obtained is sufficiently accurate for many purposes and in

particular for the largely qualitative study of elementary fluid

EXPERIMENT I
FLOW VISUALIZATION USING THE HYDROGEN
BUBBLE TECHNIQUE
1.1 Purpose
To observe and analyse some of the basic flow patterns
using the hydrogen bubble technique are the main purposes of
the experiment.
1.2 Description of Hydrogen Bubble Technique
Hydrogen bubble technique is based on the generation
of hydrogen bubbles at a fine wire cathode which is positioned
in and normal to the fluid flow. The hydrogen bubbles are
produced by electrolysis of water at a fine cathode. A pattern of
fine bubbles is observed and these are made clearly visible by
the specially developed system of illumination. The success of
the technique depends upon the standard of illumination and
the consistent quality of bubble generation in terms of both
numerical density and size of the bubbles. The sizes of the
bubbles change from 0.00125 to 0.05 mm diameter, and their
rate of rise due to the natural buoyancy of the H2 gas is small
compared to their convection rate in the downstream direction
due to the mean flow velocity. Hence the flow visualization
mechanics.
The merits of the technique become obvious when seen
in action. In suitable circumstances, streamlines, velocity
profiles, and even the distortion of fluid elements can be
observed by using the appropriate cathode and by controlling,
the electric current which produces the bubbles. The pulse
generator produces "on" and "off" pulses, being independently
and continuously variable within the range 10-1800 ms. The
on/off timings are displayed on digital meters. The bubble
density is variable with the cathode's current being displayed on
the ammeter. The generator is provided with an on/off switch
indicator. Switches are also provided for pump and light
control. The light source consists of a 55 W, 12 V Tungsten
Halogen bulb. The light is guided through a polished clear
acrylic and works on the principle of internal reflection. It
produces a sheet of light below the surface of water and can be
moved in a horizontal, vertical or angular direction for
optimum viewing conditions at any point in the channel.
The cathode consists of a fine platinum/iridium wire
supported under tension in two-pronged fork holder is supplied
in three widths: 35 mm, 50 mm, 75 mm. The cathode holder is
mounted on a versatile support tripod.
1.3 Set-up and Assembly
Figure 1. shows the complete assembly of the
hydrogen-bubble flow visualization set-up.

1

Fig 1.1 Hydrogen Bubble Flow Visualization System
1.3.1 How to set-up the system
1. Position the flow visualization tank on a firm, level
surface which is free from vibration. When the tank is correctly
oriented, the brackets mounted on the wall of the tank will be at
the rear away from the operator.
Adjust the feet (1) on the underside to level the tank in
both planes using a sprit level on the bed of the working
section.
2
2. Place the honeycomb for flow straightener(15) in the
locating slots at the upstream end (left-hand end) of the
working section.
Place one weir (7) in the locating slots at the upstream
end (right-hand end) of the working section.
Screw the model mounting pillar(4) into the tapped hole in the
bed of the working section.
3. Place the baffle plate(6) in position at the
downstream end of the tank with the cut-out located around the
pump body (5).
It is important that the baffle plate is in position during
operation to aid the smooth flow of water around the tank.
4. Assemble the light guide support which consists of
two vertical and one horizontal rod (9), (10) fastened together
by adjustable connectors (11). Screw the large vertical support
rod into the bracket at the rear of the tank ( nearest the weir
end)
Attach the casing (13) of the light guide to one end of
the small vertical support rod and the other end to the
horizontal rod (10) which attaches to the large vertical rod.
Plug the flashgun (14) into the aperture in the side of the light
guide casing with the flash tube facing downwards. The
flashgun can be used in conjunction with a camera to facilitate
photographing of the flow patterns.
Adjust the position of the light guide so that the tip on
the guide (18) is resting on the bed of the working section
adjacent to the model support pillar. (Figure 1.1)
1.3.2 How to operate
1. Connect the electrical wires from the pump (5) to the
sockets marked PUMP on the console ensuring correct polarity
of the connections-red plug to red socket and black plug to
black socket.
2. Connect the electrical wires from the light guide (13)
to the sockets marked LIGHT on the console ensuring correct
polarity of the connections-red plug to red socket and black
plug to black socket.
3. Prepare an electrolyte by dissolving 250 gms of
Sodium Sulphate Na2SO4.10H2O (commonly known as
Glauber's Salt) in a beaker containing warm water. Stir until the
salt is completely dissolved.
Half fill the flow visualization tank with cold clean
water.
Pour the electrolyte into the tank, then continue filling
with clean water until the level is slightly above the top weir
(7).
Note: The height of the water is important. If the level is too
low, the water will not flow. If the level is too high, the
weir will not control the depth in the working section.
4. Install the smallest of the electrode holders(2) into
the block(16) on the support(17) and secure in position by
tightening the clamping screws.
3
Clean the platinum wire (3) using a solvent such as
acetone to remove all traces of grease or dirt.
Place the electrode holder support in the working
section at the upstream end (LHS) with the prongs of the holder
pointing downstream.
Attach the crocodile clip on the black connecting lead
to the bare metal at the top of the holder (2). Connect the other
end of the lead to the black socket on the console (marked
PROBE)
Attach the crocodile clip on the red connecting lead to
one of the metal weir supports (2). Connect the other end of the
lead to the red socket on the console ( marked PROBE)
Note: It is essential that this orientation of connections is
observed, otherwise oxygen will be generated at the
cathode wire and such bubbles are uselessly large and
uncontrollable for flow visualization.
5. Connect the mains cable from the console to the
electrical supply. Switch the console on (POWER switch) and
observe that the digital meters illuminate and display zero
readings.
Turn the pump speed control knob fully counter
clockwise (minimum speed). Switch the pump on (PUMP
switch) and adjust the speed of the pump by turning the control
knob clockwise. Allow the system to purge off air and allow
the electrolyte to mix with the water. Water should flow across
the working section and discharge over the weir at the RHS of
the tank. If water does not flow, check that the level is slightly
above the discharge weir. Adjust the water level if necessary.

6. Ensure that the platinum wire (3) on the probe is
beneath the surface of the water.
Press the BUBBLE START button to generate
hydrogen bubbles at the electrode and start the timing circuits.
Adjust the CURRENT control to give an approximate
reading of 20 mA on the ammeter.
Observe the bubbles are generated at the probe.
Adjust the CURRENT control and observe that the size
of the bubbles increases and decreases.
Adjust the pulse controls and observe that the pattern
of bubbles changes and the duration of the pulse and duration
between pulses are displayed on the digital meters.
1.4 Adjustment of the Bubble Generator
The bubbles will not be clearly visible unless the light guide
is correctly positioned. Adjust the light guide for optimum
position to illuminate the bubble sheet. Angling the light
slightly from below will give the best result.
The size of the hydrogen bubbles is very important. If the
bubbles are too large they will rise to the surface and not follow
the flow patterns as required.
On the other hand, if the bubbles are small, they will
not be visible. Therefore it is very important to get the optimum
bubble size for good flow visualization.
The size of the bubbles is controlled by the current flowing
through the electrode wire, which can be adjusted by turning
the CURRENT control knob on the console. The current
flowing through the wire is indicated on the ammeter. The
4
optimum setting should approximately be 0.5 amps per meter
of exposed electrode wire. Therefore, following settings are
suggested.
35 mm long electrode : 20 mA
50 mm long electrode : 25 mA
75 mm long electrode : 40 mA
Pulsing the bubbles may help to observe more clearly some
phenomena which cannot be otherwise observed with a
continuos stream.
The duration of each pulse (on time of pulses) and the
duration between pulses (off time pulses) is fully adjustable
from approximately 10 to 1800 ms. These durations are
indicated on the digital meters.
The calibration of pulses allow local velocities to be
determined at different positions around a model by simple
measurements in the working section.
1.5 How to Obtain Good Flow Visualization
A good flow visualization is the end result of optimum
settings of these parameters:
1. Good illumination of hydrogen bubbles.
2. Appropriate size and density of bubbles.
3. Correct pulsing of the bubble generation.
 For good flow visualization, a large number of small
equal-sized bubbles are required. The most important factors
which influence the size if the bubbles are:
a) Electric current density
b) The nature of the aqueous solution
c) The size of the cathode wire (length and
diameter)
d) The velocity of the flow past the wire.
Electric Current Density
The volume of hydrogen produced (liberated) at the
cathode is directly proportional to the current supplied at the
wire. The number and size of the bubbles produced is
independent of the applied voltage except in so far as current is
proportional to voltage, as it is throughout the range of current
densities likely to be used in this work. The precise relationship
between the current and voltage is a function of the
conductivity of the water and the geometry of the field being
investigated. The conductivity of water to current can vary at
least an order of magnitude depending on the nature of water
(acidic or basic) and can be adjusted by the addition of a
suitable electrolyte. The exact relationship between the current
density and the bubble size is not known but the current density
(current per unit area of wire surface) is directly related to the
wire diameter. If we limit ourselves to the wire sizes to be used
in practice (0.025 to 01.25 mm diameter ) then we can say that
the bubble sizes are roughly proportional to the current density.
This linearity between bubble sizes and current density breaks
down with increasing wire diameter and current density.
5
Nature of Aqueous Solution
This is the most important parameter that influences the
bubble size. The addition of an acid to the solution will
increase the bubble size whereas an alkali addition will reduce
the bubble size. Neutral salts are preferred for additives to
increase the electrical conductivity and to control the bubble
size. Sodium Bromide or Sodium Sulphate are both
recommended. The next result will be to effectively increase
the amount of hydrogen generation without an increase in
bubble size. Another important contribution of these salt
additives is to increase the uniformity of the size of bubble
produced along the length of the wire. Practically 25 g of salt
per liter of solution is recommended for satisfactory results.
Another important point to notice is that the inclusion of a
small amount of detergent in the solution will dramatically
increase the bubble size hence it is not recommended to clean
the system with detergents.
Diameter of the Cathode Wire
In general, the smaller the better. The size adopted will
be a compromise between the mechanical strength and the
resulting bubble size. Maximum wire size is about 0.125 mm.
This will give bubbles of about 0.05 mm diameter with a
current of 0.63 amps per m of wire. This size is acceptable for
fluid velocities of the order of 150 mm/s or above. However for
most of the applications the recommended wire diameter is
0.05 mm. with a high concentration of Na2SO4 and a current
density of 0.24 to 0.48 amp/m of wire the probable bubble size
produced by a wire of 0.05 mm diameter will range between
0.025 to 0.037 mm diameter. These are acceptable bubble sizes
for most qualitative visualization experiments.
Velocity of Flow Past the Wire
The size of the bubble produced at a 0.5 mm diameter
wire tends to be independent of the velocity of the mean flow
past the wire, provided that this velocity is above 50 m/s.
Below this speed, there will be an increase of bubble size
which reaches a maximum size in static water. Typically this
increase would be from 0.025 mm diameter bubbles to 0.03
mm under static conditions. The more important effect of the
speed of flow is on the maximum tolerable size of bubble.
Since buoyancy effects become more important as the flow
speed is reduced, larger diameter bubbles will have a tendency
to rise to the surface.
The majority of experiments will be performed at a
speed of 25 mm/s or above and for this, bubbles of 0.038 mm
diameter are acceptable. This means a current of 0.48 Amps/m
of wire.
In local areas of very low speed flow, such as separation
regions downstream of a bluff body, the bubbles will tend to
rise relatively rapidly and this must be taken into account when
interpreting the results of an experiment.
1.6 Suggested Flow Visualization Experiments
1.6.1 Flow over a circular cylinder
6
Flow pattern observed for a circular cylinder strongly
U. d
depends on the Reynolds number, Re d = . For very low
Reynolds numbers, of the order 1, the flow is the called
creeping flow and there is no separation observed from the
surface of the cylinder. At this very low Reynolds number, one
can think of the boundary layer as being extremely thick and as
affecting the flow at a large distance from the cylinder.
As the Reynolds number is increased, the concept of
boundary layer becomes more useful. the flow starts to separate
from the surface. At first this separation is on the rear side of
the cylinder but with increased Red, it moves more and more
towards the forward position. With thickening effect of wake,
the separation point stabilizes just upstream of the centerline of
the cylinder, symmetrically and the resultant wake is laminar
and steady.
At around Red = 50, the wake starts to oscillate slowly
about a mean position but the two vortices remain trapped.
With increasing Red the wake rapidly becomes unstable and at
a value of 70, the vortices are shed alternatively from either
side of the cylinder, and the familiar oscillating vortex sheet
becomes established.
At about Red = 105 , the separation points move toward
the rear of the cylinder, due to the delay of separation when
flow goes through a laminar-turbulent transition. One can get
turbulent flow, even at lower Red ( 104), when free stream
turbulence is high or when the cylinder surface is made rough.
These changes in wake pattern and the related vortex
shedding have significant effects on the forces acting on the
cylinders. The initial boundary layer separation with its trapped
vortices causes a departure from the theoretically predicted
drag. The establishment of the alternate vortex shading, which
occurs at a definite frequency, gives rise to an oscillating lift
force on the cylinder as the magnitude of the bound vortex
fluctuates. It is this oscillating lift force which can cause
transverse oscillation of cylinders, such as telegraph wires,
vibration of suspended bridges (sometimes disastrous, i.e.
Tokamak bridge).
When the separation point moves behind the cylinder,
the relatively low pressure wake becomes narrower and there is
a sudden reduction in the drag experienced by the cylinder.
Around the critical Reynolds number, the definite periodicity
associated with vortex shedding is lost but there is evidence to
suggest that this returns at about Red = 4x106. This critical Red
can be reduced by roughening the cylinder.
Many of these characteristics will be demonstrated here,
using a 75 mm long cathode and a set of concentric cylinders.
While flow upstream can be visualized by placing the wire
upstream of the cylinder, wake flow visualization can best be
achieved by placing the wire immediately downstream of the
cylinder. Using flow speeds from 12 to 200 mm/s, cylinders of
3 to 25 mm diameter, the variation of the wake characteristics
for 35< Red < 4.5x103 may be studied. However, critical
Reynolds number is not possible to achieve using this
equipment. Even using a cylinder of 100 mm diameter the
maximum Reynolds number would not exceed 2x104, which is
just below the critical value for the roughest cylinder.
Starting vortices can be observed with the cylinder. In
this case there are two, symmetrically-placed and contra
rotating, since no lift is generated at low Reynolds numbers.
7
1.6.2. Flow over an Airfoil
A symmetrical airfoil section is provided with the set-
up. When the airfoil is placed into the flow with zero angle of
attack, one can easily observe the stagnation point at the
leading edge and the streamlines following the surface of the
streamlined body where the separation point is moved further
downstream aft body and near the trailing edge. With
increasing flow velocity and Reynolds number, the separation
moves further downstream because of the increased momentum
of the flow near the surface. In practice, trip wires are provided
to ensure that the boundary layer forming on the top of the
airfoil is turbulent thus decaying of separation.
1.6.3 Starting Vortex
When an airfoil starts to move relative to the stream, the
initial flow is very close to the ideal flow; the flow at the
trailing edge tends to be round the edge, from the underside to
the stagnation point on the upper surface. However as the flow
speeds up, it can not turn the sharp trailing edge and the flow
separates at the trailing edge. Thus a vortex, rotating counter
clockwise is swept off the section in to the free stream. The
loss of this "starting vortex" implies the existence of a "bound"
vortex of the same magnitude associated with the section. This
bound vortex must exist since about the field as a whole there
was no circulation before the motion started. It is the bound
vortex that is responsible for the generation of lift.
 Place the wire immediately downstream of the section
in the center of the light sheet. The section, held at a large angle
of incidence should be suddenly moved upstream by 25 mm or
so. To keep a steady continuos sheet of bubbles, the flow
velocity must be kept at a low level of 12 mm/s. A large
counter clockwise rotating vortex will be shed from the trailing
edge and will be seen to be moving at right angles to the
motion below the section. An opposite rotating stopping
vortex may also be observed. With a 3-D wing of finite length,
the starting and bound vortices will be joined by the so called
tip vortices to form a complete closed vortex loop (horse shoe
vortex).