead? Read along and discover more about motor repair and its impact on energy
efficiency.

Facts about the Efficiency of Repaired Motors

Most people assume that motors are impossible to be repaired without negatively impact-
ing their efficiency. However, some studies prove how it is possible to maintain the energy
efficiency of motors after implementing good practices during the repair process. This was
based on research done in 2003 by the Association of Electrical and Mechanical Trades in the
United Kingdom and the Electrical Apparatus Service Association in the United States.

In a study commissioned by these companies, 22 motors with varied size from 50 to 200
HP were tested regarding their efficiency before and after the rewinds. After the test, it was
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 observed that by incorporating excellent practices throughout the repair process, motor effi-
ciency was maintained. For instance, friction loss in bearing may be controlled upon replace-
ment using the original bearing, applying the right amount of lubricant and repairing the
correct housing and bearing journal.

However, it is worth noting that the decision process involved in repairing a failed motor
requires certain steps to ensure positive results. Initially, you need to identify the suitability of
the motor for the repair. Once it has been determined that the motor may qualify for repair,
assessment of its total condition must be done. Keep in mind that it is always much cheaper
to purchase a brand new motor instead of repairing one that has sustained severe damages on
the stator core.

Before you decide to repair a motor with standard-efficiency quality, make it a point to
determine the return on your investment depending on the expected lifespan of the motor.
If you believe that the replacement is a better option, you need to check your budget and the
feasibility to buy a new motor. Nevertheless, repair may serve as a more practical choice if the
cost involved is less than purchasing a new motor and if the efficiency is still maintained after
the entire process.

Chapter 6
Repair or Replace? That is the Question
Deciding whether to repair or replace a non-functioning AC motor requires much thought
and evaluation. After all, some issues only call for a repair, while in other instances, purchas-
ing a brand new electric motor is more practical. How can you make a choice between these
two options?

To Repair or Not to Repair

We all know that replacing an electric motor leads to a few benefits such as reduced chanc-
es of breakdowns, better performance, and improved efficiency. However, its not always the
cost-effective move considering the high upfront fee you may need to factor in. This is why
several businesses are torn between the need to repair or to simply discard the old motor and
buy a new one.

Before the release of electric motors with high energy efficiency ratings, the Rule of 57
made a choice much easier when breakdowns occur. Repairing a motor is ideal if the cost of
doing so is 57 percent less than what you would have paid to replace it. If you have to shell
out more than 57 percent for the repair costs, then you are better off buying a new motor.

But with energy-efficient motors used in industries nowadays, there are more things to con-
sider than the cost of repair. In fact, studies reveal that repairing a malfunctioning motor can
30 maintain or even enhance its energy efficiency. This makes the decision process not as simple
L&S Electric 2017 Written by Dave Manney
 as it seems.

Motor failure occurs because of several reasons such as the hours of operation and age,
among a few other causes. If you decide to get a motor repaired, you will need to factor in
the cause of failure, including its potential overall efficiency post-repair and its age. Experts
suggest that purchasing a higher efficiency motor is ideal if the repair cost is over 60 to 70
percent of what you may pay to buy a new one.

You may establish a repair or replacement breakpoint with your larger and smaller motors
in the facility. Get an estimate on the possible cost of buying a new one and compare this
with the expense of an AC motor repair. In addition to the upfront fee, evaluate the life span
of your existing motor and the projected efficiency level after the repair. As you set these stan-
dards, you should be able to come up with a more feasible solution for motor breakdowns in
your plant.

Points to Consider
Many factors influence your decision to repair or replace a motor. For instance, you may
find a replacement with a newer design and better efficiency rating. The size of current
replacement motors is typically smaller than older designs, so this makes it tougher to install
them when they need to be placed in the original motors location. Moreover, older motors
are engineered to last for 25 up to 35 years while current ones have a maximum lifespan of
20 years.

Analyze the cause of failure that occurred to the motor. Catastrophic failures can lead to
significant damages to various components such as the windings, shaft bearings, end brack-
ets, stator core, and rotor. This may result in massive expenses in getting the motor repaired,
as compared to simply buying a new one. There is also the possibility of a recurring issue,
which is highly likely with previous catastrophic failures with older motors. In addition to
the initial repair cost, you may end up having the motor fixed once again in the future in-
stead of simply buying a new one right from the start.

Some damages are generally less expensive to repair than others such as surface smearing
concerns with rotors. However, a badly-damaged shaft or frame is better off being discarded
because of the expensive repair cost. With motors that lack any intricate features, a repair
may be more feasible.

Then, you should think about business productivity (or lack of it) during the repair or re-
placement process. If the lead time for replacing the motor is too long, this will impact your
business operations. This may be the case with new motors that are sent back to the OEM,
or those rebuilt by specialized repair shops. Will you be able to get a spare motor or not? In
some instances, repairing the motor may be the only thing left to do since there is no way for
you to find a replacement for it.
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L&S Electric 2017 Written by Dave Manney
 Naturally, your ultimate goal is to cover production issues in your business. A significant
factor in deciding between repairing or replacing a motor is the length of downtime involved.
You want to get your operations up and running again the soonest possible.

In the end, it all comes down to a few essential points to think about before repairing or re-
placing an electric motor. The cost involved, type of failure, the scope of damage, downtime,
and energy-efficiency are some of the key factors to consider. These will help you make the
most practical choice that can impact your bottom line.

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L&S Electric 2017 Written by Dave Manney