1.

(i)
Novum Organum (New Organ) which is published in 1621 by Francis
Bacon try to create a new path and suggest a plan to set up a new method
for gathering knowledge. By so-called new engine Bacon think to
provide a better method to quickly understand true picture about nature
and reorganize the way of discovery.

Bacon had better vision about human understanding and he realize that
human mind itself does not work in proper structured way, normally
human mind try to find freedom. Therefore he attempt to make a method
for that and introduce Scientific Method. In this method there is no
room for the freedom of a persons mind, like a machine controlled drive
along desired path and from the beginning to end. This method does not
give a chance to the mind act itself because this reason Bacon preferred
to call Scientific method as new machine for the mind.

(ii)
The idiosyncrasies (particular characteristic or habit) of individuals.
The Individual interaction with others.
The philosophical dogmas current at the time.

(iii)
Scholars are normally associated with Universities, church and high
class people in Bacons era. They more interested on theology (religious
studies), languages (Latin, Greek), and classics (masterpieces). They
having talk, argument and debates about god, novels and language. The
craftsmen are on the other hand, they are more practical and produce
more useful items for farming, fishing and day today life. According to
the Bacons view regarding scholars in his era, they not much contribute
to the process of gaining new knowledge. However craftsmen are much
more contribute and involvement in producing new and useful artefacts.
In this reason Bacon promote new method that is scholars should adapt
method of craftsmen. Which will more result oriented. New system of
knowledge for explore the secrets of nature.

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Bacon describe scholars like spiders, they create their own complicated
webs and wait for their pray but craftsmen are like ants, they collect and
heap up there store. However bee is ideal according to the Bacon, bees
collect from the flowers and add some fashions it through own effort.
According to Bacon scholars must act like bees.

(iv)

The method of induction is a method of inductive generalization base on

large number of results (in an experiment or observation) then generalize
result and set the theory. In other word we can say as what obtain of
known instances can be generalize to all, then according to that set the
theory. As example observed 1000 crows and those are black in colour,
therefor it can be generalize as all crows are black in colour.

(v)

According to the passage Bacon approach towards to the nature in

extracting it secrets there is no boundaries, no good or bad limitation for
gaining knowledge. According to Bacon nature is an enemy and
knowledge is power over nature for benefit of the mankind nature should
be dissected and torched to review the secrets.

(vi)

According to the Bacons view knowledge is power. Knowledge is power

over nature for the benefit of mankind but actual picture is not like that,
Bacons nature include man. Therefor the knowledge can use to conquer
man and other nations. Bacons knowledge expect the empire greatness.

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2. (i)
How do we acquire knowledge of the unobserved? Normally in induction
generalization use observation for gain the knowledge but Humes critics
is how we get knowledge about un observed that may be difference. We
generalize based on what we observed if there is any different in
unobserved our knowledge misleads.

(ii)

According to the Humes critique he raised point how it is use induction

to prove induction. We cannot use result to prove result. We can explain
it using below example. In induction generalization assume that when
all crows in the world are black by observing some countries crows like
Sri Lanka, India and Somalia etc. according to Bacons method we can
justify it by saying that in the world or nature some kind of uniformity
therefore no harm to assume that all crows in the world are black. Hume
shows that any attempt to justify the principals of induction using this
method leads to circulating in argument.

(iii)
Based on collected observation and generalizing it we can say that
method of induction, cause-effect reduction also link with induction
generalization. It can explain by using example. When medical scientist
in determining the cause for a particular illness as an example Malaria.
Patients admitted to the hospital regarding fever, Doctors collect data
such as name, age, gender, address etc. then scientist observe the pattern
and segregate malaria patients, then find the area of spread the disease,
using patients addressers. After they found an area they send a team to
collect mosquito samples. From the mosquito sample corresponding type
for the fever identified. Now they have two type of observations one is
mosquito bites other hand fever. Using statistic they can find co-relation
between mosquito bites and fever. Therefore cause is mosquito
(mosquito bites) effect fever (malaria). Both cause and effect found
based on observations therefore we can conclude that this is the method

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 of induction generalization. There may be people who got mosquito bites
but not effect from fever due to some reason. Most of the people got fever
from the mosquito bite.

Medical scientist are trying to co-related two sets of variables and if

found co-relation they say particular mosquito (Anopheles) cause for the
effect of fever that is induction generalization. Therefore method of
induction uses to find cause-effect.

(iv)
Humes criticized the induction generalization due to circularity in
argument also reject method of deductive hypothesis which is belongs to
rationalists and it is not based on sense experience. he did not have
answer but accepted that it is human nature to draw generalize from
observed to unobserved and also link cases-effect relationship from
similar causes and similar effects.

3. (i)
a. Observations

Positivists are believed that the methodology of the empirical tradition

therefor they try to prove method of induction. According to the
positivism observation are pure in science that mean observations are
theory independent and no any interference from theory.

As realist Karl Popper having different idea about observations.

Observations are theory dependent, science should start with problem
and come up with theory. Falsified that theory through observations.
Observations are taken into account only they are describable. Most
observations made with the help of instruments, these are design with a
help of some theory.

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b. Theory of Science
A theory is compressed result of asset of well-ordered observation
statement therefore a theory is reducible to set of statements describing
observations. Theory also describe as establish truth according to the
positivism.
According to the Popper theories of science are creation of created
scientist. It cannot explain by others because it is outcome of particular
scientists brain creation therefor theory only can explain by him who
created. We can guess but it will not be the exact same.

c. Method of Science
According to the positivists the method of science is the method of
induction. The assurance of science is that its statements are
systematically verifiable.

According to the Popper the method of science is method of falsification.

That mean any theory is good theory if it is more falsifiable theory.

(ii)
According to the Karl Popper scientific theories must be falsifiable, if
theory is falsified that theory must be rejected. To save the theory from
being falsified we should not made ad-hoc modifications. That cause for
that theory become weaker, therefore need to replace existing theory by
new theory which more falsifiable that mean it is better theory.

(iii)
Popper use method of falsification to demarcate science from non-
science. According to the Popper if any statement or set of statements are
falsifiable then that statements or set of statements are scientific else if
any statements or set of statements are not falsifiable then those
statements or set of statements are non-science.

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(iv)
Normally any theory, the prediction from the theory have to be obtained
not only from that theory but also from the theory incorporate with
number of other factors. These are known as auxiliary hypothesis and
initial conditions

P (Hypothesis implies predictions)

H
~P (Predictions is false)

~H (Therefore Hypothesis is false)

H + I1 + I2 . + A1+A2 . P
(Hypothesis + initial conditions + Aux hypotheses implies predictions)

(Predictions is false)
~P

~ H + I1 + I2 . + A1+A2
.
(Therefore Hypothesis + initial conditions + Aux hypotheses is false)

According to the Popper falsification, main theory may not be fault but
due one or more other factors (auxiliary hypothesis and initial
conditions) fault then consider main theory is fault. That is the main
drawback of methodology of falsification.

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