Production of Cellulose Acetate Biofilm From Carica Papaya L.

PRODUCTION OF CELLULOSE ACETATE BIOPLASTIC FILM FROM
PAPAYA (Carica papaya L.) PEELINGS
A Plant Design
Presented to the Faculty of the
School of Technology
University of the Philippines Visayas
In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree
Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering
BRYLE KRISTIANN CASINILLO CAMAROTE
NIMROD BALICAS ROMELO
SARAH JANE INIEGO VALDON
MAY 2017
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Philippines had an average production volume of Papaya of about 121,304 tons
per year, making Papaya as one of the leading fruit crops grown in the country. Due to
the worsening issue on solid waste management brought about by using petroleum-based
plastics, utilization of biodegradable sources such as fruit wastes has been considered.
The manufacturing plant will produce a cellulose acetate bioplastic film using
waste Papaya peelings (Carica papaya L.). Bioplastic film produced is odorless, isotropic,
tasteless, nontoxic, have good flexibility, transparency and thermoplastic properties
comparable to the commercially-available plastics. The proposed plant, located at
Tandang Sora, Novaliches, Quezon City, will have a 5-hectare land area for a total capital
investment of Php 68,983,826.770. The plant location is an urban area in the middle of
the city and near the source of raw materials which will significantly lessen transportation
expenses.
The manufacturing plant is designed to operate 20 hours a day and a total of 313
days for the whole year with a maximum of 52 days for repair and maintenance. The
plant will utilize 43,000 metric tons of Papaya peelings per annum and is estimated to
produce 8,644.053 metric tons of film in a year.
Economic analysis shows that for a total annual operating expense of Php
2,691,483,711 the estimated total revenue is Php 2,766,097,090 resulting to an annual
profit of Php 74,613,379.56. This will give a return on investment of about 108.16%
annually and an estimated payback period of 11 months or 0.92 years.
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(Carica papaya L.) Peelings
SCHOOL OF TECHNOLOGY
University of the Philippines Visayas
Miagao, 5023 Iloilo, Philippines
CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL
This plant design, entitled PRODUCTION OF CELLULOSE ACETATE

BIOPLASTIC FILM FROM PAPAYA (Carica papaya L.) PEELINGS, prepared
and submitted by BRYLE KRISTIANN CASINILLO CAMAROTE, NIMROD
BALICAS ROMELO, and SARAH JANE INIEGO VALDON in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering, is
hereby accepted.
NAOMI P. CARNAJE
Adviser
Accepted as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of

Science in Chemical Engineering.
EMELIZA C. LOZADA
Dean
2017 BSCHE-002
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to express our deepest and sincerest gratitude to all the people who
offered their utmost effort in providing us the motivation and the inspiration to make this
plant design a successful one.
First and foremost, we would like to thank fully our adviser, Ms. Naomi Carnaje,
for providing us the knowledge and necessary ideas which really helped us accomplish
this design. For your unwavering support, guidance, and trust that we can finish this
challenging plant design in just roughly 4 months. There may be times when we missed
the supposed deadlines, but you still gave us your patience and understanding. Thank you
for being our pillar and enlightenment in the times we feel down and hopeless with our
plant design.
To our friends, colleagues and dorm mates, thank you for being with our side
during times when we needed comfort and encouragement. The jokes that we laughed at
and the things that we did during our entire college life are priceless and we'll forever
cherish. To our upperclass men, ate Jas, ate Viena and especially kuya Paolo, thank you
very much for politely attending to our queries and providing us information that truly
helped us finish this plant design. Even during late nights, when we randomly send
facebook messages at 3 am just to ask you questions and clarify our confusions, you were
there to give your best to help us. Thank you so much.
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To our dearest parents, who have always been our constant source of strength
since time immemorial and who never failed to give immeasurable support both
financially and emotionally. For being our #1 fan and for always believing that we can do
it, thank you so much Mama and Papa. We love you.
And Lastly, to our Almighty Father, who guides us and allows us to overcome our
struggles in order for us to learn from our experiences; You truly helped us to become
better persons. Thank You Lord God, for strengthening not just our hearts but also our
souls, at times when we're on the verge of giving up. We bring back to You all the glory
and praises.
Bryle Kristiann C. Camarote
Nimrod B. Romelo
Sarah Jane I. Valdon
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................................. i

CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL ....................................................................................... ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................................. iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................... v
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................ x
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................... xiv
CHAPTER 1 ....................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 RATIONALE ............................................................................................................ 1
1.2 OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................................... 4
1.3 SIGNIFICANCE ....................................................................................................... 5
1.4 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS .................................................................................. 6
CHAPTER 2 ....................................................................................................................... 7
2.1 BIOPLASTICS ......................................................................................................... 7
2.1.1 Classification of Bioplastics based on Origin .................................................... 8
2.1.2 Classification based on Biodegradability......................................................... 12
2.2 USES AND APPLICATION .................................................................................. 13
2.2.1 Packaging ......................................................................................................... 14
2.2.2 Comparison with Petroleum-based plastics ..................................................... 15
2.2.3 Bioplastic Standards......................................................................................... 17
2.3 MARKET STUDY ................................................................................................. 19
2.3.1 Supply and Demand ......................................................................................... 19
2.3.2 Bioplastic Industry ........................................................................................... 21
2.4 PAPAYA................................................................................................................. 25
2.4.1 Properties of Papaya ........................................................................................ 26
2.4.2 Papaya Production in the Philippines .............................................................. 27
2.4.3 Utilization of the Papaya plant in the industry................................................. 29
2.4.4 Fruit Wastes ..................................................................................................... 29
2.5 PAPAYA PEELINGS AS BIOPLASTIC .............................................................. 29
2.5.1 Cellulose .......................................................................................................... 30
2.5.2 Cellulose Acetate ............................................................................................. 31
CHAPTER 3 ..................................................................................................................... 32
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3.1 RAW MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES ................................................ 32
3.1.1 Papaya Peelings ............................................................................................... 32
3.1.2 Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) .............................................................................. 33
3.1.3 Calcium hypochlorite (Ca(ClO)2) .................................................................... 34
3.1.4 Sulfuric acid (H2SO4)....................................................................................... 34
3.1.5 Acetic acid (C2H4O2) ....................................................................................... 35
3.1.6 Acetic anhydride (C4H6O3) ............................................................................ 35
3.17 Acetyl triethyl citrate (C14H22O8)...................................................................... 36
3.2 UTILITIES .............................................................................................................. 36
3.2.1 Water ................................................................................................................ 36
3.2.2 Electricity ......................................................................................................... 37
3.2.3 Air .................................................................................................................... 37
3.2.4 Fuel .................................................................................................................. 38
3.3 PROCESS DESCRIPTION .................................................................................... 38
3.3.1 Storage and Handling ....................................................................................... 38
3.3.2 Delignification and Bleaching ......................................................................... 39
3.3.3 Acetylation and Hydrolysis.............................................................................. 40
3.3.4 Addition of Plasticizer ..................................................................................... 41
3.3.5 Formation of Bioplastic ................................................................................... 41
3.4 PRODUCTS AND THEIR PROPERTIES ............................................................. 42
3.4.1 Bioplastic Film ................................................................................................. 42
3.5 BY-PRODUCTS ..................................................................................................... 43
3.5.1 Lignin ............................................................................................................... 43
CHAPTER 4 ..................................................................................................................... 47
4.1 DESIGN CAPACITY OF THE PLANT ................................................................ 47
4.2 SHREDDER (S01).................................................................................................. 50
4.3 TRAY DRYER 1 (D01).......................................................................................... 52
4.4 HAMMER MILL (M01)......................................................................................... 56
4.5 DELIGNIFICATION (L01).................................................................................... 58
4.6 ROTARY VACUUM FILTER 1 (R01) ................................................................. 61
4.7 BLEACH IN-LINE MIXER (MX01) ..................................................................... 65
4.8 BLEACHING (B01) ............................................................................................... 68
4.9 ROTARY VACUUM FILTER 2 (R02) ................................................................. 71
4.10 ACETIC ACID (CH3COOH) MIXING TANK (MX02) ..................................... 75
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4.11 ACETIC ANHYDRIDE (C4H6O3) MIXING TANK (MX03) ............................. 78
4.12 SULFURIC ACID (H2SO4) MIXING TANK (MX04) ........................................ 81
4.13 ACETYLATION AND HYDROLYSIS .............................................................. 84
4.14 ROTARY VACUUM FILTER 3 (RO3)............................................................... 92
4.15 PLASTICIZER (C14H22O8) IN-LINE MIXER (MX05) ....................................... 96
4.16 PLASTICIZING MIXING TANK (PX01) ........................................................... 99
4.17 BIOPLASTIC FILM PRODUCTION DRYING AND CASTING (P01) ....... 102
4.18 MATERIAL BALANCE AROUND THE PROCESSING PLANT .................. 104
4.19 YIELD................................................................................................................. 104
CHAPTER 5 ................................................................................................................... 106
5.1 TRAY DRYER 1 .................................................................................................. 106
5.2 BLEACHING (MIXING TANK 3) ...................................................................... 111
5.3 SULFURIC ACID (H2SO4) MIXING TANK ...................................................... 114
5.4 HEAT EXCHANGER 1 ....................................................................................... 117
5.5 ACETIC ACID (CH3COOH) MIXING TANK ................................................... 120
5.6 HEAT EXCHANGER 2 ....................................................................................... 123
5.7 ACETIC ANHYDRIDE (C3H5O4) MIXING TANK ......................................... 126
5.8 HEAT EXCHANGER 3 ....................................................................................... 129
5.9 ACETYLATION AND HYDROLYSIS (MIXING TANK 3) ............................. 132
5.10 BIOPLASTIC FILM PRODUCTION ................................................................ 136
5.11 POWER REQUIREMENT ................................................................................. 139
CHAPTER 6 ................................................................................................................... 140
6.1 SHREDDER ......................................................................................................... 140
6.2 BELT CONVEYOR ............................................................................................. 141
6.3 HAMMER MILL .................................................................................................. 142
6.4 SCREW CONVEYOR.......................................................................................... 143
6.5 TRAY CABINET DRYER ................................................................................... 144
6.6 STEAM GENERATOR ........................................................................................ 145
6.7. ROTARY DRUM VACUUM FILTER ............................................................... 146
6.8 MIXING TANKS ................................................................................................. 147
6.9 CALCIUM HYPOCHLORITE IN-LINE MIXER ............................................... 148
6.10 PLASTICIZER IN-LINE MIXER ...................................................................... 149
6.12 ACETIC ACID MIXING TANK ....................................................................... 151
6.13 ACETIC ANHYDRIDE MIXING TANK ......................................................... 152
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6.14 SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER ...................................................... 153
6.15 TAPE CASTING MACHINE............................................................................. 155
6.16 WATER STORAGE TANK ............................................................................... 156
6.17 REAGENTS AND PLASTICIZER STORAGE TANK .................................... 157
6.18 SODIUM HYDROXIDE STORAGE TANK .................................................... 158
CHAPTER 7 ................................................................................................................... 162
7.1 SAMPLE CALCULATIONS ............................................................................... 167
CHAPTER 8 ................................................................................................................... 176
8.1 MANUFACTURING PLANT WASTE PRODUCTION .................................... 176
8.2 TYPES OF WASTE ............................................................................................. 176
8.2.1 Liquid Waste .................................................................................................. 177
8.3 WASTEWATER TREATMENT ......................................................................... 178
8.3.1 Noise Pollution............................................................................................... 179
CHAPTER 9 ................................................................................................................... 180
9.1 PLANT OPERATION COSTS............................................................................. 180
9.1.1 Purchased Equipment Cost ............................................................................ 180
9.1.2. Total Capital Investment ............................................................................... 181
9.1.3 Raw Material Cost ......................................................................................... 183
9.1.4 Utility Cost ..................................................................................................... 184
9.1.5 Labor Cost ...................................................................................................... 185
9.1.6 Total Product Cost ......................................................................................... 186
9.2 PRODUCT SALES REVENUE ........................................................................... 188
9.3 PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS ............................................................................ 189
9.3.1 Estimated Annual Profit ................................................................................. 189
9.3.2 Payback Period (PBP) .................................................................................... 190
9.3.3 Return on Investment (ROI) .......................................................................... 190
9.4 Cost Optimization ................................................................................................. 191
CHAPTER 10 ................................................................................................................. 197
10.1 PLANT LOCATION .......................................................................................... 197
10.1.1 Location, Land Area and Climate ................................................................ 198
10.1.2 Water and Power Supply ............................................................................. 200
10.1.3 Availability of Labor and Transportation .................................................... 200
10.1.4 Political, Strategic, and Local Community Considerations ......................... 201
10.2 SITE PLAN AND FACILITY LAYOUT .......................................................... 202
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10.2.1 Structures .................................................................................................. 202
10.3 FACILITY AREA AND COMPUTATION ....................................................... 206
CHAPTER 11 ................................................................................................................. 212
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... 214
APPENDIX A ................................................................................................................. 222
APPENDIX B ................................................................................................................. 225
APPENDIX C ................................................................................................................. 231
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LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE TITLE PAGE
Figure 2.1 Chemical Structure of PLA (left) and PLA pellets (right) ................................ 8
Figure 2.2 Chemical Structure of Amylsoe (left) and Amylopectin (right) ...................... 9
Figure 2.3 Chemical Structure of Cellulose ...................................................................... 11
Figure 2.4 Classification of Plastics According to their Origin and Biodegradability .... 13
Figure 2.5 Global Production Capacities of Bioplastics in 2016 ...................................... 14
Figure 2.6 Global Bioplastics Production in 2016 ............................................................ 16
Figure 2.7 Global Production Capacities .......................................................................... 20
Figure 2.8 Global Production Capacities by Region in 2016 ........................................... 21
Figure 2.9 Carica papaya L. plant and fruit ...................................................................... 26
Figure 2.10 Volume of papaya produced by region as per 1997-2001, Philippines ......... 28
Figure 2.11 Utilization of Papaya in the Philippines, 1992-2001 ..................................... 28
Figure 3.1 Tape Casting Mechanism.................................................................................41
Figure 3.2 Block flow diagram for the manufacture of the bioplastic film ...................... 45
Figure 3.3 Process flow diagram for manufacture of cellulose acetate bioplastic film .... 46
Figure 4.1 Material balance around the shredder...............................................................50
Figure 4.2 Material balance around tray dryer 1............................................................... 53
Figure 4.3 Material balance around hammer mill ............................................................. 56
Figure 4.4 Material balance around mixing tank 1 ........................................................... 59
Figure 4.5 Material balance around rotary vacuum filter 1 .............................................. 62
Figure 4.6 Material balance around in-line mixer 1 ......................................................... 66
Figure 4.7 Material balance around mixing tank 2 ........................................................... 69
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Figure 4.8 Material balance around rotary vacuum filter 2 .............................................. 72
Figure 4.9 Material Balance around Acetic acid mixing tank .......................................... 76
Figure 4.10 Material balance around Acetic anhydride storage tank ............................... 79
Figure 4.11 Material balance around H2SO4 storage tank ............................................... 82
Figure 4.12 Material balance around mixing tank 6 ......................................................... 86
Figure 4.13 Material balance around rotary vacuum filter 3 ............................................ 93
Figure 4.14 Material balance around in-line mixer 4 ....................................................... 97
Figure 4.15 Material balance around mixing tank 7 ....................................................... 100
Figure 4.16 Material balance around tape casting machine ............................................ 103
Figure 4.17 Material balance around the plant ............................................................... 104
Figure 5.1 Energy balance around the tray dryer.............................................................107
Figure 5.2 Energy Balance Around Mixing Tank 2 (Bleaching) .................................... 112
Figure 5.3 Energy balance around H2SO4 mixing tank ................................................. 115
Figure 5.4 Energy Balance around Heat Exchanger 1 (Sulfuric Acid) ........................... 118
Figure 5.5 Energy Balance around CH3COOH (Acetic acid) mixing tank .................... 121
Figure 5.6 Energy balance around Heat Exchanger 2 (Acetic acid) ............................... 124
Figure 5.7 Energy balance around C4H6O3 (Acetic anhydride) Mixing Tank .............. 127
Figure 5.8 Energy balance around Heat Exchanger 3 (Acetic anhydride) ..................... 130
Figure 5.9 Energy balance around acetylation tank ........................................................ 133
Figure 5.10 Material balance around tape casting machine ............................................ 137
Figure 5. 11 Cooling of bioplastic film ........................................................................... 138
Figure 6.1 Industrial Food Waste Shredder.....................................................................140
Figure 6.2 Belt Conveyor ................................................................................................ 141
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Figure 6.3 Hammer Mill ................................................................................................. 142
Figure 6.4 Screw Conveyor ............................................................................................ 143
Figure 6.5 Tray Cabinet Dryer ........................................................................................ 144
Figure 6.6 Steam Generator ............................................................................................ 145
Figure 6.7 Rotary Drum Vacuum Filter .......................................................................... 146
Figure 6.8 Mixing Tank .................................................................................................. 147
Figure 6.9 Calcium hypochlorite in-line mixer............................................................... 148
Figure 6.10 Plasticizer in-line mixer ............................................................................... 149
Figure 6.11 Sulfuric acid Mixing Tank........................................................................... 150
Figure 6.12 Acetic acid Mixing Tank ............................................................................. 151
Figure 6.13 Acetic anhydride Mixing Tank .................................................................... 152
Figure 6.14 Industrial Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger .................................................. 153
Figure 6.15 Tape Casting Machine ................................................................................. 155
Figure 6.16 Water Storage Tank ..................................................................................... 156
Figure 6.17 Reagents and Plasticizer Storage Tanks ...................................................... 157
Figure 6.18 Sodium hydroxide Storage Tank ................................................................. 158
Figure 7.1 Piping system layout.......................................................................................175
Figure 8.1 Components of Waste Stream 1 generated.....................................................177
Figure 8 2 Components of Waste Stream 2 .................................................................... 178
Figure 8.3 Wastewater Neutralization Process ............................................................... 178
Figure 9. 1 Cost Optimization Break-even Chart............................................................196
Figure 10.1 Location of Novaliches, Quezon City, Metro Manila..................................198
Figure 10.2 Actual plant location.................................................................................... 199
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Figure 10.3 Plant facility layout...................................................................................... 204
Figure 10.4 Manufacturing area layout ........................................................................... 205
Figure A.1 Quotation for the Water Storage Tank..........................................................223
Figure A.2 Quotation for the Sulfuric acid, Acetic acid and A ...................................... 224
Figure B.1 Grosvenor Psychrometric Chart (High Temperatures) for the air-water system
and at Standard Atmospheric Pressure............................................................................226
Figure B.2 Grosvenor Psychrometric Chart (Medium Temperatures) for the air-water
system and at Standard Atmospheric Pressure ............................................................... 227
Figure B.3 Company Organizational Charts ................................................................... 232
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LIST OF TABLES
TABLE TITLE PAGE
Table 2.1 Strengths and Weaknesses of Cellulose Based Bioplastics .............................. 12
Table 2.2 Active Standards for Biodegradability and Compostability ............................. 18
Table 2.3 Bioplastic Manufacturing Companies .............................................................. 22
Table 4.1 Composition of Papaya Peelings Feed...............................................................47
Table 4.2 Summary of mass flow rates of papaya peeling components ........................... 49
Table 4.3 Summary of flowrates around the plant .......................................................... 104
Table 5.1 Power Requirement of Equipments.................................................................139
Table 6.1 Summary of Equipment Specifications...........................................................159
Table 6.2 Summary of Equipment Specifications (Continued) .................................. 160
Table 6.3 Summary of Equipment Specifications (Continued) .................................. 161
Table 7.1 Centrifugal efficiencies for different volumetric flow rates............................166
Table 7.2 Material Properties .......................................................................................... 172
Table 7.3 Piping Selection .............................................................................................. 173
Table 7.4 Summary of Friction Losses ........................................................................... 174
Table 9.1 Purchased Equipment Cost for the Proposed Bioplastic Plant........................181
Table 9.2 Total Capital Investment of Proposed Bioplastic Plant .................................. 183
Table 9.3 Raw Material Cost of the Proposed Bioplastic Plant ...................................... 184
Table 9.4 Utility Cost of the Proposed Plant .................................................................. 185
Table 9.5 Total Labor Cost of the Proposed Plant .......................................................... 186
Table 9.6 Total Product Cost of the Proposed Plant ....................................................... 188
Table 9.7 Annual Revenue of the Proposed Plant .......................................................... 189
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Table 9.8 Summary of Calculated Data .......................................................................... 191
Table 10.1 Guide for Proper Facility Layout...................................................................203
Table 10.2 Typical Constraint Allowance for Various Equipment ................................ 203
Table 10.3 Summary of Area Allotment......................................................................... 206
Table B.1 Dimensions of Standard Steel Pipe.................................................................228
Table B.2 Friction Loss for Turbulent Flow Trough Valves and Fittings ...................... 229
Table B.3 Friction Loss for Laminar Flow Trough Valves and Fittings ....................... 229
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 RATIONALE
The issue on solid waste management has been posing a threat every year, not
only to the environment, but also to the human health. In fact, Philippines has one of the
highest amount of solid waste generated in the world, yet, there is no sustainable and
effective waste disposal facility (Calica, 2009). Mismanagement of these solid wastes
causes different types of environmental disasters such as landslides, flooding, erosion and
other dangers on landfills and dumpsites which contain infectious materials, thus,
endangering the health of waste-pickers and other people living nearby (Perez, 2011).
Moreover, disposal of wastes into bodies of water destroys the marine life.
In Metro Manila, studies show that at least 8,000 tons of solid waste are produced
per day, of which only 6,000 are thrown in dumps. The rest are either dumped illegally
on private lands and even in rivers, creeks or just openly burned (Calica, 2009).
According to Environmental Management Bureau (2015), recyclable wastes account for
27.78% of solid wastes in the Philippines and around 38% of this waste fraction is
comprised of plastic packaging materials. Plastics play a pivotal role in the society and
have become an integral part of our lives.
Globally, the current consumption of plastics exceeds about 200 million tons,
with an annual growth of approximately 5% (Siracusa et al., 2008 cited in Ross, Ross, &
Tighe, 2017). Bayer, Guzman-Puyol, & Heredia-Guerrero (2012) mentioned that the low
cost and the wide range of mechanical properties of plastics have driven this staggering
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increase in their production.
However, the waste generated from plastics are devastating to the ecosystems.
Their non-biodegradability which actually takes almost 450 years for them to decompose,
has been the major problem (Brockhaus, Petersen, & Kersten, 2015). Landfills are filled
with plastic materials because microorganisms dont have the necessary enzymes to
degrade them (Khoramnejadian, Jamali, & Khoramnejadian, 2011). Consequently, this
causes environmental, economic, and safety challenges. Aside from its possible damage
to wildlife, serious problems were identified more recently relating to the accumulation
of plastic fragments in sea water, resulting in adverse effects to marine life (Gilbert,
2017). Furthermore, plastics are produced by non-renewable sources like petroleum, coal
and natural gas which release toxic chemicals to the environment (Reddy, Reddy, &
Gupta, 2013). Due to several concerns brought about by plastics, which are usually
petroleum-based and are produced using fossil fuels, there is an increase interest in
substituting these petrochemical-based polymers by biodegradable ones (Reddy, Reddy,
& Gupta, 2013).
Biodegradable wastes comprise about 52.31% of generated solid waste in the
country. It is estimated that 86.2% of these compostable wastes comes from food scraps
(EMB, 2015). These include peelings of fruits which are not edible and are commonly
put into waste. Due to the high consumption and industrial processing of the edible parts
of fruit, fruit wastes are generated in large quantities in big cities. Fruit waste has also
become one of the main sources of municipal solid wastes, which have been an
increasingly tough environmental issue. Moreover, the main techniques employed to
dispose these wastes involve further releases of pollutants and secondary wastes which
have detrimental effects. For these reasons, there is an urgent need to seek resource and
value-added use for fruit wastes (Deng et al., 2012).
The Philippines, being a tropical country, is abundant with local fruits, ranking
10th among the world's fresh fruit exporter. According to PCARRD-DOST (2008),
Papaya contributes 1.3% of the local fruits. In 2000, papaya production ranked 5 th in the
country in terms of volume produced equivalent to 121, 304 tons, which made Papaya
one of the leading fruit crops grown in the country. Papaya is grown almost throughout
the country and growers found a good business in Papaya because of its year-round
production. From 1992 to 2001, it was utilized in an average volume of 109, 730 tons.
About 92% of this was consumed locally as food; 2% exported; and 6% used as
feed/wasted (PCARRD- DOST, 2008). In soap industries, the papain extract, which is a
natural enzyme from papaya, is used as a main ingredient in making papaya soaps
(Thompson, 2013). It is extracted from the fruit, where the peels are removed and are
disposed as wastes.
One way to address the issue about petroleum-based plastics is to utilize fruit
wastes which are biodegradable such as Papaya peelings, as raw material in the
production of bioplastics. Bioplastics production are expected to increase globally by 300%
until 2018 then reaching 6.73 million tons (European Bioplastics, 2013 cited in
Brockhaus, Petersen, & Kersten, 2015). Furthermore, according to US Bioplastics (2016),
the global demand for bioplastics as food packaging also increases at a rate of 19.5%.
Bioplastics can be categorized into different types depending on the type of raw material
used. One of which are the cellulose-based plastics. Cellulose, being the most spread
natural polymer, is a biodegradable material. It is present in cultivated vegetal products
such as wood, cotton, and other natural fibers (Blends, 2017). To utilize cellulose in the
industry, chemical modifications are done to convert it to its derivatives.
One of the most common derivatives of cellulose are cellulosics. Among the
cellulosics, Cellulose acetate (CA) is chosen for its low cost, transparency, edibility and
low toxicity. According to Tarus et. al (2016), cellulose acetate is a type of bioplastic
prepared from natural purified cellulose.
The bioplastic produced can be a substitute to petroleum-based plastics which are
considered non-biodegradable wastes while utilizing biodegradable ones, at the same
time. Moreover, bioplastics are considered to be more environment-friendly, as their
production often uses less energy and causes no toxic by-products (Alvarez-Chavez et al.,
2012; Papong et al., 2014 cited in Brockhaus, Petersen, & Kersten, 2015).
1.2 OBJECTIVES
This project mainly aims to design a bioplastic manufacturing plant that utilizes
waste Papaya (Carica papaya L.) peelings as raw material.
Specifically, it aims to:
a. Design an economically-feasible processing plant for cellulose acetate
bioplastic production; and
b. Design a sustainable cellulose acetate bioplastic plant that uses wastes Papaya
(Carica papaya L.) peelings as raw material and as an alternative.
1.3 SIGNIFICANCE
Global production of plastics has been growing for more than 50 years and has
risen to 299 million tons in 2013, which accounts for a 3.9% increase compared that in
2012 (Rivero et al., 2017). In the Philippines, 35, 000 tons of waste are generated per day,
6, 500 of which are plastics (Baconguis, 2012). The use of Papaya (Carica papaya L.)
peelings for bioplastic production will in a way provide solution to the even increasing
problem of solid waste disposal and at the same time add value to wastes. This plant
design would pave the way in the reduction of environmental impacts of the plastic
manufacturing industry, as well as the waste generated through the use of plastics by
developing bio-based, biodegradable and commercial grade bioplastics.
This plant design would utilize papaya peelings and convert it to an eco-friendly
material such as bioplastic and at the same time, make these wastes profitable. This
would also mean cheaper production costs due to the nature of raw material and its
availability within the country.
Due to the biodegradability of bioplastics, this plant design would benefit the
national government on finding solution to the worsening solid waste management
problems, as well as those from the agricultural and marine sectors. Papaya peelings,
which are considered disposable wastes, could now find its use in the packaging industry
which may also help in the conservation of non-renewable resources such as fossil fuels.
Furthermore, this would open more job opportunities to the locals and to the residents
within the vicinity.
1.4 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS
This plant design focuses on the establishment of a cellulose acetate bioplastic
packaging film manufacturing plant using Papaya (Carica papaya L.) peelings as the raw
material. The product is a biodegradable bioplastic film intended for use as a packaging
material.
The proposed site of the manufacturing plant will be in Novaliches, Quezon City,
Metro Manila. The peelings will come from both ripe and unripe papaya fruits and will
be majorly obtained from Trinidad Cosmetics Laboratory, Inc. located in Carmel 5
Tandang Sora, Novaliches, Quezon City, Metro Manila. The company is the country's
only manufacturer of Likas Papaya, a herbal beauty soap. It utilizes the Papain extract
from Papaya fruits which are Philippine-grown; where the peelings are removed, and
disposed as wastes.
Other sources of peelings will come from companies like Dole and Del Monte.
They include papaya fruits in their production of fruit cocktails. The factors considered in
the plant site selection includes: (a) raw material availability; (b) markets; (c) energy
availability; (d) transportation; and (e) water supply. Since the proposed plant site is near
the company where the raw materials will be obtained, transportation of these raw
materials would not be an issue. Moreover, the proposed plant is situated in an urban
community, thus, there would be no problem with energy availability and water supply.
The papaya peelings will undergo delignification and plasticizing in order to
convert the cellulose to cellulose acetate. The bioplastic packaging film will then be
produced using casting method.
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 BIOPLASTICS
Bioplastics or specifically bio-based plastics are forms of polymer that are derived
from renewable biological resources such as starch, cellulose, or lignin from potato,
vegetable oil, corn, banana, etc. (Paul, 2012). Biologically derived plastics are relatively
compostable or biodegradable with respect to petroleum derived plastics. The term
biodegradability conventionally refers to the rapid decomposition of a material by
biological agents in a bioactive environment (Ross, Ross, & Tighe, 2017). The process of
biodegradation boils down to the concept of the food requirement of biological
microorganisms. If the building block of a material is composed of polysaccharides or
amino acids, biological agents identify this as energy sources, thus, degrading the
material into its constituents (Sparajcar Masa, Horvat Petra, & Krzan Andrej, 2012).
The worldwide production of bioplastics amounted to 1.7 million tons in 2014
and was estimated to reach 6.2 million tons in 2018 (European Bioplastic, 2015 cited in
Emadian, Onay, & Demirel, 2016). Utilizing renewable resources to produce bioplastic
lowered the consumption of petroleum by 50% and aiding in the mitigation on the issue
of increasing greenhouse gas emissions (Razza et al., 2015). However, despite the
environmental friendliness of bioplastics, certain disadvantages are present such as
relatively poorer mechanical properties and higher cost of production of the bio-based
plastic. Nevertheless, the high production cost can be managed by utilizing cheap
agricultural wastes and the poor mechanical property addressed by using a more
promising bioplastics such as a Polylactic acid (PLA) and cellulose esters (Emadian,
Onay, & Demirel, 2016).
2.1.1 Classification of Bioplastics based on Origin
The main bioplastics produced are namely: Polylactide or PLA; Starch Based;
Polyhydroxyalkanoates or PHA; and Cellulose based (Peelman et al., 2013).
2.1.1.1 Polylactide (PLA)
PLA is derived from renewable resources such as corn or other carbohydrate
containing materials and is tagged as one of the most promising polymers for commercial
use as a substitute for petroleum based plastics. PLA is a family of biodegradable
thermoplastic polyester and is produced by converting carbohydrates into dextrose,
followed by fermentation into lactic acid and direct polycondensation of lactic acid
monomers or through ring-opening polymerization of lactide (Peelman et al., 2013).
Figure 2.1 shows the chemical structure of PLA and its actual pelletized form.
Figure 2.1 Chemical Structure of PLA (left) and PLA pellets (right)
The manufacture of PLA consumes 30-50% less fossil energy and produces 50-70%
less CO2 emissions than petroleum based plastics. It is recyclable and compostable at
temperatures above 600C (lvarez-chvez, Edwards, Moure-eraso, & Geiser, 2012).
2.1.1.2 Starch based
Starch is a biopolymer obtained from plant resources such as wheat and potato. It
comprises two component polymers, namely: amylose and amylopectin. Amylose is the
linear polysaccharide, poly(-1,4-glucopyronosyl). Amylopectin is poly(-1,4-
glucopyronosyl)) with many a -1,6-glucopyronosyl branches. Shown in Figure 2.2 are the
chemical structures of amylose and amylopectin.
Figure 2.2 Chemical Structure of Amylose (left) and Amylopectin (right)
Production of starch based plastics requires plasticizers or high water content such
as glycerol or sorbitol. The product is termed as thermoplastic starch (TPS) and is an
alternative for polystyrene (PS) (Peelman et al., 2013). TPS has gained much attention
and further research due to its thermoplastic-like processability with temperature and
shear (Shanks & Kong, 2011).
2.1.1.3 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA)
PHA is a family of thermoplastic polymers produces by microorganisms through
a fermentation process. The PHA is then harvested by specific solvents such as
methylene chloride, propylene chloride, or chloroform (Peelman et al., 2013). PHAs can
be produced directly from fermentation without going through the process of
polymerization compared to the manufacture of other polymers. The polymer is generally
tough with resistance to high temperatures whose grades are susceptible for film and
sheet extrusion or even injection molding (Baner, A.L. and Piringer, 2008).
2.1.1.4 Cellulose
The use of chemically modified forms of cellulose used to produce plastic
materials has dated back to the 19th century before the widespread of crude oil (Ross et al.,
2017).
Cellulose is the most common natural polymer and is obtained from the
delignification of wood pulp, cotton linters, or other plant resources. It is a complex
carbohydrate or polysaccharide consisting of 3,000 or more glucose units. It is naturally
biodegradable and can be dissolved in a mixture of carbon di-sulphide and sodium
hydroxide to obtain cellulose xanthate and recast into an acid solution to generate the
cellophane film (Peelman et al., 2013), which is a packaging material that is highly
impermeable to bacteria and dry gases (Bittar, 2012). Figure 2.3 shows the chemical
structure of cellulose.
Camarote, Romelo, Valdon | Production of Cellulose Acetate Bioplasic Film from Papaya 10 | P a g e
Figure 2.3 Chemical Structure of Cellulose
The adjacent chains of cellulose are stiffened by intermolecular interactions
known as van der waals forces. At the molecular level, the number of glucose units in a
linear polymer of cellulose varies and is an important factor in enzymatic hydrolysis. One
compound that has been extensively used in the military and in the manufacture of
plastics if mixed with camphor as softener is cellulose nitrate. The partially
functionalized cellulose nitrate is commonly known as celluloid (Gautam, Bundela,
Pandey, Awasthi, & Sarsaiya, 2010).
Cellulose, like thermoplastic starch, is derived from natural resources and is a
vital element in a plants cell wall. The three types of biopolymers produced from
cellulose are natural cellulose fibers, regenerated cellulose (cellophane), and modified
cellulose. Paper, cardboard and jute are created from natural cellulose fiber through
overlaying layers or weaving the fibers together. Regenerated cellulose are produced by
undergoing the natural cellulose fibers in a complicated process where lots of organic
solvents are involved. Modified cellulose is a nonbiodegradable plastic variety made
from chemically converting the cellulose into a thermoplastic (Klazinga, 2009). Table 2.1
summarizes the strengths and weaknesses of cellulose-based bioplastics.
Table 2.1 Strengths and Weaknesses of Cellulose Based Bioplastics (Klazinga, 2009)
Strengths Weaknesses
Biobased Limited Heat resistance
Mostly Biodegradable Weak seal strength
Mostly Compostable High water vapour barrier
Relatively Low Cost Not completely transparent
Good Printability
High Oxygen Barrier
2.1.2 Classification based on Biodegradability
Referring to Figure 2.4, three types of bioplastics can be classified. Not all
bioplastics are biodegradable as shown in the upper left quadrant where the polymers of
the plastic materials are derived from bio-based renewable resources but its chemical
compositions are not susceptible for biologic deterioration. An example of these is PET
or polyethylene terephthalate commonly used as plastic bottles. Bioplastics that are both
bio-based and biodegradable are the subject of interest to many researchers and
companies in mitigating the problems in plastic waste disposals. As shown in the upper
right quadrant, PLA, PHA, or TPS are among this classification of bioplastics. However,
bioplastics need not to be obtained from bio-resources. Fossil derivative bioplastics,
shown in the lower right quadrant, are also common and can be biodegradable (Ross et
al., 2017).
Figure 2.4 Classification of Plastics According to their Origin and Biodegradability: PE,
polyethylene; PVC, polyvinyl chloride; PET, poly(ethylene terephthalate); PTT,
poly(trimethylene terephthalate); PBT, poly(butylene terephthalate); PLA, polylactide;
PHA
2.2 USES AND APPLICATION
Plastics are the indispensable part of a civilized modern society. Major
industries/manufacturing plants are highly dependent on plastic materials. Products
ranging from cars, electronic equipment, textiles, furniture, to household goods, jewelry,
shoes, clothing, all use quantities of plastics in their creation (Baner, A.L. and Piringer,
2008). According to European Bioplastics (2016), packaging is the major field of
application for bioplastics amounting to 40 percent globally (or 1.6 million tonnes) of the
total bioplastics market in 2016. Figure 2.5 illustrates the other fields of application for
bioplastics.
Figure 2.5 Global Production Capacities of Bioplastics in 2016
(European Bioplastics, 2016)
Other uses of bioplastics include single-use items such as plates, utensils, cups,
and film wrap plastic bottling and as paper coatings by fast-food companies, clothing
fibers compost bags, in the biomedical field, etc (Reddy, Reddy, & Gupta, 2013).
2.2.1 Packaging
Plastic packaging has revolutionized transportation of goods and production of
non-perishable food materials. Most polymers are derived from crude oil and are
advantageous in terms of resistance to degradation. However, this longevity has become a
serious issue to the environment and bio-based polymers has become a promising feat for
plastic packaging. Two of the common types of bioplastic used in packaging are starch-
based polymers and cellulose-based films (Baner, A.L. and Piringer, 2008).
Starch-based films have similar properties to those of LDPE or low density
polyethylene. They are mainly blended with thermoplastic polyesters to obtain a
biodegradable and compostable product. Thermoplastic starch-based polymers represent
one of the classes of biodegradable materials that have the best short-term potential, and
enable the development of fully biodegradable products for specific conditions of use.
Among the products based in starch are: water soluble chips as spacers to protect the
contents of a package, a substitute for Styrofoam (polystyrene); Shopping bags; bags for
bio-waste storage; Food packaging (e.g. fruits and vegetables, bread); and hygiene
products and cosmetic products (Sparajcar Masa et al., 2012).
Cellulose-based bioplastic, on the other hand, are incorporated with polymeric
materials to produce a bio-composite product or products which have advantages in
disposal handling due to their ability to be composted. Cellulose fibers are used as a
matrix for biodegradable polymer composites which improves the mechanical properties
and hydrophobicity of the polymer material. Cellulose derived bioplastics are used for:
Toys, sports equipment, medical applications, decorations, car interiors, furniture, etc.
(Sparajcar Masa et al., 2012).
2.2.2 Comparison with Petroleum-based plastics
Despite the fact that bio-based polymers are derived from biomass materials, this
does not necessarily mean that they are all biodegradable. For example, polyethylene and
ethylene can be made from sugar extracted from crops and they have the same
performance properties and nonbiodegradability with respect to their petroleum-based
counterparts. The important ingredient in biodegradable plastics is producing polymers
whose monomers are essential to biological agents in order for the plastic to be degraded
(Baner, A.L. and Piringer, 2008). In fact, many plastics are called bioplastics solely
because they are bio-based but are also nonbiodegradable and they account 76.8% of the
global production in 2016 (European Bioplastics, 2016). Figure 2.6 showcases these
types of bioplastics and their relative production, where, the bioplastics on the left side
are nonbiodegradable and the bioplastics on the right side are all biodegradable.
Many biodegradable bioplastics typically break down in less than 180 days when
composted in a composting facility, while nonbiodegradable bioplastics could take
decades (Reddy et al., 2013).
Figure 2.6 Global Bioplastics Production in 2016
Source: European Bioplastics (2016)
According to Reddy, et al. (2013), bioplastics have numerous advantages over
petroleum based plastics according to their CO2 emissions, carbon footprint, cost,
benefits to rural economy, and multiple end-of-life options. The carbon dioxide emission
of 1 metric ton of bioplastics are 0.8 to 3.2 metric tons fewer than petroleum based
plastics of the same mass. In the production, producing petroleum based plastics require
more energy than bioplastics and leaves a carbon footprint of approximately 2.0
kilograms per kilogram of plastic produced, 4 times higher to that of producing Polylactic
Acid (PLA) resin. Bioplastics production is also beneficial to rural economies due to an
increase in demand for food crops such as maize as raw material in producing bioplastics,
in line with the search for alternatives for energy resources such as biofuels. Even though
bioplastics can be used as raw material for biofuel production, such as in a research at
Polytechnic University in New York where scientists have developed a fuel-latent
bioplastic, tougher and more durable than standard polyethylene, and can be used to
produce biodiesel, disadvantage in disposal of bioplastics is also present. Biodegradable
bioplastics are not compatible to other types of plastic, if improperly disposed of,
biodegradable plastics could lead to an inefficient breakdown which can produce toxins
(methane, CO2, etc.) into the environment.
2.2.3 Bioplastic Standards
Bioplastics have standards imposed in terms of their compostability. For example,
according to Sparajcar Masa et al. (2012), the standard EN 13432, requires that more than
90% of the material must be mineralized (degraded) in less than 6 months. Industrial
composting is done in high temperatures than domestic composting and the temperature
needs to be higher than 60 degrees Celsius in order to remove pathogens. It is important
that bioplastics follow this standard so that the compost used in agriculture will not leak
any plastic particles into the environment since it is essential to note that bioplastics are
not biodegradable in natural environmental conditions, but rather, require specified
composting conditions in order to be biodegraded within a limited timeframe.
Different standards are set by the different regions of the world, among these are
the three relevel standards organizations. The ASTM or American Society for Testing
and Materials (USA); ISO or International Organization for Standardization
(International); and CEN or European Committee for Standardization (European Union).
(Ross et al., 2017). Table 2.2 summarizes the different standards set by these different
organizations
Table 2.2 Active Standards for Biodegradability and Compostability (Ross et al., 2017)
ASTM ISO EN
Industrial Compostability D6400 17088 13432
D5511-02 15985
Anaerobic Biodegradability
D5526 148551-2
14851
Aerobic biodegradability D5338
14855-2
The most frequently used standards for industrial compostability are EN 13432,
ASTM D6400, and ISO 17088. The ASTM D6400 sets a less strict standard compared to
the EN 13432 with a 60% degradation within 180 days for nonhomopolymers and 90%
biodegradation for homopolymers under industrial composting conditions. The ISO
17088 on the other hand, requires proper labelling of plastics that are appropriate for
recovery through aerobic industrial composting. The standard it set for all compostable
bioplastics is 90% of all organic carbon be converted to carbon dioxide by the end of 180
days (Ross et al., 2017).
2.3 MARKET STUDY
Market study or market research is the data collection process in order to
determine whether a particular product/service will satisfy the needs of your customers.
Through effective market study, the manufacturing plant can gain invaluable information
about its competitors, economic shifts, demographics, the current market trends and the
spending traits of its customers.
2.3.1 Supply and Demand
According to European Bioplastics Association (2016), the global production
capacity for bioplastics is projected to grow four times by 2020. The prices of any
biopolymer are likely to be high when it is only produced on a small scale. The scale of
production is likely to have a greater influence on the price than the costs of the raw
material source and of the chemistry involved.
Currently, bioplastics represent about one per cent of the about 300 million tons
of plastic produced annually. But as demand is rising and with more sophisticated
materials, applications, and products emerging, the market is already growing by about
20 to 100 per cent per year. According to the latest market data compiled by European
Bioplastics (2016), global production capacity of bioplastics is predicted to grow by 50
percent in the medium term, from around 4.2 million tons in 2016 to approximately 6.1
million tons in 2021. The global production capacities of bioplastics are shown in Figure
2.7 below. This increase in demand will be caused by different number of factors
including consumer acceptance, climate change, increasing price of fossil fuel, and
improved performance of bioplastic resins to traditional plastics (PR Newswire, 2014).
More than 75 percent of the bioplastics production capacity worldwide in 2016
was bio-based, durable plastics. This share will increase to almost 80 percent in 2021.
Production capacities of biodegradable plastics, such as PLA, PHA, and starch blends,
are also growing steadily from around 0.9 million tons in 2016 to almost 1.3 million tons
in 2021 (EBA, 2016).
Figure 2.7 Global Production Capacities (Nova Institute, 2016)
Poly(lactic acid) or PLA, has the second consumption volume and is growing at
20-30% each year, suggesting its huge potential in future market sharing (Auras, Harte &
Selke, 2004). In recent years, PLA has sold at a price around $2-2.5/kg with increasing
importance in various applications.
With a view to regional capacity development, Asia will further expand its role as
major production hub. In 2021, it is expected that more than 45 percent of bioplastics will
be produced in Asia. Around a quarter of the global bioplastics production capacity will
be located in Europe (EBA, 2016). The global production capacities of bioplastics by
region in 2016 is shown in Figure 2.8 below.
Figure 2.8 Global Production Capacities by Region in 2016
(Nova Institute, 2016)
2.3.2 Bioplastic Industry
Many companies around the world provide supply of bioplastics to the
Philippines. Table 2.3 below shows the list of some bioplastic manufacturing companies
from different countries, as well as the description of their products.
Table 2.3 Bioplastic Manufacturing Companies
Company Location Desciption
Largest producer of world's
plant-based bioplastic resins
also the finest organic,
microbial biodegaradable
Scottsdale, Arizona (USA) additive, which when added

Bioplastics International
at a ratio of 1% to PET, PE,
PP, PC, PS, PVC, will make
all plastics biodegrade in a
landfill at a rate of 33%
every 10 months.
DSM delivers innovative
solutions that nourish,
protect and improve
performance in global
markets such as food and

Royal DSM Heerlen, Netherlands
dietary supplements,
personal care, feed, medical
devices, automotive, paints,
electrical and electronics,
life protection, alternative
energy and bio-based
materials.
The overall goal of the
National Alliance for
Advanced Biofuels and
National Alliance for Bioproducts consortium is to
Advanced Biofuels and New Mexico, USA produce new technologies
Bioproducts (NAABB) that can be implemented by
our commercial partners and
others developing the algal
biofuel industry.
ALBIS PLASTIC Gmbh has
made a name for itself as a
reliable and expert company
ALBIS PLASTIC Gmbh Hamburg, Germany in the resins processing
industry and as a leading
compounder of technical
resins.
BioBag International AS
(BioBag hereafter) is a
BioBag International AS Askim, Norway
world-leading company in
the development,
production, and marketing
of certified compostable and
biodegradable products.
BioBag is a world leader in
providing bags and films for
the collection of organic
waste for the purpose of
composting. Unlike regular
plastic, BioBags are made
from a resin derived from
plant starches, vegetable oils
BioBag Americas, Inc. Palm Harbor, Florida (USA) & compostable polymers
and can be consumed by
micro-organisms that live in
our soils. Because of this,
these bags can also be
readily composted along
with organic waste in
municipal composting
facilities.
2.4 PAPAYA
Carica papaya L., a plant native to the lowlands of eastern Central America, is a
dicotyledonous, polygamous species which belongs to the small family Caricaceae
(Regulator, 2008). The genus name Carica is a Latin name for a kind of fig on account of
the similarity of the leaves and fruits of Carica papaya itself (Chan, Jagtiani, & Sakai,
1988). Carica papaya is a fast-growing, semi-woody, latex-producing, usually single-
stemmed, short-lived perennial herb (Jimnez, Newcomer, & Gutirrez-soto, 2014) now
grown as fruit crop in all tropical and many sub-tropical regions of the world (Regulator,
2008).
The papaya plant is primarily single-stemmed reinforced by phloem fibers
supporting the hollow cylindrical trunk, light green to tan brown in color having a
diameter of 8 inches, and can grow up to 10 feet tall (Chan, Jagtiani, & Sakai, 1988)
depending on the variety. Its long-petioled leaves are palmately lobed or deeply incised
with margins of 1-3 feet in length (Yogiraj, Goyal, & Chauhan, 2015). On the other hand,
the fruits are most commonly oval in shape and is similar to that of a melon with a central
cavity containing the seeds. Fruits weigh from 0.5 to 20 lbs, are green when unripe, and
turns to yellow or red orange when ripe. Moreover, papaya plants are polygamous
thereby producing only male, female, or bisexual flowers in which the female and
bisexual flowers are waxy, ivory white, and born on short peduncles in leaf axils along
the main stem (Yogiraj et al., 2015).
Figure 2.9 Carica papaya L. plant and fruit
(Spices and Medicinal Herbs, 2012)
2.4.1 Properties of Papaya
Annegowda & Bhat (2016) provided some phytochemical composition of the
different parts of a papaya plant. Specifically, they emphasized that papaya peel is
composed of cysteine proteases, papain, chymopapain, glycylendopeptidase, and
caricain; sugars such as fructose, galactose, xylose, mannose, and ribose; and vitamin C,
phenolic acids, and flavonoids. A study conducted by Umesh, Kadukassery, & Post
(2014) showed that papaya peel, used as substrate for vinegar production, has a crude
fiber content 1.72% which consists largely of cellulose lignin representing 60-80%
cellulose and 4-6% lignin along with some mineral matter. Furthermore, Chukwuka,
Iwuagwu, & Uka (2013) demonstrated the proximate composition of papaya peels at
different stages of ripening. They showed that unripe, hard ripe, and very ripe papaya
peels contain 14.52%, 13.67% and 9.67% of crude fibre, respectively. Wurochekke, Eze,
& Declan (2013) also reported the crude fiber content of the homogenized peels, seeds,
and flesh of an indigenous ripe, semi-ripe, and unripe papaya containing 13.89%,
14.07%, and 17.89%, respectively. On another study, powdered sun-dried papaya peel
was found to contain cellulose pulp after the peel powder was delignified by a pulping
process using NaOH (Rachtanapun, 2009). Consequently, the cellulose extracted from
papaya peel is then applied in producing biodegradable films.
2.4.2 Papaya Production in the Philippines
Carica papaya L. is a good source of vitamins, dietary fiber, and minerals
(Othman, 2007). The total global production of papaya averages to about 10.0 million
metric tons having India and Brazil as the main manufacturers with a yearly production
of 3.6 and 1.9 million metric tons, respectively (Parni & Verma, 2014).
Papaya, grown almost over the country, not only serves as backyard and a
plantation crop, but also as a component of the multiple cropping systems together with
coconut, coffee, and pineapple (PCARRD-DOST, 2003). Shown in Figure 2.10 is the
volume of papaya in tons produced among the regions of the Philippines from 1997 to
2001. It can be in inferred that with respect to the volume of production, Southern
Mindanao produced the highest average volume followed by Southern Tagalog and
Northern Mindanao (PCARRD-DOST, 2003).
Figure 2.10 Volume of papaya produced by region as per 1997-2001,
Philippines (PCARRD-DOST, 2003)
Figure 2.11, on the other hand, shows the utilization of Papaya in the Philippines
as of 1992-2001. It can be inferred that in an average volume of 109,730 tons, about 92%
was consumed locally as food; 2%, exported; and 6%, used as feed/wasted (PCARRD-
DOST, 2003).
Figure 2.11 Utilization of Papaya in the Philippines, 1992-2001
(PCARRD-DOST, 2003)
2.4.3 Utilization of the Papaya plant in the industry
Papaya is grown mostly for local fresh fruit consumption. Practically, every part
of the papaya plant is attributed with economic value. The leaves, seeds, latex, and fruit
of the Carica papaya plant have been found to exhibit medicinal value (Yogiraj et al.,
2015). Apart from its nutritional and medicinal uses, papaya also has several industrial
uses. The stem, leaf, and fruit of papaya are rich in proteolytic enzyme called papain
derived from its latex which is commonly utilized in the food, leather, cosmetic, and
pharmaceutical industries (Chan, Jagtiani, & Sakai, 1988). A study conducted by
Macalood, Vicente, Boniao, Gorospe, & Roa (2013) showed evidence that papain as a
protease enzyme is found in the crude latex of papaya which can be used as a plants
defense against herbivorous insects affecting agricultural production.
2.4.4 Fruit Wastes
Fruit wastes are one of the point-source of municipal solid wastes (Deng, Shen,
Xu, Kuang, & Guo, 2012) which have been causing significant environmental issues.
Moreover, fruit waste dumping sites provokes vectors, pathogenic bacteria, and yeast to
thrive (Saheed et al., 2016).
2.5 PAPAYA PEELINGS AS BIOPLASTIC
Biodegradable wastes such as fruit peelings are disposed through landfills and
incineration. However, these techniques have also been the source of environmental
issues. Inappropriate management of landfill will result in emissions of methane and
carbon dioxide, and incineration involves the subsequent formation and releases of
pollutants and secondary wastes such as dioxins, furans, acid gases as well as particulates,
which pose serious environmental and health risks (Deng et al., 2012). Papaya, being one
of the major fruit species grown in the country, contributes to this large amount of wastes
especially its peelings. In fact, out 166, 260 metric tons of Papaya produced in the
country during the year 2013, 5.5% of these are converted to wastes (Espino & Espino,
2015). However, many researches have been conducted in the past years focusing on the
benefits of utilizing the papaya peelings.
2.5.1 Cellulose
Cellulosics are appreciated for their easy processability, aesthetics, transparency,
high gloss, pleasant touch, balance of fair mechanical properties and chemical resistance
to oils, greases, and aliphatic hydrocarbons, fair electrical insulating properties, fair
performance/cost ratio and food contact possibilities (Tarus, Fadel, Al-Oufy, & El-
Messiry, 2016).
Cellulosics are bioplastics which are characterized by good strength, excellent
moldability, toughness, transparency, and high surface gloss (Go Polymers Inc., 2012).
Through delignification of papaya peels, which is the removal of any lignin and other
components present on the peel, cellulose can be recovered. The cellulose will then
undergo acetylation and hydrolysis to produce the cellulose acetate. Finally, through the
use of a plasticizer that makes the cellulose acetate more pliable, bioplastic could be
produced.
Cellulose is the most abundant naturally occurring organic compound for, as the
chief constituent of the cell walls of higher plants, it comprises at least one-third of the
vegetable matter of the world. The cellulose content of such vegetable matter varies from
plant to plant. In spite of its wide distribution in nature, cellulose for chemical purposes is
derived commercially from only two sources, cotton linters and wood pulp (Gilbert,
2017).
2.5.2 Cellulose Acetate
Cellulose acetate (CA) is a bioplastic prepared from natural purified cellulose
(Tarus, Fadel, Al-Oufy, & El-Messiry, 2016). CA was first produced in the early
twentieth century. The earliest preparation of CA is credited to Schtzenberger in 1865.
The method used was to heat cotton with acetic anhydride in sealed tubes at 130 to 140
degrees Celsius. The severe reaction conditions led to a white amorphous polymer, but
the product would have been severely degraded and the process difficult to control.
Subsequent studies made by Liebermann, Francimont, Miles, the Bayer Company, and by
other workers led to techniques for controlled acetylation under less severe conditions
(Gilbert, 2017).
According to Gilbert (2017), The methods available today may be considered
under two headings, homogeneous acetylation, in which the acetylated cellulose dissolves
into a solvent as it is formed, and the heterogeneous technique, in which the fiber
structure is retained. The preparation of the acetate by homogeneous acetylation may be
considered in three stages including: (a) Pretreatment of the cellulose; (b) Acetylation and;
(c) Hydrolysis.
CHAPTER 3
MANUFACTURING PROCESS
3.1 RAW MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES
Raw material availability is one of the essential factors that should be taken into
consideration when designing a manufacturing plant. Determining where to obtain these
materials and their corresponding costs contribute to the overall cost of the plant.
Moreover, the properties of these raw materials including those chemicals needed to treat
them, should be well-identified and examined.
3.1.1 Papaya Peelings
Peelings from ripe and unripe papaya will be used as a raw material in making
bioplastic films. Using delignification, the cellulose from Papaya will be recovered which
will then undergo acetylation and hydrolysis to produce cellulose acetate. The addition of
plasticizer produces a bioplastic film that has comparable properties to other packaging
films used in the industry.
Peelings will be obtained from Papaya wastes coming from Trinidad Cosmetics
Laboratory, Inc. in Quezon City, Metro Manila and from companies like DOLE and Del
Monte. In 2015, Philippine production of Papaya reached 172,650 metric tons by volume
(Rodeo, 2016).
Assuming that papaya peels account for 25% by weight of the whole fruit, this
means only 75% of papaya fruit is edible and the rest are thrown as waste. This was
based from the data obtained on the average fruit yields from whole fruits to usable
product provided by Chef's Sources Inc. (2017). From these data, it is then estimated that
the amount of papaya peelings to be used as a raw material in the bioplastic production
will be 43, 000 metric tons annually.
Peelings may come from different major varieties of Papaya which are grown
whole year-round in the country such as Cavite Special, Sinta and Solo (Espino and
Espino, 2015). According to a study by Chukwuka, Iwuagwu, & Uka (2013), papaya
peelings are composed of various components that vary depending on the stage of
ripening: 55-68% moisture, 10-15% crude fibre, 7-11% crude protein, 0.23-0.33% fat,
and 20-30% carbohydrates.
3.1.2 Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
Sodium hydroxide, with a chemical formula NaOH, is commonly known as
caustic soda and is a highly reactive inorganic base. It is a white crystalline odorless solid
at room temperature which absorbs moisture from the air. When dissolved in water or
neutralized with an acid, it liberates substantial heat, which may be sufficient to ignite
combustible materials. It is generally used as a solid or as a 50% solution and has a pH of
12 14. NaOH is used in manufacturing soaps, paper and dyestuffs. Other important uses
include processing cotton fabric, laundering and bleaching (PubChem, 2017). NaOH will
be needed in the delignification of the papaya peelings by breaking and dissolving the
lignin bonds which shield the celluloses. Specifically, 0.5 M NaOH solution will be used
in the delignification mixing tank. NaOH will be purchased in bulk from RNM Dynamics
Philippines Inc.
3.1.3 Calcium hypochlorite (Ca(ClO)2)
Ca(ClO)2 is a white granular solid which contains 39% chlorine. Calcium
hypochlorite is considered toxic, irritating to the skin and noncombustible, however, it
accelerates the burning of combustible materials. It is a major component of commercial
bleaches, cleaning solutions, and disinfectants for drinking water and waste water
purification systems and swimming pools (PubChem, 2017). Calcium hypochlorite is
commercially available as a white chlorine or a bleach powder and sold in the market
with a 68% purity. It should be stored in a dry, well ventilated area at a temperature
below 50 C (ATSDR, 2014). A Ca(ClO)2 solution will be used in bleaching the papaya
peelings with a 1:2 ratio of Calcium hypochlorite and water. It will be purchased in bulk
from SBS Philippines Corporation.
3.1.4 Sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
Sulfuric acid, H2SO4, is a clear, colorless, oily, noncombustible liquid that is
highly corrosive. Its major uses are in the manufacture of fertilizers, explosives, other
acids, and glue; in the purification of petroleum; in the pickling of metal; and also in
lead-acid batteries (used in most vehicles) (ATSDR, 2014).
Commercially available Sulfuric acid usually contains 93-98% H2SO4 and the
remainder is water; depending on the supplier (PubChem, 2017). H2SO4 will be used as a
strong acid catalyst in the acetylation of the cellulose from papaya peelings and will be
purchased in carboys from Golden Horse Cebu Chemicals.
3.1.5 Acetic acid (C2H4O2)
Acetic acid is a flammable, colorless liquid with antibacterial and anti-fungal
properties. It is an important chemical reagent and industrial chemical which has uses in
the production of plastic soft drink bottles, photographic film, polyvinyl acetate for wood
glue and as well as many synthetic fibers and fabrics. In the food industry, it is used as an
acidity regulator (PubChem, 2017). Acetic acid is commercially available as either
glacial or dilute, which has 99.4% by weight and 36-37% by weight, respectively. It has
an assay of greater than or equal to 99.7% (Sigma Aldrich, 2016). Acetic acid will be
utilized in the acetylation process of papaya peelings and will be purchased from LG
Atkimson Import-export Incorporated.
3.1.6 Acetic anhydride (C4H6O3)
Acetic anhydride is an irritant, flammable and a colorless liquid that smells
strongly of acetic acid, which is formed by its reaction with the moisture in the air. It is
considered as one of the simplest acid anhydrides and is a widely-used reagent in organic
synthesis.
Its largest application is for the conversion of cellulose to cellulose acetate, which
is a component of photographic film and other coated materials. Acetic anhydride will be
used as an excess reactant in the acetylation process of cellulose and will be mixed in the
tank along with the other chemicals such as sulfuric acid and acetic acid. Commercially
available acetic anhydride is usually assayed at 99% purity and will be purchased from
Parchem fine & specialty chemicals.
3.1.7 Acetyl triethyl citrate (C14H22O8)
Acetyl triethyl citrate or Triethyl 2-acetylcitrate, is a colorless, viscous liquid and
is commercially called Citroflex A-2. Citroflex A-2 is used as a fixative for perfumes,
as a plasticizer and as a film strengthening agent in hair sprays, and nail polishes, as well
as a component of various ink formulations. It is recommended for use with cellulosic
derivatives as it offers low warping characteristics with cellulose acetate (Vertellus,
2017). Acetyl triethyl citrate will be used in plasticizing the cellulose acetate obtained
from papaya peelings. It is commercially available with 98.5% purity and will be
purchased from Merteflor Enterprises.
3.2 UTILITIES
Utilities include the ancillary services needed in the operation of any production
process in the plant. These services are normally supplied from a central site (Towler &
Sinnott, 2013). It is also an important factor to be considered when designing a
manufacturing plant because the price charged for a utility contributes to the overall cost
of the plant.
3.2.1 Water
Water plays a major role in the operation of the plant as it is needed in the
maintenance and in the production processes involved in the plant. The water required for
general purposes on a site will usually be taken from the local mains supply, unless a
cheaper source of suitable quality water is available from a river, lake, or well (Towler &
Sinnott, 2013). Distilled water will be added after the acetylation process in order to
precipitate out the cellulose acetate. It will also be mixed in the plasticizer prior to
plasticizing the cellulose acetate to produce bioplastic. The distilled water will be
produced by the water tank in the tank farm.
The water to be used will be supplied by Maynilad Water Services Inc., which is
also the supplier responsible for the delivery of water services to the community in
Novaliches, Quezon City.
Wastewater from the proposed manufacturing plant will undergo a wastewater
treatment using the wastewater treatment facility before being discharged. The treated
wastewater can be recycled back to the plant facility for other sanitary uses.
3.2.2 Electricity
The electricity demand of the process is mainly determined by the work required
for pumping, compression, air coolers, and solids-handling operations, but also includes
the power needed for instruments, lights, and other small users. Usually generated on site,
the power required may be purchased from the local supply company (Towler & Sinnott,
2013). Electricity will be needed to supply power to the equipment and machines in the
production plant. The electricity supplied to the plant will be coming from the local
supplier Manila Electric Company (MERALCO). The use of generators will also be
needed in case of any electrical failure or any emergencies in the plant.
3.2.3 Air
According to the Philippine Monthly Weather Forecast by the Weather Company
(2017), the monthly average air of Quezon City is around 33C. Air will be used in the
tray dryer for pre-drying the papaya peelings at 50C. It will also be used in drying the
cellulose acetate from the acetylation and hydrolysis process. In the bioplastic film
production, air will also be used in drying the plasticized cellulose acetate.
3.2.4 Fuel
Diesel fuel will be used by stand-by generators for back-up energy source. Other
equipment and machines in the processing plant will not be requiring any fuel and will
depend solely on electricity.
Delivery trucks for transportation and distribution of raw materials and products
will use either diesel or gasoline as fuel. Other vehicles used by the company will also be
using either diesel or gasoline.
3.3 PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The following unit process operating parameters (temperature, reaction time, raw
material and reagent ratio) are based on an unpublished laboratory scale production of
cellulose acetate bioplastic from the study of Abonete, Rhonalou G., Morillo, Shiela Mae
U., and Tating, Al Marjorie A., 2016.
3.3.1 Storage and Handling
The supply of papaya peelings from Trinidad Cosmetic Laboratories, DOLE, and
Del Monte shall be delivered by trucks and unloaded at a storage house. The peelings will
be manually sorted according to their ripeness. Unripe peelings will be stored at 10-130C
(50-550F) and 85-90% relative humidity with an allowed storage period of 1-3 weeks.
Ripe peelings will be stored at 4-100C (40-500F) and 85-90% relative humidity with an
allowed storage period of 2-3 days (WFLO, 2008). The papaya peelings will be
withdrawn from the storage facility and loaded into a shredding machine to reduce the
size of the peelings to 1cm in order to increase the area of contact with the drying air. The
shredded papaya peelings will be manually transferred to a batch tray drier and oven
dried to 10% moisture content. The dried papaya peelings will be manually loaded onto a
conveyor to be grounded in a hammer mill with desired resulting particle size ranging
from 10-90mm, increasing the surface area of contact for the delignification process. The
powdered papaya peelings will be transported to a mixing tank via screw conveyor for
delignification.
3.3.2 Delignification and Bleaching
The three major components of lignocellulosic materials are cellulose,
hemicellulose, and lignin (Kumar, Hu, Hubbell, Ragauskas, & Wyman, 2013).
Delignification is the chemical separation of lignin from the lignocellulosic material
using an alkaline solution (Sanchez, Oscar. et. Al., 2011). The powdered papaya peelings
will be mixed with 0.5M NaOH in a reaction vessel at a ratio of 1 gram is to 1 gram of
powdered papaya peelings and 0.5M NaOH respectively. The mixture will be allowed to
react for 3 hours and the resulting black slurry withdrawn and filtered on a Rotary
Vacuum Filter (RVF). The filtrate is the mixture of dissolved lignin and unreacted NaOH
and the residue is the delignified cellulose pulp. Some of the filtrate will be recycled back
to the reaction vessel and the rest will be stored to be processed by another facility. The
cellulose pulp residue will be transferred via screw conveyor to another mixing tank for
bleaching.
Bleaching will be done using the Calcium Hypochlorite (Ca(ClO)2(aq)) solution
with ratio of 1:2 Ca(ClO)2(aq) and distilled water respectively. In the food industry,
chlorine compounds are extensively used to disinfect or kill bacteria. Examples include
treating pasteurizer cooling water, disinfecting food contact surfaces, and washing fruit
and vegetables (Wei, Cook, & Kirk, 1985).
The cellulose will be bleached in the Ca(ClO)2 solution at 800C for 1 hour. The
mixture will be pumped to an RVF. The residue will be the bleached cellulose pulp and
the filtrate will be the mixture of Ca(ClO)2 and waste materials. Some of the Ca(ClO)2
mxiture will be recycled back to the reaction vessel and the rest will be treated in another
facility. The bleached cellulose pulp will be transported via screw conveyor to another
mixing tank for the acetylation and hydrolysis.
3.3.3 Acetylation and Hydrolysis
The bleached cellulose pulp residue will be mixed in a mixing tank with amounts
of 0.5g acetic acid, 0.05g acetic anhydride, 0.04g sulfuric acid, for 4g of cellulose pulp
residue in a 100ml mixture in order to produce cellulose acetate (Biswas, Saha, Lawton,
Shogren, & Willett, 2006). The mixture will be allowed to react for 4 hours at 800C,
afterwards distilled water will be added to precipitate the cellulose acetate. The slurry
will be filtered in an RVF and the residue is the cellulose acetate while the filtrate are
waste products to be treated in another facility. The cellulose acetate residue will be
washed with distilled water and the filtered cake will be sent to the plasticizing tank.
3.3.4 Addition of Plasticizer
The filtered cellulose acetate will be mixed in a reaction vessel containing 30%
concentration of plasticizer (acetyl triethyl citrate) mixed with cellulose acetate in a
1.52:1 (w/w) ratio of the cellulose acetate and plasticizer, respectively. Plasticizers are
additives that increase the materials plasticity (tensile strength and elongation). Triethyl
acetate was found to be miscible with cellulose acetate making it an effective plasticizer
(Ghiya, Gave, Gross, & Mccarthy, 2009). The mixture will be heated at 800c with
constant stirring to remove the distilled water until the mixture become gel-like. The gel-
like cellulose acetate will be casted and dried for the formation of cellulose acetate
bioplastic film.
3.3.5 Formation of Bioplastic
The gel-like slurry of cellulose acetate will be casted in a tape casting machine
shown in Figure 3.1. The gel-like mixture will be placed in a reservoir and blades will
evenly spread the mixture. The cellulose acetate bioplastic film will be dried and heated
through a conveyor. The bioplastic film will be rolled for packaging ready to be
purchased by packaging manufacturing companies.
Figure 3.1 Tape Casting Mechanism
3.4 PRODUCTS AND THEIR PROPERTIES
3.4.1 Bioplastic Film
The proposed manufacturing plant will produce a clear and homogenous cellulose
acetate biofilm. The generated bioplastic film will be a safe commercial grade bioplastic
which will be applied in the food packaging industry.
The precise physical, chemical, mechanical and other properties of the cellulose
acetate film produced will be determined by the Quality Assurance Department of the
company.
3.4.1.1 Mechanical Properties
The mechanical properties are useful indications of biofilm strength. The average
tensile strength and the average percent elongation vary according to the concentration of
the added plasticizer.
3.4.1.1.1 Tensile Strength
A study conducted by Tating, Morillo, & Abonete (2016) revealed that the
average tensile strength of the cellulose acetate biofilm at 30%, 40%, & 50%
concentration of plasticizer were 5.84 MPa, 2.84 MPa, and 2.69 MPa respectively. This
implied that low concentration of plasticizer will yield a high amount of tensile strength.
Biofilms that show higher tensile strength correspond to stronger biofilm as the
tensile strength of a film is the maximum tensile stress that a biofilm can withstand being
stretched before failure (Tating et.al., 2016). The product will have a tensile strength of
5.84 MPa.
3.4.1.1.2 Elongation
Elongation is one of the factor that determines the flexibility and stretchability of
films. The average percent elongation of cellulose acetate biofilm at 30%, 40%, & 50%
concentration of plasticizer were 79.821 %, 61.76 %, and 61.38 % respectively (Tating
et.al., 2016). This implied that a decrease in the concentration of added plasticizer will
yield an increase in the elongation of biofilm. The biofilm product will have an
elongation of 79.821%.
3.4.1.2 Biodegradability Rate
Biodegradability is determined by measuring the amount of CO2 produced over a
certain time period by the biodegrading plastic. Bioplastics biodegrade if exposed to
bacteria, moisture, and heat. Tating et.al., 2016 reported the percent weight loss of
biofilms during degradation in soil in 10 days. The percent weight loss of 0%, 30%, 40%,
50% concentration of added plasticizer was found to be 26.14%, 48.84%, 53.87%, and
67.77%, respectively. This revealed that a high amount of plasticizer concentration will
yield a great percent weight loss of the biofilms. The biofilm product will have a
biodegradability of 48.84% weight loss in 10 days of degradation.
3.5 BY-PRODUCTS
3.5.1 Lignin
Dissolved lignin is produced from the delignification process of the
manufacturing plant. Lignin makes up 10-25% of lignocellulosic biomass and is found to
be insoluble in water and stable in nature and acts as a glue that connects cellulose and
hemi-cellulose (Watkins, Hosur, Tcherbi-narteh, & Jeelani, 2014). The lignin produced
by the proposed manufacturing plant can be further processed and can be applied
in: emulsifiers, dyes, synthetic floorings, sequestering, binding, thermosets, dispersal
agents, paints and fuels to treatments for roadways (Wang, Leitch, & Xu, 2009; Mankar,
Chaudhari, Soni, 2012 cited from Watkins et al., 2014).
Figure 3.2 Block flow diagram for the manufacture of the bioplastic film
Figure 3.3 Process flow diagram for manufacture of cellulose acetate bioplastic film
46 | P a g e Camarote, Romelo, Valdon | Production of Cellulose Acetate Bioplasic Film from Papaya (Carica papaya L.) Peelings
CHAPTER 4
MATERIAL BALANCE
4.1 DESIGN CAPACITY OF THE PLANT
Papaya peelings will be obtained from the manufacturing plants of Trinidad
Cosmetics Laboratory, Inc., DOLE and Del Monte; where these peelings are disposed as
wastes. Forty-three thousand (43,000) metric tons per annum of papaya peelings will be
utilized. The entire papaya peeling will be used in the manufacturing plant and is
estimated to produce 5, 496.60 metric tons of biofilm in a year.
4.1.1 Assumptions
1. About 43,000 metric tons or 43, 000, 000 kg estimated value of papaya
peelings will be brought to the manufacturing plant for processing annually.
2. Peels compose 25% of the papaya fruit (Koubala et al., 2013).
3. Papaya peelings composition on a wet basis:
Table 4.1 Composition of Papaya Peelings Feed (Tating, Morillo &Abonete, 2016)
Components Percentage (%)

Cellulose 8.59
Moisture 60.36
Other components(e.g. protein, fat, ash, etc.) 31.05
Total 100
4. Papaya peelings are composed of 60.36% moisture and 39.64% dry peelings
(Chukwuka, Iwuagwu, & Uka, 2013).
5. Dried papaya peelings are composed of 19.5% cellulose
Camarote, Romelo, Valdon | Production of Cellulose Acetate Bioplastic Film from Papaya 47 | P a g e
6. Lignin and other components compose 70.5% of dry papaya peelings (Tating,
Morillo, & Abonete, 2016).
7. The plant will operate for 313 days per year (Minsalan, De Leon, Molinos, &
Villaruz, 2016).
8. Calculations are based on a daily operation.
4.1.2 Calculations
Design capacity of the plant:

1
mpapaya peelings/day = 43, 000, 000 kg/year x 313
mpapaya peelings/day = 137, 380.1917 kg/day
Mass flow rate of different components of papaya peelings feed per day:
Moisture:
0.6036
mmoisture/day = 137, 380.1917 kg/day x 1
mmoisture/day = 82, 922. 6837 kg/day
Cellulose:
0.0859
mcellulose/day = 137, 380.1917 kg/day x 1
mcellulose/day = 11,800.9585 kg/day
Other Components:
0.3105
mother components/day = 137, 380.1917 kg/day x 1
mother components/day = 42,656.5495kg/day
Table 4.2 Summary of mass flow rates of papaya peeling component
(Basis: 137, 380.1917 kg papaya peeling/day)
Components Percentage (%) Flow Rates (kg/day)

Cellulose 8.59 11,800.9585
Moisture 60.36 82, 922. 6837
Other components (e.g. protein,
31.05 42,656.5495
fat, ash, etc.)
Total 100 137, 380.1917
4.2 SHREDDER (S01)
The raw papaya peelings will undergo shredding to reduce them into smaller
pieces to increase the surface area of contact between the dryer air and the raw papaya
peelings.
4.2.1 Assumptions
1. Papaya peelings will be reduced to 1 cm cuts (equipment specification).
2. Negligible Mass Lost.
3.Calculations are based on a daily basis.
4.2.2 Calculations
F0 = 137, 380.1917 F1 = 137, 380.1917

kg/day kg/day
XF1,Lo= 0.3105 XF1,Lo= 0.3105
XF1,Cel= 0.0859 XF1,Cel= 0.0859
XF1,H2O= 0.6036 XF1,H2O= 0.6036
Shredder
F0 = mass flow rate of raw papaya peelings in kg/day

F1 = mass flow rate of shredded papaya peelings in kg/day
XF0, Lo, XF1, Lo = mass fraction of lignin and others
XF0,Cel, XF1,Cel = mass fraction of cellulose
XF0, H2O, XF1, H2O = mass fraction of water in papaya peeling
Figure 4.1 Material balance around the shredder
Overall Material Balance
F0 = F1
137, 380.1917 kg/day = 137, 380.1917 kg/day
Component Balance (F1)
Lignin and others
XF0,Lo = XF1,Lo= 0.3105
Cellulose
XF0,Cel = XF1,Cel= 0.0859
Moisture
XF0, H2O = XF1, H2O = 0.6036
4.3 TRAY DRYER 1 (D01)
The papaya peelings will be brought into the manufacturing plant using conveyors
and will be manually transferred through labor by taking the peelings from the conveyor
and putting them into the tray dryer for drying operating at 500C and at a humidity of
0.01 kg water/kg dry air. The papaya peelings which have an initial moisture content of
60.36% will be reduced to 10%.
4.3.1 Assumptions
1. Moisture content of the papaya peelings is reduced to 10% (Mercer, 2014).
2. Air with a temperature of about 50C and a linear velocity of 0.5 meters per
second will be used in the tray dryer (Mercer, 2014).
3. A humidity of 0.01 kg/kg dry air was shown to be ideal to dry papaya products
(Annegowda & Bhat, 2016).
4. Water vapor capacity of air at 500C is 0.0654kg water/kg dry air (Taylor, 2016).
5. Assume water vapor saturation of drying air.
4.3.2 Calculations
A2 = 1,476,323.194 kg/day
XA2,H2O = 0.0601
XA2, Air = 0.9409
F1 = 137, 380.1917 F2 = 60508.3422

kg/day kg/day
XF1,Lo= 0.3105 XF2,Lo= 0.7050
XF1,Cel= 0.0859 XF2,Cel= 0.1950
XF1,H2O= 0.6036 XF2,H2O= 0.1000
Tray Dryer
A1 = 1,399,451.345 kg/day
XA1, H2O = 0.01
XA1, Air = 0.99
F1 = mass flow rate of wet papaya peelings in kg/day

F2 = mass flow rate of dried papaya peelings in kg/day
A1 = mass flow rate of dryer air in kg/day
A2 = mass flow rate of wet air in kg/day
XA1,H2O, XA2,H2O = mass fraction of water in air
XA1,Air, XA2,Air = mass fraction of dry air
XF1,Lo, XF2,Lo = mass fraction of lignin and others
XF1,H2O, XF2, H2O = mass fraction of water in papaya peeling
Figure 4.2 Material balance around tray dryer 1
Mass flow rate of water removed
Water removed = (137, 380.1917kg/day)(0.6036)(0.9) = 76,871.8495 kg/day
Mass flow rate of dry air used (D)
1
kg = 0.0654 D = 1,387,578.511 kg/day
76,871.8495 +(0.01)()
day
Mass flow rate of inlet and outlet air (A1, A2)
D + (0.01)(D) + water removed = 1,387,578.511 kg/day (1+0.01) + 76,871.849
kg/day
A2 = 1,476,323.194 kg/day
A1 = A2 water removed
A1 = 1,476,323.194 kg/day - 76,871.8495 kg/day = 1,399,451.345 kg/day
Mass Fraction of Moisture in Air
XA1, H2O = 0.01 (assumption)
(0.01)(1)+ (0.01)(1,387,578.511 kg/day)+76,871.8495 kg/day

XA2,H2O = =
(2) 1,476,323.194 kg/day
XA2,H2O = 0.0601
Mass Fraction of Dry Air
XA1, Air = 0.99 (assumption)
() 1,387,578.511 kg/day
XA2, Air = (2) = = 0.9409
1,476,323.194 kg/day
F1 + A1 = F2 + A2
137, 380.1917 kg/day + 1,399,451.345 kg/day = F2 + 1,476,323.194 kg/day
F2 = 60508.3422 kg/day
Component Balance
Lignin and others
F1(XF1,Lo) + A1(0) = F2(XF2,Los) + A2(0)
137, 380.1917 kg/day (0.3191) = 60508.3422 kg/day (XF2,Lo)
XF2,Lo = 0.7050
Cellulose
F1(XF1,Cel) + A1(0) = F2(XF2,Cel) + A2(0)
137, 380.1917 kg/day (0.0859) = 60508.3422 kg/day (XF2,Cel)
XF2,Cel = 0.195
Moisture
F1(XF1, H2O) + A1(XA1, H2O) = F2(XF2, H2O) + A2(0.0601)
137, 380.1917 kg/day (0.6036) + 1,399,451.345 kg/day (0.01) = 60508.3422
kg/day(XF2, H2O) + 1,476,323.194 kg/day (0.0601)
XF2, H2O = 0.1000
4.4 HAMMER MILL (M01)
The dried papaya peelings will be fed into a hammer mill by a conveyor and will
be reduced in size to make it suitable for the next process. The desired particle size is 10
mm (Tating, Morillo, & Abonete, 2016).
4.4.1 Assumptions
1. Negligible material loss (Equipment specification).
4.4.2 Calculations
F2 = 60508.3422 F3 = 60508.3422
kg/day kg/day
XF2,Lo= 0.7050 XF3,Lo= 0.7050
XF2,Cel= 0.1950 XF3,Cel= 0.1950
XF2, H2O = 0.1000 XF3, H2O = 0.1000
Hammer Mill
F2 = mass flow rate of dried papaya peelings in kg/day

F3 = mass flow rate of milled papaya peelings in kg/day
Figure 4.3 Material balance around hammer mill
F2 = F3
60508.3422 kg/day = 60508.3422 kg/day
Lignin and others
XF2,Lo = XF3,Lo= 0.7050
Cellulose
XF2,Cel = XF3,Cel= 0.1950
Moisture
XF2, H2O = XF3, H2O = 0.1000
4.5 DELIGNIFICATION (L01)
A 0.5 M NaOH will be prepared in the delignification mixing tank at 25C to be
used in extracting the cellulose from the powdered papaya peelings. The tank will
produce a black slurry to be used in the next process.
4.5.1 Assumptions
1. Delignification will be carried out at using 0.5 M NaOH for 3 hours
(Rachtanapun, 2009).
2. The ratio of mass of powdered papaya peelings (kg) to the mass of 0.5 M
NaOH (kg) to be used is 1:1 (Tating et al., 2016).
3. The density of water at 25C is 997 g/L (Green & Perry, 2013).
4. 100% of the lignin and other components will be dissolved from the powdered
papaya peelings to the NaOH solution after delignification process.
4.5.2 Calculations
N1= 60,508.3422
kg/day
XN1,NaOH = 1.0
F3 = 60508.3422 F4 = 121,016.6843
kg/day kg/day
XF3,Lo= 0.7050 XF4, NaOH= 0.5000
XF3,Cel= 0.1950 XF4,Lo= 0.3525
XF3, H2O = 0.1000 XF4,Cel= 0.0975
XF4, H2O = 0.0500
Mixing Tank 1
F3 = mass flow rate of milled papaya peelings in kg/day

F4 = mass flow rate of delignified papaya peelings in kg/day
N1= mass flow rate of 0.5M NaOH
XN1,NaOH, XF4,NaOH = mass fraction of NaOH
Figure 4.4 Material balance around mixing tank 1
Mass of NaOH solution used (N1)
kg milled papaya peelings 1

N1 = 60,508.3422
day 1
kg
N1 = 60,508.3422 NaOH solution
day
F3 + N1 = F4
60,508.3422 kg/day + 60,508.3422 kg/day = F4
F4 = 121,016.6843 kg/day
Component Balance
Lignin and others
F3(XF3,Lo) + N1(0) = F4(XF4,Lo)
60,508.3422 kg/day (0.7050) = 121,016.6843kg/day (XF4,Lo)
XF4,Lo = 0.3525
Cellulose
F3(XF3,Cel) + N1(0) = F4(XF4,Cel)
60,508.3422 kg/day (0.1950) = 121,016.6843kg/day (XF4,Cel)
XF4,Cel = 0.0975
Moisture
F3(XF3,H2O) + N1(0) = F4(XF4, H2O)
60,508.3422 kg/day (0.1000) = 121,016.6843kg/day (XF4, H2O)
XF4, H2O = 0.0500
NaOH
F3(0) + N1(XN1,NaOH) = F4(XF4,NaOH)
F3(0) + 60,508.3422 kg/day (1.0) =121,016.6843kg/day (XF4,NaOH)
XF4,NaOH = 0.5000
4.6 ROTARY VACUUM FILTER 1 (R01)
The black slurry obtained in the delignification mixing tank will be allowed to
settle and the cellulose will be extracted using a rotary drum vacuum filter. The main
product of the process is the cellulose pulp residue.
4.6.1 Assumptions
1. The efficiency of the rotary drum vacuum filter is 100% solids recovery and 5%
liquid retained (Equipment Specification).
2. Wash water at 250C used will be 0.315kg water per 1 kg of solids (Hibbert et
al., 2016)
3. 100% of lignin and others removed
4.6.2 Calculations
WW1 = 3716.7249
kg/day
XWW1,WASH=1.0
Rotary Vacuum Filter 1

F4 = 121,016.6843 F5 = 18,035.7970
kg/day kg/day
XF4, NaOH= 0.5000 XF5,Cel= 0.6542
XF4,Lo= 0.3525 XF5,H2O= 0.3355
XF4,Cel= 0.0975 XF5,WASH= 0.0103
XF4, H2O = 0.0500
W1 = 106,697.6122 kg/day
XW1, NaOH= 0.5671
XW1,Lo= 0.3998
XW1,WASH= 0.0331
F4 = mass flow rate of delignified papaya peelings in kg/day

F5 = mass flow rate of solids residue in kg/day
W1 = mass flow rate of waste stream in kg/day
WW1 = mass flow rate of washwater in kg/day
XF4, NaOH, XW1, NaOH= mass fraction of NaOH
XF4, Lo, XW1,Lo, = mass fraction of lignin and others
XF4,H2O, XW1, H2O,XF5, H2O = mass fraction of moisture
XW1, WASH,XF5, WASH= mass fraction of washwater
Figure 4.5 Material balance around rotary vacuum filter 1
Mass of Wash Water Used
WW1 = (0.315kg water/ kg solid)( 0.0091)( 60,508.3422kg/day) = 3,716.7249 kg/day
Mass of Components Filtered -Component Balance on F5
Cellulose = (1.0)( 0.0975)( 121,016.6843kg/day ) = 11799.1266 kg/day
Moisture = (1.0)( 0.0500)( 121,016.6843kg/day) = 6050.8342 kg/day
Wash water = (0.05)( 3,716.7249 kg/day) = 185.8362 kg/day
F5 = 11799.1266 kg/day + 6050.8342 kg/day + 185.8362 kg/day
F5 = 18,035.7970 kg/day
F4 + WW1 = W1 + F5
121,016.6843 kg/day = 3716.7249 kg/day + W1 + 18,035.7970 kg/day
W1 = 106,697.6122 kg/day
Mass Fraction of Components (F5)
Wash water
component mass 185.8362 kg/day

XF5,Wash = = = 0.0103
total mass 18,035.7970 kg/day
Cellulose

XF5,Cel = = = 0.6542
Moisture

XF5,H2O = = = 0.3355
Component Balance (W1)
NaOH
F4(XF4,NaOH) + WW1(0) = W1(XW1,NaOH) + F5(0)
121,016.6843 kg/day (0.9531) = 106,697.6122 kg/day (XW1,NaOH)
XW1,NaOH = 0.5671
Lignin and others
F4(XF4,Lo) + WW1(0) = W1(XW1,Lo ) + F5(0)
121,016.6843 kg/day (0.0330) = 106,697.6122 kg/day (XW1,Lo)
XW1,Lo = 0.3998
Wash water
F4(0) + WW1(1.0) = W1(XW1,WASH ) + F5(XF5,WASH)
3716.7249 kg/day = 106,697.6122 kg/day (XW1,WASH) + 18,035.7970(0.0103)
XW1,WASH = 0.0331
4.7 BLEACH IN-LINE MIXER (MX01)
Calcium hypochlorite solution with a 1:2 mass/volume ratio of hypochlorite to
water will be prepared using pure calcium hypochlorite and water. The in-line mixer will
provide the necessary Calcium hypochlorite solution for the bleaching mixing tank.
Using in-line mixers are supremely efficient and provides rapid operation which are
capable of reducing mixing times (Silverson, 2017).
4.7.1 Assumptions
1. Bleaching is carried out using a 1:2 (w/v) ratio of Calcium hypochlorite and
water (Tating et al., 2016).
2. The amount of Calcium hypochlorite used was based from the 0.000665:1 (w/w)
Calcium hypochlorite to cellulose pulp residue ratio (Tating et al., 2016).
3. The average density of cellulose is 1544 kg/m3 (Romelle, Rani & Manohar,
2016).
4. The density of water at 80C is 971.80 kg/m3 (Green & Perry, 2013).
4.7.2 Calculations
Dilution of Bleach
In-line Mixer 1
Ca1 = 12 kg/day
B1= 23,335.2 kg/day

XB1,Cal,solution= 1.0
Wb = 23,323.2 kg/day
Cal = mass flow rate of solid calcium hypochlorite in kg/day

Wb = mass flow rate of water in kg/day
B1 = mass flow rate of calcium hypochlorite solution in kg/day
Figure 4.6 Material balance around in-line mixer 1 (Dilution of Bleach)
Mass flow rate of Calcium hypochlorite
Given the 0.000665:1 (w/w) Calcium hypochlorite to cellulose pulp residue ratio:
where the cellulose pulp residue F5 is equal to 18,035.7970 kg/day:
CH1/F5 = 0.000665
where F5 = 18,035.7970 kg/day
CH1 = 0.000665(18,035.7970 kg/day)
CH1 = 12.0 kg/day
Mass flow rate of water used for dilution
Given the 1:2 (w/v) Calcium hypochlorite to water ratio and H2O = 971.80 kg/m3
CH1/Wb = 0.5
where CH1 = 12.0 kg/day
Wb = CH1/0.5
Wb = 12.0/0.5
Wb = 24 m3/day (971.80 kg/m3)
Wb = 23, 323.20 kg/day
CH1 + Wb = B1
12.0 kg/day + 23, 323.20 kg/day = B1
B1 = 23, 335.20 kg/day
Component Balance
Calcium hypochlorite
CH1(XCH1,Ca1) + Wb(0) = B1(XB1, Ca1)
12.0 kg/day(1.0) = 23, 335.20 kg/day(XB1, Ca1)
XB1, Ca1 = 0.0005142
Water
CH1(0) + Wb(1.0) = B1(XB1, H2O)
23, 323.20 kg/day = 23, 335.20 kg/day(XB1, H2O)
XB1, H2O = 0.9995
4.8 BLEACHING (B01)
The cellulose pulp residue and calcium hypochlorite solution will be mixed in the
bleaching mixing tank at an ambient temperature of 25C and at a normal pressure. The
cellulose pulp residue will be bleached in a hot water bath at 80C for an hour. The
bleach solution of calcium hypochlorite will remove any impurities present on the pulp
residue in order to recover pure cellulose. The product of the process is the cellulose
which will then be fed to the rotary vacuum filter 3.
4.8.1 Assumptions
1. The bleaching time is 1 hour (Tating et al., 2016).
2. The density of water at 25C is 996.9385 kg/m3 (Green & Perry, 2013).
3. Percent Reduction due to Impurities is 11.66% (Tating et al., 2016).
4. The calcium hypochlorite solution contains 1:2 ratio of hypochlorite and water
(Tating et al., 2016).
4.8.2 Calculations
B1= 23,335.2 kg/day

XB1,Cal= 1.0
F5= 18,035.7970 F6 = 41,370.9970

kg/day kg/day
XF5,Cel= 0.6542 XF6,Cal= 0.5640
XF5,H2O= 0.3355 XF6,Cel= 0.2519
XF5,wash = 0.0103 XF6,H2O= 0.1292
XF6,wash= 0.0045
XF6,imp= 0.0503
Mixing tank 2
(Bleaching)
F8 = mass flow rate of bleached pulp in kg/day
B1 = mass flow rate of calcium hypochlorite in kg/day
XF5,H2O, XF8,H2O = mass fraction of moisture in papaya peeling
XF5,wash, X F8,wash = mass fraction of wash water
XB1,Cal XF8,Cal = mass fraction of calcium hypochlorite
XF8,imp = mass fraction of impurities
Figure 4.7 Material balance around mixing tank 2 (Bleaching: for removal of impurities)
F5 + B1 = F6
18,035.7970 kg/day + 23,335.2 kg/day = F6
F6 = 41,370.9970 kg/day
Mass Flow Rate of Impurities (Imp)
Imp = (18,035.7970 kg/day)(0.6542)(0.1166) = 2,081.3054 kg/day
Mass Fraction of Impurities (F6)
2,081.3054 kg/day
XF6, Imp = = = 0.0503
41,370.9970 kg/day
Mass Flow Rate of Bleached Cellulose
Bleached Cellulose = Cellulose in impurities
= (18,035.7970 kg/day)(0.6542) - 2,081.3054 kg/day
= 10,423.3484 kg/day
Mass Fraction of Bleached Cellulose
10,423.3484 kg/day
XF6, Cel = = = 0.2519
41,370.9970 kg/day
Wash water
F5(XF5,wash) + N1(0) = F6(XF6,wash)
18,035.7970 kg/day (0.0103) = 41,370.9970 kg/day (XF6,Water)
XF6,wash = 0.0045
Moisture
F5(XF5,H2O) + N1(0) = F6(XF6, H2O)
18,035.7970 kg/day (0.3355) = 41,370.9970 kg/day (XF6, H2O)
XF6, H2O = 0.1292
F5(0) + N1(XN1,Cal) = F6(XF6,Cal)
F5(0) +23,335.2 kg/day (1.0) = 41,370.9970 kg/day (XF6,Cal)
XF6,Cal = 0.5640
4.9 ROTARY VACUUM FILTER 2 (R02)
The bleached cellulose is allowed to settle and the dry bleached cellulose is
extracted using a rotary vacuum filter. The main product of the process is the dry
bleached cellulose which will then be fed into the acetylation and hydrolysis mixing tank.
4.9.1 Assumptions
wetness (Equipment Specification).
al., 2016)
3. 100% of calcium hypochlorite will be removed.
4.9.2 Calculations
WW2 = 3,283.3548
kg/day
XWW2,wash = 1.000
F6 = 41,370.9970 F7= 15,932.8231

Rotary Vacuum Filter 2 kg/day
kg/day
XF6,Cal= 0.5640 XF7,Cel= 0.6542
XF6,Cel= 0.2519 XF7,H2O= 0.3355
XF6,H2O= 0.1292 XF7,wash = 0.0103
XF6,wash= 0.0045
XF6,imp= 0.0503
W2 = 28,721.5287
kg/day
XW2,wash = 0.1151
XW2,Cal = 0.8125
XW2,imp= 0.0725

WW2 = mass flow rate of wash water in kg/day
XF6,Cal, XF7,Cal, XW2,Cal = mass fraction of calcium hypochlorite
XF6,H2O, XF7,H2O = mass fraction of in papaya peeling
XF6,wash, XF7,wash, XWW2,wash, XW2,wash = mass fraction of wash water
XF6,imp, XW3,imp = mass fraction of impurities

Mass of Wash Water Used
WW2 = (0.315kg water/ kg solid)( 0.2519)( 41,370.9970 kg/day) = 3,283.3548kg/day
Mass of Components Filtered) -Component Balance on F7
Cellulose = (1.0)( 0.2519)( 41,370.9970kg/day ) = 10423.3484 kg/day
Moisture = (1.0)( 0.0047)( 41,370.9970kg/day) = 5345.3069 kg/day
Wash water = (0.05)( 3,283.3548kg/day) = 164.1677 kg/day
F7 == 10423.3484 kg/day + 5345.3069 kg/day + 164.1677 kg/day
F7 = 15,932.8231 kg/day
F6 + WW2 = W2 + F7
41,370.9970 kg/day + 3,283.3548 kg/day = W2 + 15,932.8231 kg/day
W2 = 28,721.5287 kg/day
Wash water

XF7,wash = = = 0.0103
Cellulose
component mass 3,700.2887 kg/day

XF7,Cel = = = 0.6542
Moisture

XF7,H2O = = = 0.335
Wash Water
F6(XF6,wash) + WW2(XWW2,wash) = W2(XW2,wash) + F7(XF7,wash)
41,370.9970 kg/day (0.0045) + 3,283.3548 kg/day(1.0000)
= 28,721.5287 kg/day (XW2,wash) + 15,932.8231 kg/day (0.0103)
XW2,wash = 0.1151
F6(XF6,Cal) + WW2(0) = W3(XW3,Cal) + F7(0)
41,370.9970 kg/day (0.5640) = 28,721.5287 kg/day (XW2,cal)
XW2,Cal= 0.8125
Impurities
F6(XF6,imp) + WW2(0) = W3(XW3,imp) + F7(0)
41,370.9970 kg/day (0.0503) = 28,721.5287 kg/day (XW2,imp)
XW2,Cal= 0.0725
4.10 ACETIC ACID (CH3COOH) MIXING TANK (MX02)
0.5 M CH3COOH solution will be prepared in the Acetic acid mixing tank at 38C
using 99.4% CH3COOH and water (Bello, Tijjani, & Olufemi, 2013). The tank will
provide the CH3COOH solution for the acetylation and hydrolysis mixing tank.
4.10.1 Assumptions
1. Acetylation is carried out using a 0.05 M Acetic acid (Bello, Tijjani, & Olufemi,
2013).
2. The amount of 0.5 M CH3COOH used is based from the 0.125:1 Acetic acid to
cellulose mass ratio per day (Tating, Morillo, & Abonete, 2016).
3. CH3COOH solution of 0.5 M is 3.0025% w/w CH3COOH solution (Green
& Perry, 2013).
4. The density of 99.4% w/w CH3COOH solution is 266.60 kg/m3 (Green & Perry,
2013).
5. The density of 3.0025% w/w CH3COOH solution is 1,000 kg/m3 (Green &
Perry, 2013).
6. Calculations are based on a daily operation
4.10.2 Calculations
W3a = 1263.5623
kg/day
XW3a, W = 1.0
AC2 = 1302.9186 kg/day
XAC2, CH3COOH = 0.0300
XC2, W = 0.9700
Mixing Tank 3
AC1 = 39.3563 kg/day

XAC1, CH3COOH = 0.9940
XC1, W = 0.0060
W3a = mass flow rate water in the mixing tank in kg/day

AC1 = mass flow rate of Acetic acid going in the mixing tank in kg/day
AC2 = mass flow rate of Acetic acid going out the mixing tank in kg/day
XAC2, CH3COOH, XAC1, CH3COOH = mass fraction of Acetic acid
XW3a, W, XAC1, W,XAC2, W = mass fraction of water
Figure 4.9 Material Balance around Acetic acid mixing tank
AC1 + W3a = AC2
Where AC2:
VCH3COOH = 1.3029 m3
AC2 = (VCH3COOH)(CH3COOH)
AC2 = (1.3029 m3)(1000 kg/m3)
AC2 = 1,302.9186 kg/day
Where AC1:
(AC2)(CAC2,CH3COOH) = (AC1)(CAC1,CH3COOH)
(1302.9186 kg/day)(0.05) = (AC1)(0.994)
AC1 = 39.3563 kg/day
AC1 + W3a = AC2
39.3563 kg/day + W3 = 1302.9186 kg/day
W3a = 1263.5623 kg/day
Component Balance
CH3COOH:
(XAC1, CH3COOH) (AC1) + (0) W3a = (XAC2, CH3COOH) (AC2)
(0.994)(39.3563 kg/day) = (XAC2, CH3COOH)(1302.9186 kg/day)
XAC2, CH3COOH = 0.0300 kg/day
Water:
(XAC1, W) (AC1)+ (XW3,W) W3a = (XAC2, W) (AC2)
(0.006)(39.3563 kg/day) + (1.0)(1263.5623 kg/day) = (XAC2, W)(1302.9186 kg/day)
XAC2, W = 0.9700 kg/day
4.11 ACETIC ANHYDRIDE (C4H6O3) MIXING TANK (MX03)
0.5 M C4H6O3 solution will be prepared in the Acetic acid mixing tank at 38C
using 98.5% C4H6O3 and water (Bello, Tijjani, & Olufemi, 2013). The tank will provide
the C4H6O3 solution for the acetylation and hydrolysis mixing tank.
4.11.1 Assumptions
1. Acetylation is carried out using a 0.5 M Acetic anhydride (Bello, Tijjani, &
Olufemi, 2013).
2. The amount of 0.5 M C4H6O3 used is based from the1.25:1 Acetic anhydride to
cellulose mass ratio per day (Tating, Morillo, & Abonete, 2016).
3. C4H6O3 solution of 0.5M is 5.10% w/w C4H6O3 solution (Green & Perry, 2013).
4. The density of 99.4% w/w C4H6O3 solution is 1080 kg/m3 (Green & Perry, 2013).
5. The density of 5.10% w/w C4H6O3 solution is 1,000 kg/m3 (Green & Perry,
2013).
4.11.2 Calculations
W4a = 19,766.3724
kg/day
XW4a, W = 1.0
AH2 = 20,846.6969
kg/day
AH1 = 1,080.3245 kg/day XAH2, C4H6O3 = 0.0511
XAH1, C4H6O3 = 0.9850 XAH2, W = 0.9489
XAH1, W = 0.0150 Mixing Tank 4

AH1 = mass flow rate of Acetic anhydride going in the mixing tank in kg/day
AH2 = mass flow rate of Acetic anhydride going out the mixing tank in kg/day
XAH1, C4H6O3, XAH2, C4H6O3 = mass fraction of Acetic anhydride
XW4a W,XAH1, W,XAH2, W = mass fraction of water
Figure 4.10 Material balance around Acetic anhydride storage tank
AH1 + W4a = AH2
Where AH2:
VC4H6O3 = 20.8467 m3
AH2 = (VC4H6O3 )(C4H6O3)
AH2 = (20.8467 m3)(1000 kg/m3)
AH2 = 20,846.6969 kg/day
Where AH1:
(AH2)(CAH2,C4H6O3) = (AH1)(CAH1,C4H6O3)
(20846.6969 kg/day)(0.05) = (AH1)(0.985)
AH1 = 1,080.3245 kg/day
AH1 + W4a = AH2
1080.3245 kg/day + W4a = 20846.6969 kg/day
W4a = 19,766.3724 kg/day
Component Balance
C4H6O3:
(XAH1,C4H6O3) (AH1) + (0) W4a = (XAH2,C4H6O3) (AH2)
(0.985)(1080.3245 kg/day) = (XAH2,C4H6O3)(20846.6969 kg/day)
XAH2,C4H6O3 = 0.0511 kg/day
Water:
(XAH1,W) (AH1)+ (XW4,W) W4a = (XAH2,W) (AH2)
(0.015)(1080.3245 kg/day) + (1.0)(19766.3724 kg/day) = (XAH2,W)(20846.6969 kg/day)
XAH2,W = 0.9489 kg/day
4.12 SULFURIC ACID (H2SO4) MIXING TANK (MX04)
0.5 M H2SO4 solution will be prepared in the sulfuric acid mixing tank at 65C
using 98% H2SO4 and water (Bello, Tijjani, & Olufemi, 2013). The tank will provide the
H2SO4 solution to be used as a catalyst for the acetylation and hydrolysis mixing tank.
4.12.1 Assumptions
1. Acetylation is carried out using a 0.05 M Sulfuric acid as a catalyst (Bello,
Tijjani, & Olufemi, 2013).
2. The amount of 0.5 M H2SO4 used is based from the 0.01:1 w/w ratio of Sulfuric
acid to cellulose per day (Tating, Morillo, & Abonete, 2016).
3. H2SO4 solution of 0.5M is 4.9040% w/w H2SO4 solution (Green & Perry, 2013).
4. The density of 98% w/w H2SO4 solution is 1,840 kg/m3 (Green & Perry, 2013).
5. The density of 4.9040% w/w H2SO4 solution is 1,000 kg/m3 (Green & Perry,
2013).
4.12.2 Calculations
W5a = 99.0176
kg/day
XW5a, W = 1.0
S2 = 104.2335 kg/day
XS2, H2SO4 = 0.0500
XS2, W = 0.9509
Mixing Tank 5
S1 = 5.2159 kg/day
XS1, H2SO4 = 0.9800
XS1, W = 0.0200

S1 = mass flow rate of Sulfuric acid going in the mixing tank in kg/day
S2 = mass flow rate of Sulfuric acid going out the mixing tank in kg/day
XS2, H2SO4, XS1, H2SO4 = mass fraction of Sulfuric acid
XW5a, W,XS1, W,XS2, W = mass fraction of water
Figure 4.11 Material balance around H2SO4 storage tank
S1 + W5a = S2
Where S2:
VH2SO4 = 0.1042 m3
S2 = (VH2SO4)(H2SO4)
S2 = (0.1042 m3)(1000 kg/m3)
S2 = 104.2335 kg/day
Where S1:
(S2)(CS2,H2SO4) = (S1)(CS1, H2SO4)
(104.2335 kg/day)(0.05) = S1 (0.98)
S1 = 5.2159 kg/day
S1 + W5a = S2
5.2159 kg/day + W5a = 104.2335 kg/day
W5a = 99.0176 kg/day
Component Balance
H2SO4:
(XS1, H2SO4) S1 + (0) W5a = (XS2, H2SO4) S2
(0.98)(5.2159 kg/day) = (XS2, H2SO4)(104.2335 kg/day)
XS2, H2SO4 = 0.0500
Water:
(XS1, W) S1 + (XW2,, W) W5a = (XS2, W) S2
(0.02)(5.2159 kg/day) + (1.0)(99.0176 kg/day) = (XS2, W)( 104.2335
kg/day)
XS2, W = 0.9509 kg/day
4.13 ACETYLATION AND HYDROLYSIS
Pure cellulose, 0.5 M H2SO4 solution, 0.5 M C4H6O3 solution and 0.5 M
CH3COOH solution will be mixed in the acetylation mixing tank at 60C and normal
atmospheric pressure for 9 minutes (Luo et al., 2013). The pure cellulose will be fed to
acetylation mixing tank using a screw conveyor belt while the other solutions will be
poured directly. The 0.5 M H2SO4 serves as a catalyst to speed up the acetylation reaction
between the cellulose with the 0.5 M Acetic anhydride. 0.5 M Acetic acid solution is
also added to act as a source of acyl groups for the acetic anhydride. After the acetylation
reaction, the mixture is added with water to precipitate out the cellulose acetate. The
product of the process is the cellulose acetate residue which will then be fed into the
rotary vacuum filter 3.
4.13.1 Assumptions
1. There is 100% conversion of cellulose to cellulose acetate (Tating, Morillo, &
Abonete, 2016).
2. 32.35% of the acetic anhydride was used in excess (Tating, Morillo, &
Abonete, 2016).
3. There is a 0.125:1 mass ratio of acetic acid to cellulose (Tating, Morillo, &
Abonete, 2016).
4. There is 2:1 mass ratio of acetic anhydride to cellulose (Tating, Morillo, &
Abonete, 2016).
5. There is 0.01 mass ratio of sulfuric acid to cellulose (Tating, Morillo, &
Abonete, 2016).
6. The mass ratio of water added to precipitate out the cellulose is 1.07:1 water to
cellulose (Biswas et al., 2006).
7. The water was used to precipitate out the cellulose acetate and was not
consumed in the hydrolysis reaction.
8. All moisture content of the papaya peelings are removed. The reagent mixture
will dissolve all the papaya peelings, stripping the moisture towards the solution.
4.13.3 Calculations
PW1= 11,126.9245kg/day
XPW1,PW = 1.0
R1= 22,253.8489
kg/day
XR1,Ac= 0.0585
XR1,An= 0.9368 F8 = 56,035.8343
XR1,Sul= 0.0047 kg/day
XF8,CA= 0.2825
XF8,H2O= 0.0954
XF8,wash= 0.0029
XF8,PW= 0.1779
F7= 15,932.8231 XF8,Ac= 0.2988
kg/day XF8,An= 0.0207
XF7,Cel= 0.6542 Mixing Tank 6 XF8,Sul= 0.0019
XF7,H2O= 0.3355
XF7,wash = 0.0103

F8 = mass flow rate of mixture in kg/day
R1 = mass flow rate of chemical reagents in kg/day
PW1 = mass flow rate of precipitating water in kg/day
XF7,Cel = mass fraction of cellulose
XF7,H2O, XF8,H2O = mass fraction of moisture
XF7,water, XF8,water = mass fraction of wash water
XR,Ac, XR,Ac= mass fration of acetic acid
XR,An, XF8,An =mass fraction of acetic anhydride
XR,Sul, XF8,Sul = mass fraction of sulfuric acid
XPW1,PW,XF8,PW = mass fraction of precipitating water
XF8,CA = mass fraction of cellulose acetate
Figure 4.12 Material balance around mixing tank 6
Total Mass Flow Rate of Reagents (R1)
R1 = acetic acid + acetic anhydride + sulfuric acid
R1 = 1302.9186 kg/day + 20,846.6969 kg/day + 104.2335 kg/day
R1 = 22,253.8489 kg/day
Mass Fraction of Reagents (R1)
mass of acetic anhydride 20,846.6969 kg/day

XR1,An = = = 0.9368
mass of acetic acid 1302.9186 kg/day

XR1,Ac = = = 0.0585
mass of acetic acid 104.2335 kg/day

XR1,Sul = = = 0.0047
Mass of precipitating water used (PW1)
1.07kg water 15,932.8231kg

x(0.6542) ( ) = 11,126.9245 kg/day
1 kg cellulose day
Mass of cellulose reacted (A)

(15,932.8231 ) (0.6542)(1,0) = 10,423.3484 /
Mass of Substances Consumed/Produced
Acetic Anhydride Consumed (B)

kg
3 kmol B 102.09 B kg acetic anhydride
kmol
(1 kmol A) ( kg ) = 1.8889
162.1406 A kg cellulose
kmol
kg acetic anhydride
(1.8889 ) (10,423.35 kg/day) = 19,688.8313 kg/day
kg cellulose
Cellulose Triacetate Produced (C)
kg
1 kmol C 288.2552 C kg cellulose triacetate
kmol
(1 kmol A) x ( kg ) = 1.7778
kmol
kg cellulose triacetate
(1.7778 ) x(10,423.35 kg/day) = 18,530.7344kg/day
kg cellulose
Acetic acid produced from acetylation (D)

kg
3 kmol D 60.05 D kg acetic acid
kmol
(1 kmol A) x ( kg ) = 1.1111
kmol
kg acetic acid
(1.1111 ) x(10,423.35 kg/day) = 11,581.09827 kg/day
kg cellulose
Precipitating Water Consumed (G)

kg
1 kmol G 18.02 G kg water
kmol
( )x ( kg ) = 0.06251
1 kmol C 288.2552 C kg cellulose triacetate
kmol
kg water kg
(0.06251 ) x (18,530.7344 )
kg cellulose triacetate day
G = 1,158.4303 kg/day
Cellulose Acetate Precipitated (E)

kg
1 kmol E 246.2178 E kg cellulose acetate
kmol
(1 kmol C) x ( kg ) = 0.8542
288.2552 C kg cellulose triacetate
kmol
kg cellulose acetate kg
(0.8542 ) x (18,530.7344 )
E = 15,828.3238 kg/day
Acetic Acid Produced from Precipitation (F)
kg
1 kmol F 60.05 F kg acetic acid
kmol
(1 kmol C) x ( kg ) = 0.20832
288.2552 C kg cellulose triacetate
kmol
kg acetic acid kg
(0.20832 ) x (18,530.7344 )
F = 3,860.3661kg/day
Total Acetic acid produced (D + F)
kg kg
D+F = 11,581.09827 day + 3,860.3661 day = 15,441.4644 kg/day
Mass of Reagents Unreacted
Acetic anhydride unreacted
(22,253.8489 kg/day)(0.9368) 19,688.8313 kg/day = 1,157.8655 kg/day
Total Acetic Acid
(22,253.8489 kg/day)(0.0585) + 15,441.4644 kg/day = 16,744.3830 kg/day
Sulfuric Acid (Catalyst)
(22,253.8489 kg/day)(0.0047) = 104.2335 kg/day
Precipitating Water (G)
11,126.9245 kg/day 1,158.4303 kg/day = 9,968.4941 kg/day
Total Mass Flow Rate of Output Stream (F8)
F8 = Cellulose Acetate Produced (E) + Unreacted/Produced Reagents +
Unreacted Precipitating water (G) + wash water
F8 = 15,828.3238 kg/day + 16,744.3830 kg/day + 1,157.8655 kg/day
+ 104.2335 kg/day + 9,968.4941 kg/day + (15,932.8231kg/day)(0.0103)
F8 = 56,035.8343 kg/day
F7 + R1 + PW1 = F8
15,932.8231 kg/day + 22,253.8489 kg/day + 11,126.9245 kg/day = F8
F8 = 56,035.8343 kg/day
mass of cellulose acetate 15,828.3238 kg/day

XF8,Ca = = = 0.2825
mass of precipitating water 9,968.4941 kg/day

XF8,PW = = = 0.1779
mass of acetic acid 16,744.3830kg/day

XF8,Ac = = = 0.2988
mass of acetic anhydride 1,157.8655kg/day

XF8,An = = = 0.0207
Moisture
F7(XF7,H2O) +R(0) + PW1(0) = F8(XF8,H2O)
15,932.8231 kg/day (0.3355) = 56,035.8343 kg/day (XF8,H2O)
XF8,H2O = 0.0954
Wash Water
F7(XF7,WATER) +R(0) + PW1(0) = F8(XF8,WATER)
15,932.8231 kg/day (0.0103) = 56,035.8343 kg/day (XF8,WATER)
XF8,Wash = 0.0029
Sulfuric acid
F7(0) +R(XR,sul) + PW1(0) = F8(XF8,Sul)
14,436.3376 kg/day (0.0072) = 56,035.8343 kg/day (XF8,Sul)
XF8,Sul = 0.0019
4.14 ROTARY VACUUM FILTER 3 (RO3)
The acetylated cellulose is allowed to settle and the cellulose acetate is extracted
using a rotary vacuum filter. The main product of the process is the dry cellulose acetate
which will then be fed into the tray dyer.
4.14.1 Assumptions
wetness (Equipment Specification).
al., 2016)
4.14.2 Calculations
WW3 = 4,985.9220
kg/day
XWW3,wash = 1.000
F8 = 56,035.8343 Rotary Vacuum Filter 3 F9= 16,077.6199

kg/day kg/day
XF8,CA= 0.2825 XF9,wash= 0.0155
XF8,H2O= 0.0954 XF9,CA= 0.9845
XF8,wash= 0.0029
XF8,PW= 0.1779
XF8,Ac= 0.2988
XF8,An= 0.0207
XF8,Sul= 0.0019 W3 = 38,221.0767
kg/day
XW3,wash= 0.1282
XW3,pwater= 0.2608
XW3,Ac= 0.4381
XW3,An= 0.0303
XW3,Sul= 0.0027
XW3,H2O= 0.1399
F8 = mass flow rate of solids-water mixture in kg/day

WW3 = mass flow rate of wash water in kg/day
XF8,Cel, XW3,Cel = mass fraction of cellulose
XF8,H2O, XW3,H2O = mass fraction of moisture
XF8,wash, XF9,wash, XWW3,wash ,XW3,wash = mass fraction of wash water
XF8,Ac, XW3,Ac = mass fraction of acetic acid
XF8,An, XW3,An =mass fraction of acetic anhydride
XF8,Sul, XW3,Sul = mass fraction of sulfuric acid
XF8,PW, XW3,PW= mass fraction of precipitating water
XF8,CA, XF9,CA = mass fraction of cellulose acetate
Mass of washwater used
WW2 = (0.315kg water/ kg solid)(0.2825)( 37,751.2055 kg/day) = 4,985.9220 kg/day
Mass of Components Filtered -Component Balance on F9
Cellulose Acetate = (1.0)(0.2825)( 56,035.8343kg/day) = 15,828.3238 kg/day
Wash water = (0.05)(4,985.9220 kg/day) = 249.2961 kg/day
F9 = sum = 16,077.6199 kg/day
Wash water
249.2961 kg/day
F9,Wash = = = 0.0080
16,077.6199 kg/day
Cellulose acetate
15,828.3238 kg/day
F9,CA = = = 0.9845
16,077.6199 kg/day
F8 + WW3 = W3 + F9
56,035.8343 kg/day + 4,985.9220 kg/day = W3 +16,077.6199kg/day
W3 = 38,221.0767 kg/day
Wash Water
F8(XF8,wash) + WW3(XWW3,wash) = W3(XW3,wash)+ F9(XF9,wash)
56,035.8343 kg/day (0.0043) + 4,985.9220 kg/day(1.0000)
= 28, 304.1780 kg/day (XW3,wash) + 16,077.6199 kg/day (0.0080)
XW3,wash = 0.1282
Precipitating Water
F8(XF8,PW) + WW3(0) = W3(XW3,PW)+ F9(0)
56,035.8343 kg/day (0.1847) = 38,221.0767 kg/day (XW3,PW)
XW3,PW = 0.2608
Acetic acid
F8(XF8,Ac) + WW3(0) = W3(XW3,Ac)+ F9(0)
56,035.8343 kg/day (0.1797) = 38,221.0767 kg/day (XW3,Ac)
XW3,Ac = 0.4381
Acetic anhydride
F8(XF8,An) + WW3(0) = W3(XW3,An)+ F9(0)
56,035.8343 kg/day (0.1600) = 38,221.0767 kg/day (XW3,An)
XW3,An = 0.0303
Sulfuric acid
F8(XF8,Sul) + WW3(0) = W3(XW3,Sul)+ F9(0)
56,035.8343 kg/day (0.0418) = 38,221.0767 kg/day (XW3,Sul)
XW4,Sul = 0.0027
Moisture
F8(XF8,H2O) + WW3(0) = W3(XW3,H2O)+ F9(0)
56,035.8343 kg/day (0.0418) = 38,221.0767 kg/day (XW3,H2O)
XW4,H2O = 0.1399
4.15 PLASTICIZER (C14H22O8) IN-LINE MIXER (MX05)
A 30% v/v plasticizer solution will be prepared using 98.5% Acetyl triethyl citrate
and water at ambient temperature and normal atmospheric pressure (Tating, Morillo, &
Abonete, 2016). The in-line mixer will provide the plasticizer solution for the plasticizing
mixing tank. Using in-line mixers are supremely efficient and provides rapid operation
which are capable of reducing mixing times (Silverson, 2017).
4.15.1 Assumptions
1. Plasticizing is carried out using 1.52:1 w/w ratio of the cellulose acetate and
the plasticizer solution (Tating et al., 2016).
2. The density of Acetyl triethyl citrate at 25C is 1.136 g/mL (Chemical Book,
2016).
3. Density of water at 250C is 0.997kg/L (Perry, 2008)
4.15.2 Calculations
In-line Mixer 4
C1 = 7,854.0143 kg/day
XC1,Plas= 1.0
P1= 23,989.0479
kg/day
Wo = 16,135.0337kg /day XP1,Plas= 0.3274
XWo,WP= 1.0 XP1,WP= 0.6726
Wo = mass flow rate water in kg/day

C1 = mass flow rate of acetyl triethyl citrate in kg/day
P1 = mass flow rate of 30%v/v plasticizer in kg/day
XC1,Plas XP1,Plas= mass fraction of plasticizer
XWo,WP XP1,WP= mass fraction of water from plasticizer
Figure 4.14 Material balance around in-line mixer 4 (Dilution of Plasticizer)
Volume of acetyl triethyl citrate (X) per volume of solution

= 0.3 ; X = 25.7143 L
+60
Mass of acetyl triethyl citrate
X (density of acetyl triethyl citrate) = 25.7143 L(1.136 kg/ L) = 29.2114 kg
Mass of water per volume of solution
60L x 1 kg/L = 60 kg
Total mass of solution = 29.2114 kg + 60 kg = 89.2114 kg
Mass Fraction of acetyl triethyl citrate
29.2114 kg
XP1,Plas= = 0.3274
89.2114
60
XP1,WP=89.2114 = 0.6726
Mass flow rate of cellulose acetate
(F13)( XF13,Ca ) = (16,077.6199 kg/day)( 0.9984) = 15,828.3238 /
Mass of plasticizer used
1.52
P1 = = 15,828.3238 = 23,989.0479 /
1
Mass flow rate of C1

C1 = 23,989.0479 (0.3274) = 7,854.0143 kg/day
Mass flow rate of Wo

Wo = 23,989.0479 (0.6726) = 16,135.0337 kg /day
4.16 PLASTICIZING MIXING TANK (PX01)
The plasticizer mixture with 30%v/v Acetyl triethyl citrate and the cellulose
acetate will be mixed in the plasticizing mixing tank at 80C and normal atmospheric
pressure to obtain a gel-like mixture. The cellulose acetate will be brought in by a screw
conveyor belt while the plasticizer mixture will be poured in the tank. The product of the
process is the cellulose acetate biofilm gel slurry.
4.16.1 Assumptions
1. Acetyl triethyl citrate is used as a plasticizer and no other reaction occurs
(Tating et al., 2016).
2. Conversion of cellulose acetate to biofilm is 149.62% (Tating et al., 2016).
3. Mixing time is 30 minutes (Equipment specification).
4.16.2 Calculations
P1= 23,989.0479 kg/day

XP1,Plas= 0.3274
XP1,WP= 0.6726
F10= 40,066.6679
kg/day
/ F9= 16,077.6199 XF10,Wash= 0.0062
kg/day XF10,Biofilm= 0.5911
XF9,wash= 0.0155 XF10,WP= 0.4027
XF9,CA= 0.9845
Mixing tank 7
F9 = mass flow rate of dried cellulose acetate in kg/day

F10 = mass flow rate of biofilm slurry in kg/day
P1 = mass flow rate of plasticizer in kg/day
XF9,Wash, XF10,Wash = mass fraction of wash water
XF9,CA, XF10,CA = mass fraction of cellulose acetate
XF10,Biofilm = mass fraction of biofilm
XP1,WP, XF10,WP = mass fraction of water from plasticizer
XP1,Plas = mass fraction of plasticizer
Figure 4.15 Material balance around mixing tank 7 (Plasticizing)
Overall Mass Balance
F9 + P1 = F10
16,077.6199 kg/day + 23,989.0479 kg/day = F10
F10 = 40,066.6679 kg/day
Component Balance
Wash water
F9(XF9,WASH) + P1(0) = F10(XF10,WASH)
16,077.6199 kg/day (0.0155) = 23,989.0479 kg/day (XF10,WASH)
XF10,WASH = 0.0062
Cellulose Acetate to Biofilm
(F9)( XF9,Ca)(1.4962) = 16,077.6199 kg/day(0.9845)(1.4962) =
23,682.3381kg/day
23,682.3381kg/day
XF10,Biofilm = 40,066.6679kg/day = 0.5911
Water from Plasticizer
F9(0) + P1(XP1,WP) = F10(XF10,WP)
23,989.0479 kg/day (0.6726) = 40,066.6679 kg/day (XF10,WP)
XF10,WP = 0.4027
4.17 BIOPLASTIC FILM PRODUCTION DRYING AND CASTING (P01)
The bioplastic gel will be maintained at 80C, fed to the film casting feeder and
evenly spread out by the equipment blades to facilitate fast drying, and eventually cooled
down at ambient temperature. Further heating and cooling of the bioplastic gel are done
in order to achieve the plastic film length and width. The final product are rolls of
bioplastic film (de Moraes et al., 2013).
4.17.1 Assumptions
1. Recycle of excess film is done therefore there is negligible material loss
(Equipment Specification).
2. 100% of water removed by vaporization
4.17.2 Calculations
V2= 16,384.3298
kg/day
Xwater vapor = 1.0
F10= 40,066.6679
/ kg/day
F11= 23,682.3381
XF10,Wash= 0.0062
kg/day
XF10,Biofilm= 0.5911
XF11,Biofilm=1.0
XF10,WP= 0.4027
Tape casting machine

F11 = mass flow rate of biofilm in kg/day
V2 = mass flow rate of water vapor in kg/day
XF10, H2O= mass fraction of water in papaya peeling
XF10,Wash = mass fraction of wash water
XF10,WP = mass fraction of water from plasticizer
Figure 4.16 Material balance around tape casting machine (Drying and Casting)
Total Mass of Water Removed (V1)
V2 = (F10) (XF10,Wash + XF10,WP)
V2= (40,066.6679kg/day)( 0.0062 + 0.4027)
V2 = 16,384.3298 kg/day
Overall Mass Balance
F10 = F11 + V1
40,066.6679 kg/day = 16,384.3298 kg/day + F11
F11 = 23,682.3381 kg/day
4.18 MATERIAL BALANCE AROUND THE PROCESSING PLANT
Papaya Peelings Waste Stream 1

Water Waste Stream 2
Bleach Waste Stream 3
Acetic Anhydride Bioplastic Film Water Vapor
Acetic acid Production Plant Moist Air
Sodium Hydroxide Bioplastic Film
Sulfuric Acid
Plasticizer
Air Figure 4.17 Material balance around the plant
Table 4.3 Summary of flowrates around the plant
Mass In (kg/day) Mass Out (kg/day)

Papaya Peelings 137,380.1917 Waste Stream 1 106,697.6122
Water 23,112.9261 Waste Stream 2 28,721.5287
Bleach 23,335.2000 Waste Stream 3 38,221.0767
Acetic Anhydride 20,846.6969 Water vapor 16,384.3298
Acetic acid 1,302.9186 Moist Air 1,476,323.1943
Sodium Hydroxide 60,508.3422 Bioplastic Film 23,682.3381
Sulfuric Acid 104.2335
Plasticizer 23,989.0479
Air 1,399,451.3448
Total In 1,690,030.9015 Total Out 1,690,030.9015
4.19 YIELD
Yield is a measure of the performance of a reactor or plant. It can be based from
the chemical reaction in the plant or the overall plant yield. Plant yield is a measure of the
overall performance of the plant and includes all chemical and physical losses (Towler &
Sinnott, 2013).
4.19.1 Cellulose Acetate Yield
The cellulose acetate yield of the proposed bioplastic film plant is:
yield = mass of cellulose acetate produced/mass of feed
yield = (23,682.3381kg/day)/(137,380.1917)
yield = 0.1724 kg cellulose acetate/kg raw papaya peelings
4.19.2 Overall Product Yield
The overall yield of the proposed bioplastic plant is:
mass of bioplastic film produced

=
total mass papaya peelings and additives
Where total mass of papaya peelings and additives (T):
T = mass of papaya peelings + mass of sulfuric acid used + mass acetic acid used + mass
of acetic anhydride used + mass of plasticizer used + mass sodium hydroxide + mass
bleach used + water used
T = (137380.1917 + 104.2335 + 1302.9186+ 20,846.6969 +23,989.0479 + 60,508.3422 +
23,335.2000 + 23,112.9261)
T = 153,199.3651 kg/day
23,682.3381kg/day 0.1546 kg bioplastic film

yield = =
153,199.3651 kg/day kg papaya peelings and additives
CHAPTER 5
ENERGY BALANCE
5.1 TRAY DRYER 1
Wet biopolymer at 25C with 13% relative humidity is reduced to 10% moisture
through the tray dryer wherein air with an air filter will be used since the biopolymer is
hygroscopic. The air supplied will be from the vicinity of the plant. Heated air enters at
100C.
5.1.1 Assumptions
1. Negligible heat loss.
2. Cp of papaya peelings at 25C is 2.1875 kJ/kgC (Espinoza-Guevara et al.,
2010).
3. Cp of papaya peelings at 29C is 2.8667 kJ/kgC (Espinoza-Guevara et al.,
2010).
4. Cp of water at 25C is 4.1820 kJ/kgC (Green & Perry, 2013).
5. Cp of water at 29C is 4.1802 kJ/kgC (Green & Perry, 2013).
6. Cp of dry air is 1.007 kJ/kgC (Dagde & Nmegbu, 2014).
7. Outlet air leaves at 29C (NZIFST, 1983).
8. Heated air has a humidity of 0.01 kg/kg dry air at wet bulb temperature of 25C
and a dry bulb temperature of 50C (Green & Perry, 2013).
9. Calculations based on a daily operation.
5.1.2 Calculations
G = 1,476,323.194 kg/day
TG = 290C
P = 137, 380.1917 D1 = 60508.3422

kg/day kg/day
XP, papaya = 0.3964 XD1, papaya = 0.9000
Xp, moisture = 0.6036 Tray Dryer XD1, moisture = 0.1000
TP = 250C TD1 = 290C
G=1,399,451.345
kg/day
TG = 500C
Y = 1,399,451.345
kg/day Air Preheater
TY = 330C
P = mass flow rate of wet papaya peelings in the tray dryer in kg/day
D1 = mass flow rate of dried papaya peelings in the tray dryer in kg/day
G' = mass flow rate of outlet air in the tray dryer in kg/day
G = mass flow rate of entering dry air in the tray dryer in kg/day
Y = mass flow rate of entering air in the air preheater in kg/day
XP, papaya, XD1, papaya = mass fraction of papaya peelings
XP, moisture, XD1, moisture = mass fraction of moisture
T = stream temperature in 0C
Figure 5.1 Energy balance around the tray dryer
Moisture Balance:
Moisture in G + Moisture in P = Moisture in G' + Moisture in D1
Humidity of heated air is 0.01 kg/kg dry air
YG = 0.01 with 13% RH (where Y is the Humidity kg water/kg dry air)
0.01G + 82, 922.68371 = G(YG') + 6050.83422
0.01G + 76, 871.8495 = GYG'
Enthalpy of heated air (HG):
Based on psychometric chart at 50C with YG = 0.01
hG = 77 kJ/kg dry air (where hG is enthalpy at saturation)
D' = -1.125 kJ/kg dry air (where D' is enthalpy deviation)
HG = hG+ D' (Green & Perry, 2013)
HG = 77 kJ/kg dry air 1.125 kJ/kg dry air
HG = 75.875 kJ/kg dry air
Enthalpy of outlet air (HG')
HG' = Cs(TG' To) + (YG')(o)
where
Cs (kJ/kg dry air K) = 1.005 + 1.88YG' (Geankoplis, 1993)
To = reference temperature, 0C
o = latent heat, 2501.40 kJ/kg
HG= 1.005 + 1.88YG' (29 0)(C) + (YG')(2501.40 kJ/kg)
HG = 29.145 + 54.52YG' + 2501.40YG'
HG = (29.145 + 2555.52YG') kJ/kg dry air
Enthalpy of entering feed (P)
Hp = Cp,papaya (Tp To) + XpCp, water (Tp To)
where
Xp = 0.6036
Hp = 2.8667 kJ/kg-C(25 0)C + 0.6036(4.1802 kJ/kgC)(25 0)C
Hp = 117.7939 kJ/kg
Enthalpy of dried papaya (D)
HD = Cp,papaya (TD To) + XDCp, water (TD To)
HD = 2.8667 kJ/kgC (29 0) + 0.10 (4.1802 kJ/kgC) (29 0)
HD = 95.2569 kJ/kg
Energy balance around the tray dryer:
(Gdry air)(HG) + (P)(Hp) = (Gdry air)(HG') + (D)(HD)
(Gdry air)(75.875 kJ/kg dry air) + (82 922.6837 kg/day)(117.7939 kJ/kg) =
(Gdry air)((29.145 + 2555.52YG') kJ/kg dry air) + (6050.8342
kg/day)(95.2564 kJ/kg)
75.875(Gdry air) = -9767786.3130 kJ/day + 29.145(Gdry air) + 2555.52(Gdry air)YG' +
576383.7102 kJ/day
75.875(Gdry air) + 9767786.313 kJ/day 576383.7102 kJ/day 29.145(Gdry air)
= 2555.52(Gdry air)YG'
where
(Gdry air)YG' = 0.01(Gdry air) + 76871.8495 kJ/day
YG' = 0.01 + 76871.8495/(Gdry air)
46.73(Gdry air) + 9191402.603 = 2555.52(Gdry air)YG'
46.73(Gdry air) + 9191402.603 = 2555.52(Gdry air)(0.01 + 76871.8495/(Gdry air))
46.73(Gdry air) + 9191402.603 = 2555.52(Gdry air) + 196447548.80 21.1748(Gdry air)
= 187256146.20
Gdry air = 8, 843, 348.992 kg dry air
YG' = 0.01869
Energy balance around the air heater:
Qheater = HG HZ (@ 25C)
where HZ = enthalpy of ambient air, 50 kJ/kg dry air
Qheater = (75.875 50) kJ/kg dry air x (8843348.992 kg dry air)
Qheater= 228, 821, 655.20 kJ (1 kJ/0.0002778 kWh)
Qheater = 63, 561.5709 kWh
5.2 BLEACHING (MIXING TANK 3)
The solids residue constituting of cellulose pulp will undergo bleaching to remove
impurities. The desired bleaching temperature is 800C. No chemical reaction takes place
within the mixing tank.
5.2.1 Assumptions
1. Negligible Heat Loss.
2. Cp of water is 4.1979 kJ/kg-K (Green &Perry, 2008).
3. Cp of cellulose is 1.3389 kJ/kg-K (Green &Perry, 2008).
4. Cp of calcium hypochlorite(bleach) is 4.1979 kJ/kg-K (Green &Perry, 2008).
5. Latent heat of condensation (HV) of steam is 857.9953 kJ/kg (Green &Perry,
2008).
6. Steam saturated at 800C and 48.1433 kPa (Green &Perry, 2008).
7. All steam is condensed.
5.2.2 Calculations
B1= 23, 335.2 kg/day

XB1,Cal= 1.0
TB1 = 250C
F7= 18035.7970 F8 = 41370.9970
kg/day kg/day
XF7,Cel= 0.6542 XF8,Cal= 0.5640
XF7,H2O= 0.3355 XF8,Cel= 0.2519
XF7,water = 0.0103 XF8,H2O= 0.1292
T7 = 250C XF8,water = 0.0045
XF8, impur= 0.0503
T8 = 800C
Bleaching tank
S1Liquid= 8,970.4085 kg/day S1Vapor= 8,970.4085 kg/day

TS1 = 800C TS1 = 800C

B1 = mass flow rate of calcium hypochlorite in kg/day
S1 = mass flow rate of condensing steam in kg/day
T = temperature of stream in 0C
XF7,H2O, XF8,H2O = mass fraction of in papaya peeling
XF7,water, X F8,water = mass fraction of wash water
XB1,Cal XF8,Cal = mass fraction of calcium hypochlorite
Figure 5.2 Energy Balance Around Mixing Tank 2 (Bleaching)
OVERALL ENERGY BALANCE
Heat in = Heat Out
QIN = -QOUT
HCOMPONENTS = HSTEAM
Enthalpy Balance Around Mixing Tank 2
HF + HB = HS1 = HF8
TREF = 250C
Where,
HF = (mCp)F(TF8 TF7)
HB1 = (mCp)B(TF8 TB1)
HS1 = mHV
Comp m (kg/day) Cp (kJ/kg-K) mCp (kJ/K)

Cellulose 11799.13 1.3389 15797.85
Moisture 6050.834 4.1979 25400.8
Washwater 185.8362 4.1979 780.122
Total 41978.77
HF = (41978.77 kJ/day-K)F7(80 25)K
HF = 230,8832.32 kJ/day
Comp m (kg/day) Cp (kJ/kg-K) mCp (kJ/K)

Bleach 23335.2 4.1979 97958.84
Total 97958.84
HB = (97958.84kJ/day-K)B1(80 25)K
HB = 538,7735.984kJ/day
Mass Flowrate of Water
HF + HB = HS1 = mHV
230,8832.32 kJ/day + 538,7735.984kJ/day = (m)(857.9953 kJ/kg)
S1 = m = 8970.4085 kg/day
5.3 SULFURIC ACID (H2SO4) MIXING TANK
In order to produce 0.025M of sulfuric acid, sulfuric acid is added to water. The
dilution process or the addition of a strong acid to water generates heat; that is, the
reaction is exothermic. There is a removal of energy from the reaction and a transfer of
energy into the surroundings. When adding concentrated sulfuric acid to water the
following reaction takes place
H2SO4 (l) H+(aq) + HSO4(aq)
5.3.1 Assumptions
2. Enthalpy of formation of H2SO4 (l) is -810.399 kJ/mol (Green & Perry, 2013).
3. Enthalpy of formation of H+ (aq) is 0 kJ/mol (Green & Perry, 2013).
4. Enthalpy of formation of HSO4 (aq) is -887.133 kJ/mol (Green & Perry, 2013).
5. Cp of solution is 2.81 kJ/kgC (Green & Perry, 2013).
6. The density of 98% w/w sulfuric acid is 1840 kg/m3 (Green & Perry, 2013).
7. H2SO4 solution of 18.3850 M is 98% w/w H2SO4 solution (Green & Perry,
2013).
8. Reference temperature is 25C.
5.3.2 Calculations
W5a = 99.0176 S2 = 104.2335 kg/day

kg/day XS2, H2SO4 = 0.0500
XW5a, W = 1.0 XS2, W = 0.9509
TW5a = 25C 0.5 M
TS2 = 38.65370C
Sulfuric acid
S1 = 5.2159 kg/day Mixing Tank
XS1, H2SO4 = 0.9800
XS1, W = 0.0200
TS1 = 25C

S1 = mass flow rate of concentrated Sulfuric acid in kg/day
S2 = mass flow rate of diluted Sulfuric acid in kg/day
XS2, H2SO4, XS1, H2SO4 = mass fraction of Sulfuric acid
XW5a, W,XS1, W,XS2, W = mass fraction of water
Figure 5.3 Energy balance around H2SO4 mixing tank
Energy Balance
H2SO4 (l) H+ (aq) + HSO4 (aq)
Hr = mHf (products) nHf (reactants) (Petrucci et al., 2007)
where
m = stoichiometric coefficient of the product from the balanced reaction
n = stoichiometric coefficient of the reactant from the balanced reaction
Hf = standard enthalpy of formation for the reactants or the products
Component Enthalpy of Formation

H2SO4 (l) -810.399 kJ/mol
H+ (aq) 0 kJ/mol
HSO4- (aq) -887.133 kJ/mol
Hr = (-887.133 kJ/mol) - (-810.399 kJ/mol)
Hr = -76.73 kJ/mol
Qreaction = (-76.73 kJ/mol)(1 mol rxn/1 mol H2SO4)(18.3850 mol H2SO4/1 L) x (5.2159 kg)
(1 m3/1840 kg)(1000 L/ 1 m3)
Qreaction = - 3999.1330 kJ
Qsolution = m x Cp x T
where Cp = 2.81 kJ/kgC and m = S2 = 104.2335 kg/dayT
Qsolution = (104.2335 kg)(2.81 kJ/kgC)(TS2 25C)
Qsolution = 292.8961 kJ (TS2 25C)
Qsolution = - Qreaction
292.8961 kJ (TS2 25C) = - (- 3999.1330 kJ)
TS2 = 38.6537C
5.4 HEAT EXCHANGER 1
The final temperature obtained in the Sulfuric acid mixing tank still needs to be
passed through a heat exchanger in order to achieve the desired temperature of 65C.
Water is used as a heating medium in the heat exchanger.
5.4.1 Assumptions
1. There are no heat losses in the heat exchanger to the surroundings.
2. The heating medium, water, enters at 100C (373 K) and heats the Sulfuric
acid to 65C (338 K).
3. The Cp of water is 4.2183 kJ/kgC (Green & Perry, 2013).
4. The Cp of Sulfuric acid is 1.4026 kJ/kgC (Cameo Chemicals, 2015).
5.4.2 Calculations
S2 = 104.2335 S2 = 104.2335
kg/day kg/day
TS2 = 38.6537C TS2 = 65C
Heat Exchanger 1
WX1 = 26.0888 kg/day WX1 = 26.0888 kg/day

TWX1 = 65C TWX1 = 100C
S2 = mass flow rate of sulfuric acid in kg/day

S2 = mass flow rate of heated sulfuric acid in kg/day
WX1 = mass flow rate of heating water in kg/day
WX1 = mass flow rate of cooled water in kg/day
Figure 5.4 Energy Balance around Heat Exchanger 1 (Sulfuric Acid)
Heat Balance around heat exchanger 1,
Q = m x Cp x T = Qwater = - Qsulfuric
(mCpT)water = - (mCpT)sulfuric
The heat given off by the water is the heat absorbed by the Sulfuric acid,
Qwater = m (4.2183 kJ/kgC)(65 100)C
Qwater = - 147.6408(m) kJ/kg
Qsulfuric = (104.2335 kg)(1.4026 kJ/kgC)(65 38.6537)C
Qsulfuric = 3851.7654 kJ
Qwater = - Qsulfuric
- 147.6408(m) kJ/kg = - 3851.7654 kJ
mwater = WX1 = 26.0888 kg/day
Energy transferred to the sulfuric acid from the heating water
Q = 3851.7654 kJ (1 kWh/3.6 x 103 kJ)
Q = 1.0699 kWh
5.5 ACETIC ACID (CH3COOH) MIXING TANK
In order to produce 0.5M of acetic acid, acetic acid is added to water. The dilution
process or the addition of an acid to water generates heat; that is, the reaction is
exothermic. There is a removal of energy from the reaction and a transfer of energy into
the surroundings. When adding concentrated acetic acid to water the following reaction
takes place
CH3COOH (l) H+ (aq) + CH3COO (aq)
5.5.1 Assumptions
2. Enthalpy of formation of CH3COOH (l) is -484.30 kJ/mol (Green & Perry,
2013).
3. Enthalpy of formation of H+ (aq) is 0 kJ/mol (Green & Perry, 2013).
4. Enthalpy of formation of CH3COO (aq) is -540.40 kJ/mol (Green & Perry,
2013).
6. The density of 99.4% w/w acetic acid is 266.60 kg/m3 (Green & Perry, 2013).
8. CH3COOH solution of 4.413 M is 99.4% (w/w) CH3COOH solution (Green &
Perry, 2013).
5.5.2 Calculations
W3a = 1263.5623 AC2 = 1302.9186

kg/day kg/day
XW3a, W = 1.0 XAC2, CH3COOH = 0.0300
TW3a = 25C XC2, W = 0.9700
0.5 M
TAC2 = 33.9318C
AC1 = 39.3563 kg/day Acetic acid

XAC1, CH3COOH = 0.9940 Mixing Tank
XC1, W = 0.0060
TAC1 = 25C
W3a = mass flow rate of water in kg/day

AC1 = mass flow rate of concentrated acetic anhydride in kg/day
AC2 = mass flow rate of diluted acetic anhydride in kg/day
XW3a, W, XAC1, W, XAC2, W = mass fraction of water
XAH1, CH3COOH, XAH2, CH3COOH = mass fraction of acetic acid
Figure 5.5 Energy Balance around CH3COOH (Acetic acid) mixing tank
CH3COOH (l) H+ (aq) + CH3COO (aq)
where

CH3COOH (l) -484.30 kJ/mol
H+ (aq) 0 kJ/mol
CH3COO (aq) -540.40 kJ/mol
Hr = (-540.40 kJ/mol) - (-484.30 kJ/mol)
Hr = -56.10 kJ/mol
Qreaction = (-56.10 kJ/mol)(1 mol rxn/1 mol CH3COOH)(4.413 mol CH3COOH/1 L) x
(39.3563 kg)(1 m3/266.60 kg)(1000 L/1 m3)
Qreaction = - 36546.9304 kJ
where Cp = 3.14 kJ/kgC and m = AC2 = 1302.9186 kg/day
Qsolution = (1302.9186 kg)(3.14 kJ/kgC)(TAC2 25C)
Qsolution = 4091.7660 kJ (TAC2 25C)
4091.7660 kJ (TAC2 25C) = - (- 36546.9304 kJ)
TAC2 = 33.9318C
The final temperature obtained in the Acetic acid mixing tank still needs to be
passed through a heat exchanger in order to achieve the desired temperature of 38C.
5.6.1 Assumptions
2. The heating medium, water, enters at 100C (373 K) and heats the Acetic
acid to 38C (311 K).
4. The Cp of Acetic acid is 2.0626 kJ/kgC (Cameo Chemicals, 2015).
5.6.2 Calculations
AC2 = 1302.9186
AC2 = 1302.9186
kg/day
kg/day
TAC2 = 33.9318C
TAC2 = 38C
Heat exchanger 2
WX2 = 41.8028 kg/day

WX2 = 41.8028 kg/day
TWX2 = 38C
TWX2 = 100C
AC2 = mass flow rate of acetic acid in kg/day

AC2 = mass flow rate of heated acetic acid in kg/day
Figure 5.6 Energy balance around Heat Exchanger 2 (Acetic acid)
Q = m x Cp x T = Qwater = - Qacetic
(mCpT)water = - (mCpT)acetic
The heat given off by the water is the heat absorbed by the Acetic acid,
Qwater = m (4.2183 kJ/kgC)(38 100)C
Qwater = - 261.5351(m) kJ/kg
Qacetic = (1302.9186 kg)(2.0626 kJ/kgC)(38 33.9318)C
Qacetic = 10932.9034 kJ
Qwater = - Qacetic
- 261.5351(m) kJ/kg = - 10932.9034 kJ
mwater = WX2 = 41.8028 kg/day
Energy transferred to the acetic acid from the heating water
Q = 10932.9034 kJ (1 kWh/3.6 x 103 kJ)
Q = 3.0369 kWh
5.7 ACETIC ANHYDRIDE (C3H5O4) MIXING TANK
In order to produce 0.5M of acetic anhydride, acetic acid is added to water. The
dilution process or the addition of an acid to water generates heat; that is, the reaction is
exothermic. There is a removal of energy from the reaction and a transfer of energy into
the surroundings. When adding concentrated acetic anhydride to water the following
reaction takes place
C4H6O3 (l) + H2O (l) 2 C2H4O2 (l)
5.7.1 Assumptions
2. Enthalpy of formation of C4H6O3 (l) is -624.40 kJ/mol (Green & Perry, 2013).
3. Enthalpy of formation of H2O (l) is -285.80 kJ/mol (Green & Perry, 2013).
4. Enthalpy of formation of C2H4O2 (l) is -484.40 kJ/mol (Green & Perry, 2013).
6. The density of 99.4% w/w C4H6O3 solution is 1080 kg/m3 (Green & Perry,
2013).
7. C4H6O3 solution of 6.5146 M is 98.5% (w/w) C4H6O3 solution (Green & Perry,
2013).
9. Calculations based on a daily operation
5.7.2 Calculations
W4a = 19,766.3724 AH2 = 20,846.6969

kg/day kg/day
XW4a, W = 1.0 XAH2, C4H6O3 = 0.0511
TW4a = 25C XAH2, W = 0.9489
0.5 M
TAH2 =31.0364C
AH1 = 1,080.3245 Acetic anhydride

kg/day Mixing Tank
XAH1, C4H6O3 = 0.9850
XAH1, W = 0.0150
TAH1 = 25C
W4a = mass flow rate of water in kg/day

AH1 = mass flow rate of concentrated acetic anhydride in kg/day
AH2 = mass flow rate of diluted acetic anhydride in kg/day
XW4a, W, XAH1, W, XAH2, W = mass fraction of water
XAH1, C4H6O3, XAH2, C4H6O3 = mass fraction of acetic anhydride
Figure 5.7 Energy balance around C4H6O3 (Acetic anhydride) Mixing Tank
C4H6O3 (l) + H2O (l) 2 C2H4O2 (l)
where
C4H6O3 (l) -624.40 kJ/mol
H2O (l) -285.80 kJ/mol
C2H4O2 (l) -484.40 kJ/mol
Hr = (2)(-484.40 kJ/mol) - [(-624.40 kJ/mol) + (-285.80 kJ/mol)]
Hr = -58.60 kJ/mol
Qreaction = (-58.60 kJ/mol)(1 mol rxn/1 mol C4H6O3)(6.5146 mol C4H6O3/1 L) x
(1080.3245 kg)(1 m3/1080 kg)(1000 L/1 m3)
Qreaction = - 381870.2634 kJ
where Cp = 3.0346 kJ/kgC and m = AH2 = 20846.6969 kg/day Qsolution =
(20846.6969)(3.0346 kJ/kgC)( TAH2 25C)
Qsolution = 63261.2720 kJ (TAH2 25C)
63261.3864 kJ (TAH2 25C) = - (- 258679.5003 kJ)
TAH2 = 31.0364C
The final temperature obtained in the Acetic anhydride mixing tank still needs to
be passed through a heat exchanger in order to achieve the desired temperature of 38C.
5.8.1 Assumptions
2. The heating medium, water, enters at 100C (373 K) and heats the acetic
anhydride to 38C (311 K).
4. The Cp of Acetic anhydride is 1.8509 kJ/kgC (Cameo Chemicals, 2015).
5.8.2 Calculations
AH2 = 13029.1855 AH2 =

kg/day 13029.1855
TAH2 = 31.0364C kg/day
TAH2 = 38C
Heat Exchanger 3
WX3=642.0959
WX3=642.0959
kg/day kg/day
TWX3 = 38C TWX3 = 100C
AH2 = mass flow rate of acetic anhydride in kg/day

AH2 = mass flow rate of heated acetic anhydride in kg/day
Figure 5.8 Energy balance around Heat Exchanger 3 (Acetic anhydride)
Q = m x Cp x T = Qwater = - Qanhydride
(mCpT)water = - (mCpT)anhydride
The heat given off by the water is the heat absorbed by the Acetic anhydride,
Qwater = m (4.2183 kJ/kgC)(38 100)C
Qwater = - 261.5351(m) kJ/kg
Qanhydride = (20846.6969 kg)(1.8509 kJ/kgC)(38 31.0364)C
Qanhydride = 268688.9375 kJ
Qwater = - Qanhydride
-261.5351(m) kJ/kg = -268688.9375 kJ
mwater = WX3 = WX3 = 1027.3534 kg/day
Energy transferred to the acetic anhydride from the heating water
Q = 268688.9375 kJ (1 kWh/3.6 x 103 kJ)
Q = 74.6358 kWh
5.9 ACETYLATION AND HYDROLYSIS (MIXING TANK 3)
The bleached cellulose will be converted to cellulose acetate using the acetic
anhydride as the acetylating agent and the acetic acid as solvent with sulfuric acid
catalyst. The chemical reaction is done at 600C and condensing steam at 600C is used to
maintain the temperature inside the tank.
5.9.1 Assumptions
1. Changes in bulk mixture temperature due to heat of reaction is negligible.
2. Condensing steam at 600C and 0.0204 MPa will be used (Green & Perry, 2008)
3. Cp of sulfuric acid is 2.81 kJ/kg-K (Green & Perry, 2008).
4. Cp of acetic acid is 3.14 kJ/kg-K (Green & Perry, 2008).
5. Cp of acetic anhydride is 3.0346 kJ/kg-K (Green & Perry, 2008).
6. Cp of cellulose is 1.3389 kJ/kg-K (Green & Perry, 2008).
7. Cp of water is 4.184 kJ/kg-K (Green & Perry, 2008).
8. Latent heat of vaporization of water at 600C is 765.53 kJ/kg (Green & Perry,
2008).
9. All steam is condensed.
10. Calculations based on a daily basis.
5.9.2 Calculations
PW1= 11,126.9245
kg/day
R1= 22,253.8489 kg/day TPW1 = 250C
XR,Ac= 0.0585 (T=380C)
XR,An= 0.9368 (T=380C)
XR,Sul= 0.0047 (T=650C)
F11= 56,035.8343
kg/day
TF11 = 600C
F10= 15,932.8231
kg/day Acetylation Tank
XF10,Cel= 0.6542
XF10,H2O= 0.3355
XF10,wash = 0.0103 S2vapor= 5,754.1568 kg/day
TF10 = 250C S2liquid= 5,754.1568 kg/day
TS2 = 600C TS2 = 600C

F11 = mass flow rate of mixture in kg/day
R1 = mass flow rate of chemical reagents in kg/day
PW1 = mass flow rate of precipitating water in kg/day
S2 = mass flow rate of condensing steam in kg/day
XF10,Cel, XF11,Cel , = mass fraction of cellulose
XF10,H2O, XF11,H2O = mass fraction of moisture
XF10,water, XF11,water = mass fraction of wash water
XR,Ac, XR,Ac= mass fration of acetic acid
XR,An, XF11,An =mass fraction of acetic anhydride
XR,Sul, XF11,Sul = mass fraction of sulfuric acid
XPW1,PW,XF11,PW = mass fraction of precipitating water
XF11,Ca = mass fraction of cellulose acetate
Figure 5.9 Energy balance around acetylation tank
Overall Energy Balance
Heat in = Heat out
QIN = -QOUT
HCOMPONENTS = HSTEAM
Enthalpy Balance Around Acetylation Tank
Sensible heat + heat of vaporization = HS2
HF10 + HR1 + HPW1 = HS2 = mHv
Where,
H = (mCp)(Tfinal Tinitial)
HS2 = mHV
Component m(kg/day) Cp(kJ/kg-K) Ti(C) Tf(C) T mCpT

Acetic acid 1302.9186 3.14 38 60 22 90005.61377
Acetic anhydride 20846.697 3.0346 38 60 22 1391750.5
Sulfuric acid 104.23348 2.81 65 60 -5 -1464.480456
Total 1,480,291.633
HR1 = 1,480,291.633 kJ/day
Component m(kg/day) Cp(kJ/kg-K) Ti Tf T (K) mCpT

Cellulose 10423.348 1.3389 25 60 35 488453.7428
Moisture 5345.3069 4.184 25 60 35 782766.7472
Washwater 164.16774 4.184 25 60 35 24040.72354
Total 1295261.214
HF10 = 1,295,261.214 kJ/day
Component m(kg/day) Cp(kJ/kg-K) Ti Tf T mCpT

Precipitating Water 11126.924 4.184 25 60 35 1,629,426.818
HPW1 = 1,629,426.818 kJ/day
Mass flow rate of condensing steam
HF10 + HR1 + HPW1 = HS2 = mHv
(1,295,261.214 + 1,480,291.633 + 1,629,426.818)kJ/day = S2 (765.53 kJ/kg)
S2 = 5,754.1568 kg/day
5.10 BIOPLASTIC FILM PRODUCTION
The gelatinized biofilm slurry will be spread on a heated surface to dry out the
remaining moisture to produce the cellulose acetate biofilm. The hot bioplastic gel is fed
to the casting machine and dried at 800C.
5.10.1 Assumptions
1. Negligible heat loss
2. Heat capacity of biofilm is 1.550 kJ/kg-K (Green, 1900).
3. Heat capacity of water is 4.1960 kJ/kg-K (Green & Perry, 2008).
4. Latent heat of vaporization of water at 800C is 749.3617 kJ/kg (Green & Perry,
2008)
5. Air at ambient temperature will be used to cool the casted biofilm.
6. Cp of air at 250C is 1kJ/kg-K (Green & Perry, 2008)
7. Final temperature of air is 62.50C based on average: 100-250C
5.10.2 Calculations
V2= 16,384.3298 kg/day

Xwater vapor = 1.0
TV2 = 1000C
F14= 40,066.6679 F15= 23,682.3381

/ kg/day kg/day
XF14,Wash= 0.0062 XF15,Biofilm=1.0
XF14,Biofilm= 0.5911 TF15 = 1000C
XF14,WP= 0.4027
TF14 = 800C Tape casting machine
Q = 11,674,680.93 kJ/day
Theating surface = 1000C

F15 = mass flow rate of biofilm in kg/day
V2 = mass flow rate of water vapor in kg/day
Q = heat added in kJ/day
XF14, H2O= mass fraction of water in papaya peeling
XF14,Wash = mass fraction of wash water
XF14,WP = mass fraction of water from plasticizer
Figure 5.10 Material balance around tape casting machine
Heat Added to Vaporize the Water
Q = mHv = (F14)(Xwash + XWP )(Hv)
Component m (kg/day) Hv(kJ/kg) mHv(kJ)

Washwater 249.2961 749.3617 186,812.9494
Water from plasticizer 16,135.0336 749.3617 12,090,976.25
Total 12,277,789.19
Q = 12,277,789.19 kJ/day
Air =73,415.2481 Air = 73,415.2481

kg/day kg/day
T = 62.50C T = 250C
Cooling
Biofilm = 23,682.3381 Biofilm 23,682.3381
kg/day kg/day
T = 1000C T = 250C
Figure 5. 11 Cooling of bioplastic film
Heat gained = -Heat lost
mairCpairTair = -mbiofilmCpbiofilmTbiofilm
mair(1.00kJ/kg-K)(62.5-25)K = -(23,682.3381)(1.550 kJ/kg-K)(25-100)K
mair = 73,415.2481 kg/day
5.11 POWER REQUIREMENT
Table 5.1 Power Requirement of Equipments (Based from Chapter 6)
Power
Number Hours of
Equipment Requirement kWh
of Units Operation
(kW)
Shredder 1 18.5 20 370
Belt Conveyor 3 9 20 180
Hammer Mill 1 132 20 2,640
Screw Conveyor 4 36 20 720
Tray Cabinet Dryer 12 0.45 20 9
Steam Generator 1 132 20 2,640
Rotary Drum Vacuum Filter 3 2.2 20 44
Mixing Tanks 11 45.65 20 913
In-line Mixers 2 3 20 60
Heat Exchangers 2 22.5 20 450
Tape Casting Machine 1 25 20 500
Total 8,526
CHAPTER 6
PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN
6.1 SHREDDER
Figure 6.1 Industrial Food Waste Shredder
Function
The shredder will reduce the size of the papaya peelings in order to increase the
surface area of contact with the hot air to be used in drying in the tray dryer.
Description
The rotor blades are made of high alloy heat treated cutter for extra-long life, anti-
corrosive and wear-resistant property. The machine has two rotors that rotate at low
speeds and high torques. The papaya peelings are fed to the top of the hopper and
processed with no further operator interaction.
The machine is also economical and practical with the low speed, high torque
electromechanical driving system to a robust cutting chamber design, the shredder is
designed for energy efficiency and low maintenance cost.
Source of Equipment: Henan Kowloon Machinery Manufacturing Co., Ltd.
6.2 BELT CONVEYOR
Figure 6.2 Belt Conveyor
Function
This equipment will transport the papaya peeling from the storage facility to the
shredder and transfer the shredded papaya peeling to the tray drier loading station. This
machine will also transport the powdered papaya peelings from the hammer mill to the
delignification tank.
Description
The belt works under the effect of frictional force. The belt conveyor is advanced
and simple in structure and easy to maintain. The transfer capacity of the equipment is
high and the transfer distance is long. The conveyor can be installed horizontaly or with
inclination. Operating temperature of the equipment ranges from -20 to 40 0C.
Source of Equipment: Zhengzhou Future Machinery Manufacturing Co., Ltd. (Mainland,
China)
6.3 HAMMER MILL
Figure 6.3 Hammer Mill
Function
The hammer mill will reduce the particle size of the dried papaya peelings to less
than 3mm to promote large contact area for the delignification of the papaya peels.
Description
The machine is originally used in grinding raw materials for feed or biomass
production and can also be used for grinding dried papaya peelings. The machine is
derived from a tear circle type hammer mill and efficiency is improved by 45-90%
compared to a universal hammer mill. Effective aspiration mechanism of the machine can
direct the grinded materials to the screen quickly and also reduces the temperature of the
grinding chamber, increasing output effectively.
Screen Hole: 3 mm
Source of Equipment: Liyang Rongda Machinery Co., Ltd.
6.4 SCREW CONVEYOR
Figure 6.4 Screw Conveyor
Function
This equipment will transport the filter cakes from the rotary vacuum filters to the
subsequent mixing tanks. The equipment is effective in transporting slurry type materials.
Description
The screw conveyor is equipped with a hopper where the feed enters and a screw
spiral speed of 140 rev/min forces the slurry to be transported with a gear box.
Source of Equipment: Henan Shida Vibration Machinery Co., Ltd (Henan, China)
6.5 TRAY CABINET DRYER
Figure 6.5 Tray Cabinet Dryer
Function
The shredded papaya peelings will be dried using the tray dryer from 60% to 10%
water content.
Description
The dryers are loaded with the feed using a trolley stacked with layers of screens
filled with shredded papaya peels. Hot air is circulated in the cabinet to extract the
moisture from the papaya peels to the stream of hot air. Air is withdrawn from one end of
the cabinet dryer and exhausted to the other end to maintain air humidity.
Source of Equipment: Zhengzhou Furui Mechanical Equipment Co., Ltd.
6.6 STEAM GENERATOR
Figure 6.6 Steam Generator
Function
This equipment generates steam. This is used in maintaining the temperatures
inside the mixing tank vessels. Steam enters the jacketed mixing tanks and will condense
to transfer its latent heat to the tank mixture. Steam is also used for heating purposes
especially the chemical reagents in order to attain their optimal storage temperature.
Description
The machine is equipped with pressure controller with high sensitivity pressure
switch, water pump to maintain a constant supply of water to be boiled and a
multifunctional water level gauge to display water level. It is also equipped with a high
precision pressure switch in order to adjust the working pressure of the boiler.
Source of Equipment: Zhangjiagang Wilford Thermal Co., Ltd.
6.7 ROTARY DRUM VACUUM FILTER
Figure 6.7 Rotary Drum Vacuum Filter
Function
The suspended solids from the solid-liquid mixture coming from the mixing tanks
are separated using the rotary vacuum filter. The cellulose from the cellulose-NaOH-
lignin mixture, the bleached cellulose from the cellulose-bleach mixture, and the
precipitated cellulose acetate from the cellulose acetate-reagents mixture, will be filtered
out and collected using a screw conveyor for further subsequent processing.
Description
The machine is equipped with water spray washer on the top of the drum to
further remove chemical reagents. The equipment uses negative pressure to drive off
moisture forming concentrate filter cake and a scraper to withdraw the filter cake from
the filter surface.
Mesh size: Mesh number 80 (0.177 mm)
Source of Equipment: Henan Hongji Mine Machinery Co., Ltd.
6.8 MIXING TANKS
Figure 6.8 Mixing Tank
Function
The mixing tanks provide efficient contact between the solids and the chemical
reagents. The powdered papaya peels are delignified using sodium hydroxide with the aid
of constant mixing at 250C. Bleaching of the cellulose pulp, acetylation into cellulose
acetate, and plasticizing, are done at higher temperatures made possible by a jacketed
layer where steam enters to provide the necessary heat to maintain the desired
temperature.
Description
The tank features a quick open manhole with adjustable triangular bracket. The
mixing is done by a paddle blender. The inside of the tank is fabricated with glass to
prevent corrosion from strong acid and base.
Blending Speed: 35 rpm
Source of Equipment: Zhengzhou Huahong Machinery Equipment Co., Ltd. and
Guangzhou Hundom Machinery Equipment Technology Co., Ltd.
6.9 CALCIUM HYPOCHLORITE IN-LINE MIXER
Figure 6.9 Calcium hypochlorite in-line mixer
Function
Calcium hypochlorite which serves as the bleaching agent is continuously mixed
with water using this in-line mixer equipment before being fed to the bleaching mixing
tank.
Description
It is a high-performance equipment used for continuous production and circulated
treatment of fine material. It uses rotors and stators with high shear and impact forces
exerted when it rotates very quickly, to mix and emulsify materials. This in-line mixer
equipment has many functions, such as for forming liquids mixture, dispersion,
emulsification and proper conveying of many liquids having low viscosity.
Source of Equipment: Shanghai Zhuheng Industrial Co., Ltd. (Mainland, China)
6.10 PLASTICIZER IN-LINE MIXER
Figure 6.10 Plasticizer in-line mixer
Function
98.5% Acetyl triethyl citrate which serves as the plasticizer is continuously mixed
with water to produce 30% v/v plasticizer solution using this in-line mixer equipment
before being fed to the plasticizing mixing tank.
Description
It is high-performance equipment used for continuous production or circulated
treatment of fine material. It uses rotors and stators with high shear and impact forces
exerted when it rotates very quickly, to mix and emulsify materials. This in-line mixer
equipment has many functions, such as for forming liquids mixture, dispersion,
emulsification and proper conveying of many liquids having low viscosity.
6.11 SULFURIC ACID MIXING TANK
Figure 6.11 Sulfuric acid Mixing Tank
Function
98% w/w Sulfuric acid will be thoroughly mixed with water in this equipment to
produce 0.5 M of H2SO4 which will then be forwarded to the heat exchanger before
feeding to the acetylation and hydrolysis mixing tank.
Description
The equipment is widely used for large transfusion, small injection as well as
solution, sterilization and preparation, etc. It has functions of heating, cooling, heat
preservation and mixing preparation consisting of a vessel that carries out design and
processing. The equipment also has a large jacket space and a large heating area, which
can reduce the welding seam.
Heat preservation layer: 60 mm
Inlet and outlet diameter: 38 mm
6.12 ACETIC ACID MIXING TANK
Figure 6.12 Acetic acid Mixing Tank
Function
99.4% Acetic acid will be thoroughly mixed with water in this equipment to
produce 0.5 M of CH3COOH which will then be forwarded to the heat exchanger before
feeding off to the acetylation and hydrolysis mixing tank.
Description
6.13 ACETIC ANHYDRIDE MIXING TANK
Figure 6.13 Acetic anhydride Mixing Tank
Function
98.5% Acetic anhydride will be thoroughly mixed with water in this equipment to
produce 0.5 M of C4H6O3 which will then be forwarded to the heat exchanger before
Description
6.14 SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER
Figure 6.14 Industrial Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
Function
Heat exchanger, also called heat transfer machine, is the equipment that can
transfer certain heat from the thermal fluid to the cold fluid. It is the essential equipment
to achieve the heat exchange and transfer during the production process. Sulfuric acid,
Acetic acid and Acetic anhydride will be heated to their required temperature before
Description
This equipment is widely used for efficient transferring of heat from one fluid to
another. It uses top grade raw material such as carbon steel and requires low maintenance.
It has multipurpose usage, efficient heat elimination, durable and stable. Its applications
include the petroleum industry, refineries, chemical plants, petrochemical plants, etc.
Unit Specification
Configuration: Horizontal
Number of tubes: 14
Number of baffles: 16
Pitch type: Triangular
Baffle type: Triple segmental
Dimensions
Shell length: 4.50 m
Shell outer diameter: 1.25 m
Tube length: 1.52 m
Tube diameter: 12.75 mm
Source of Equipment: Hangzhou Hecci Technology Co., Ltd, China (Mainland)
6.15 TAPE CASTING MACHINE
Figure 6.15 Tape Casting Machine
Function
The equipment will spread the bioplastic gel from the plasticizing mixing tank
into thin sheets while simultaneously drying the sheet with a heated metal roller surface.
It will also produce the bioplastic film into biofilm rolls.
Description
The equipment is designed with two sets of high speed coating device and a
rewind and unwind device. From the plasticizing mixing tank, the bioplastic gel is
maintained at a high temperature through electric heating method and spread out
crosswise. The next process involves cooling down of the gel using air, then electrically
heated again to be managed lengthwise then finally cooled.
Unit Specification
Coating speed: 2-150 m/min
Coating quantity: 5-200 g/m2
Weight: 4000 kg
Dimensions
Coating width: 200-2500 mm
Unwind Diameter: 1000 mm
Rewind Diameter: 1000 mm
Source of Equipment: Qingdao Sanrenxing Machinery Co., Ltd. (Jiangsu, China)
6.16 WATER STORAGE TANK
Figure 6.16 Water Storage Tank
Function
The water storage tank will store the necessary supply of water to be used by the
manufacturing processes.
Description
This storage tank is freestanding for indoor or outdoor stationary applications. It
is designed for the storage of chemicals with a specific gravity of 1.0 or less.
Manufactured from FDA compliant high-density polyethylene, this storage tank is
equipped with U.V. stabilizers.
Weight: 793.79 kg
Source of Equipment: Den Hartog Industries, Inc. Hospers, Iowa
6.17 REAGENTS AND PLASTICIZER STORAGE TANK
Figure 6.17 Reagents and Plasticizer Storage Tanks
Function
The reagents and plasticizer storage tank will store the necessary supply of
chemical reagents to be used by the manufacturing processes.
Description
The polyethylene storage tanks are manufactured in a variety of shapes and styles.
These storage tanks are rugged, corrosion resistant and lightweight with no seams, welds
or joints to leak or rust. They are manufactured using resins that meet FDA specifications
to ensure safe storage of various liquid chemicals.
Weight: 138.35 kg
Source of Equipment: Norwesco, Inc. Saint Bonifacius, Minnesota
6.18 SODIUM HYDROXIDE STORAGE TANK
Figure 6.18 Sodium hydroxide Storage Tank
Function
The sodium hydroxide storage tank will store the necessary supply of
delignification reagent (NaOH) to be used by the manufacturing processes.
Description
The storage tank is made with high-quality materials in order to withstand
extreme pressure, temperature, wearing of materials and naturals disaster. It is cheaper
and requires less repair/ maintenance.
Source of Equipment: Amy Du Henan SRON Industry Equipment Engineering Co., Ltd
(Mainland, China)
Table 6.1 Summary of Equipment Specifications
Operating Conditions Unit Specification

Number Mode of Material of Power Cost
Equipment of Units Temperature Pressure Time Max. Dimensions (m) RPM
Operation Construction (kW) ($)
(C) (atm) (Hours) Capacity Length Width Height
8,000
Shredder 1 Continuous 27 1 20 kg/hr 3 2 1.9 SS 304 18.5 50,000 30-40
50,000 Polyester,
Belt Conveyor 3 Continuous 27 1 20 kg/hr 10 0.5 3 180 -
Rubber
7,000
Hammer Mill 1 Continuous 27 1 20 kg/hr 1.7 1 1.1 SS 304 132 20,000 2970
Screw 2,200 SS 304,
4 Continuous 27 1 20 L/hr 10 1.5 9 32.75 -
Conveyor SS 316
Tray Cabinet
12 Continuous 50-150 1 20 500 kg/hr 3.5 2.2 2.8 SS 304 0.45 6,627 -
Dryer
Steam 300 kg
1 Continuous 170 7 20 vaporized 1.27 1.57 2.4 SS 304 132 8,500 -
Generator steam/hr
Rotary Drum 2,500

3 Continuous 27 1 20 kg/hr 3.2 3.18 3.37 SS 304 2.2 999 0.34
Vacuum Filter
Delignification SS 304,
3 Batch 27 1 20 20,000 L 2.64 6.44 5.5 3,000 35
Mixing Tanks SS 316
Acetylation SS 304,
2 Batch 27 1 20 50,000 L 5.67 7.569 5.5 30,000 35
Mixing Tanks SS 316
159 | P a g e Camarote, Romelo, Valdon | Production of Cellulose Acetate Bioplastic Film from Papaya (Carica papaya L.) Peelings
Table 6.2 Summary of Equipment Specifications (Continued)

Number Mode of Material of Power
Equipment of Units Temperature Pressure Time Max. Dimensions (m) Cost ($) RPM
Operation Construction (kW)
Bleaching
SS 304,
Mixing 2 Batch 27 1 20 50,000 L 5.67 7.569 5.5 30,000 35
SS 316
Tanks
Plasticizing
SS 304,
Mixing 1 Batch 27 1 20 50,000 L 5.67 7.569 5.5 30,000 35
SS 316
Tanks
Calcium
1,000
Hypochlorite 1 Continuous 27 1 20 0.6 0.3 0.5 SS 304 1.5 800 2800
In-line Mixer L/h
Plasticizer In- 1,000
line Mixer
1 Continuous 27 1 20 0.6 0.3 0.5 SS 305 1.5 800 2800
L/h
Sulfuric Acid
Mixing Tank
1 Continuous 27 2.96 20 500 L 1 0.84 2.75 SS 304 0.55 1,600 35
Acetic Acid
Mixing Tank
1 Continuous 27 2.96 20 500 L 1 0.84 2.75 SS 304 0.55 1,600 35
Acetic
Anhydride
Acid Mixing
1 Continuous 27 2.96 20 500 L 1 0.84 2.75 SS 306 0.55 1,600 35
Tank
Shell and
10,000 Carbon
Tube Heat 1 Continuous 600 50 20 4.5 1.25 7.5 10,000 -
Exchanger L/hr Steel
Table 6.3 Summary of Equipment Specifications (Continued)

Number Mode of Material of Power
Equipment of Units Temperature Pressure Time Max. Dimensions (m) Cost ($) RPM
Operation Construction (kW)
Tape
Casting 1 Continuous 230 1 20 4000 kg 2.4 4.8 1.5 SS 304 25 80000 -
Machine
Water
26500
Storage 1 Continuous 27 1 20 3.61 3.175 PE Plastic - 4825 -
Tank L
Reagents
and
Plasticizer 4 Continuous 27 1 20 7950 L 2.21 2.26 PE Plastic - 1213 -
Storage
Tank
NaOH
3000
Storage 1 Continuous 27 2.96 20 12.83 15.8 SS 304 - 5809 -
Tank m3
CHAPTER 7
PIPING SYSTEM
In every manufacturing plant, various materials are transferred from place to place
by means of flowing through piping systems. Pipes aid in the movement of these
materials from one equipment to another, hence, choosing what type of pipes to use in the
plant is important to ensure safety and optimum product quality. The conditions and kind
of material that passes through the pipes must also be taken into consideration. Piping
system in an industry pertains to an assembly of pipes, fittings (elbows, reducers, etc.),
valves, and pumps conveying viscous and non-viscous fluids between unit operations or
storage tanks. Pipe size selection depends on costs of capital investment, power,
maintenance and some other factors for large or complex piping systems. The amount of
power supplied, such as that from a pump, is a major factor involved in the design of
piping systems. To overcome frictional resistance or friction losses, elevation changes,
and internal energy changes, mechanical power must be supplied and is usually done with
the application of pumps (Peters & Timmerhaus, 1991). Increasing diameter of pipes
increases the capital cost of a pipe run, whereas the pumping costs decrease with
increasing diameter. At low pressures, Schedule 40 pipes are commonly used for general
purpose applications.
For economic reasons, the optimum diameter size of the pipe at specific
conditions can be used. Theoretically, the optimum pipe diameter is the one that gives
the least total cost for annual pumping power and fixed charges with the particular piping
system. The optimum inside diameter for steel pipes can be estimated using the formula
given by Peters and Timmerhaus (1991):
For turbulent flow (NRe > 2100) in steel pipes
For laminar flow (NRe < 2100) in steel pipes
where Di, opt is the optimum inside pipe diameter in m, v is the volumetric flow
rate in m3/s, is the density in kg/m3 and is the viscosity in Pa-s. NRe is called as the
Reynold's number, which is characteristic dimensionless number which determines the
type of flow through a pipe. It is expressed by Geankoplis (1993) as,
where D is the diameter in m, is the density of the fluid in kg/m3, is the fluid
viscosity in Pa-s and v is the average velocity of the fluid in m/s. This number is used
mostly in the determination of pipe friction factor. Laminar flow always exists at
Reynolds number less than 2100 and exists as turbulent flow when the value is over 4000.
At values in between, transitional flow exists. Pumping at transitional velocities is often
avoided to prevent oscillations between laminar and turbulent flows, thus, avoiding
complicated calculations (Geankoplis, 1993).
A major factor involved in the design of pumping and piping systems is the
amount of power that is required for the particular operation.
Mechanical devices such as pumps and blowers supply mechanical power to overcome
frictional resistance, changes in elevation, changes in internal energy, and other
resistances set up in the flow system (Peters & Timmerhaus, 1991). It increases the
mechanical energy of the material which is the one responsible for its movement by
increasing its velocity as well as the pressure and the elevation of the fluid. Pumps move
incompressible fluids while fans, blowers, and compressors are used to move gas. For
incompressible fluids flowing under steady-state conditions, the total mechanical-energy-
balance equation which allows computation of the actual or theoretica mechanical energy
supplied by mechanical devices was expressed by Geankoplis (1993) as,
where Ws is the power requirement, z2 and z1 are the final and initial elevations,
respectively, p2 and p1 are the final and initial pressures, respectively, and F is the total
friction losses obtained from the friction in straight pipe, enlargement loss, contraction
loss, and losses in fittings and valves. The value of is equal to 1 if the flow is turbulent
and 0.5 if laminar (Geankoplis, 2003).
Friction loss in straight pipes can be computed using the following equation,
Where L is the total length of the straight pipe and f is the Fanning friction
factor. If the flow is laminar, f is equal to
For turbulent flow, f can be computed using the equation provided by Churchill,
Where is the pipe surface roughness and is equal to 0.0457 mm for commercial
steel or wrought iron (Green & Perry, 2013). For sudden enlargement losses (hex), sudden
contraction losses (hc) and losses in fittings and valve (hf), the following equations are
used:
Where Kf is the frictional loss through fittings and valve differs for different types
of valve and fitting. For a 90 elbow, wide open gate valve, tee and for a wide-open globe
valve, Kf has values of 0.75, 0.17, 1 and 6.0, respectively. For connections with
combinations of fittings and valves, their Kf values can be added such that the sum can be
used in calculating for the hf for all existing fittings and valves associated to that pipeline
(Geankoplis, 1993).
On the other hand, the actual work of the pump can be calculated using the
efficiency of the pump and can be expressed using the equation provided by Geankoplis
(1993),
where Wp is the energy or shaft work delivered to the pump, Ws is the
mechanical energy delivered to the fluid by the pump or net mechanical work and is the
fractional efficiency of the pump.
Typical values of centrifugal pump efficiencies based on various volumetric flow
rates are tabulated in Table 7.1 below.
Table 7.1 Centrifugal efficiencies for different volumetric flow rates (Geankoplis, 1993)
Volumetric flow rate (m3/min) Efficiency (50%)

.075 50
.19 62
.38 68
.76 75
1.89 82
3.8 85
7.1 SAMPLE CALCULATIONS
Dimensions for standard steel pipe, typical friction losses for fittings and valves
both for laminar and turbulent flows are shown in the Appendix B.
Pipe path: NaOH storage tank to Delignification Mixing Tank (CS M1)
Data:
Fluid Properties
Material: NaOH Viscosity = 0.087 Pa-s
Mass flow rate = 0.70033 kg/s Volumetric flow rate = 0.000329 m3/s
Density = 2130 kg/m3
Pipe Properties
L = 15 m A1 = 129.2835 m2
for steel pipe = 0.0457 (Green & Perry, 2013) A2 = 0.008213 m2
P = 0 # of elbows (90) = 5
= 0.68 #of Globe valves (wide open) = 1
z = 6.529 m # of Tees = 1
Pipe Size Selection
Nominal pipe size = 4 Outside diameter = 0.1143 m
Schedule number = 40 Wall thickness = 0.0060198 m
Inside diameter = 0.1022604 m
Reynolds number, NRe:
In order to check whether the flow is laminar of turbulent, we calculate the
Reynolds number given the inside diameter, velocity, density and viscosity:
NRe = (4)(0.70033 kg/s)/()(0.087 kg/m-s)(0.1022604 m)
NRe =100.2270 (laminar flow)
Optimum Diameter:
Since the flow is laminar (NRe < 2100), we could use one the equations given
above to calculate for the optimum diameter of the pipe:
Di,opt = 0.133(0.000329 m3/s)0.40(0.087 kg/m-s).13
Di,opt = 0.04987 m
Area:
A = r2
A = (0.1022604 m/2)2
A = 0.008219 m2
Velocity:
v = (0.70033 kg/s)/(2130 kg/m3)(0.008219 m2)
v = 0.040033 m/s
Friction Losses:
a. Friction loss in straight pipe
f = 16/NRe
f = 16/100.2270
f = 0.1596
Ff = 4(0.1596)(15 m/0.1022604 m)((0.040033)2/2)
Ff = 0.0751 J/kg
b. Friction loss in valves and fittings
Kf of wide open globe valve = 6.0
Kf of 90 elbows = 0.75
Kf of tee = 1.0
hf = (6.0*1+.75*5+1*1)((0.040033)2/2*0.5) @ = 0.5
hf = 0.00431 J/kg
c. Friction loss due to sudden contraction
hc = 0.55(1 129.2835/0.008219)((0.040033)2/2*0.5)
where
A = area of the pipe, 0.008219 m2
A1 = area of the tank, 129.2835 m2
hc = 0.004307 J/kg
d. Total Friction loss
The total friction loss in the pipe can be found by summing up all the individual
losses,
F = Ff + hf + hc
F = 0.0751 J/kg + 0.00431 J/kg + 0.004307 J/kg
F = 0.080244 J/kg
Shaft Work:
From the mechanical energy balance given by Geankoplis (1993), the shaft work required
by the pump can be calculated,
since there is no change in velocity in the flow of fluid along the pipe and there are no
pressure changes, the first and the third term in the mechanical energy balance can be
cancelled out,
(9.806 m/s2)(6.529 m) + 0.080244 J/kg + Ws = 0
Ws = 3.1655 J/kg
Pump Power Requirement:
Finally, the actual work to be delivered by the pump, with an efficiency of 0.68,
can be calculated as,
Wp = - [(0.70033 kg/s) (3.1655 J/kg)]/0.68
Wp = -3.2602 J/s
Wp = -0.004370 hp
Table 7.2 Material Properties
Mass flowrate Density Volumetric Viscosity

Line Path Material Type
(kg/s) (kg/m3) flowrate (m3/s) (Pa-s)
T01 M1 NaOH 0.70032803 2130 0.000328792 0.087
M1 R01 Black slurry 14.9449723 2078.5 0.0071902681 0.087
WS MX01 Water 0.269944444 1000 0.0002699444 0.00089
MX01 M2 Bleach 0.270083333 2350 0.0001149291 0.00089
R01 M2 Cellulose 0.208738426 1544 0.0001351933 0.011
M2 R02 Cellulose 0.4788309838 1544 0.0003101237 0.011
WS MX02 Water 0.0146245637 1000 1.4624563657E-05 0.00089
WS MX03 Water 0.1429859109 1000 0.0001429859 0.00089
WS MX04 Water 0.0011460370 1000 0.0000011460 0.00089
T03 MX04 Sulfuric acid 6.03692129E-05 1840 3.2809354871E-08 0.00137
T04 MX02 Acetic acid 0.0004555127 266.60 1.7085998930E-06 0.00111
Acetic
T05 MX03 0.0125037558 1080 1.1577551654E-05 0.00090
anhydride
MX02 HX02 Acetic acid 0.0150800764 1000 1.5080076389E-05 0.00089
Acetic
MX03 HX03 0.1508007581 1000 0.0001508008 0.00089
anhydride
MX04 HX04 Sulfuric acid 0.0012064063 1000 1.20640625E-06 0.00089
R02 M3 Cellulose 0.1844076748 1544 0.0001194350 0.01100
HX02 M3 Acetic acid 0.0150800764 1000 1.508007639E-05 0.00089
Acetic
HX03 M3 0.1508007581 1000 0.0001508008 0.00089
anhydride
HX04 M3 Sulfuric acid 0.0012064063 1000 1.20640625E-06 0.00089
T02 MX05 Plasticizer 0.0888839375 1000 8.88839375E-05 0.00089
WS MX05 Water 0.1826002940 1000 0.0001826003 0.00089
MX05 M4 Plasticizer 0.2714842303 1136 0.0002389826 0.03400
Cellulose
R03 M4 0.1279266435 1300 9.840511040E-05 0.001668
acetate
M4 P01 Biopolymer 0.2776241956 1300 0.0002135571 0.001668
Cellulose
M3 R03 0.4350385359 1300 0.0003346450 0.001668
acetate
Table 7.3 Piping Selection
Inside Outside Nominal Wall Total # of

# of Globe # of
Optimum Diameter Diameter Pipe Size Schedule Thickness Length Elbows
valves Tees
Line Path Diameter (m) (in) (m) (in) Number (in) (m) Area (m2) (90)
T01 M1 0.049872045 4.026 4.5 4 40 0.237 15 0.008219 5 1 1
M1 R01 0.049872045 5.047 5.563 5 40 0.258 5 0.01291 4 1 1
WS MX01 0.022079034 2.469 2.875 2.5 40 0.203 20 0.003089 3 1 0
MX01 M2 0.552483676 5.047 5.563 5 40 0.258 15 0.008219 3 1 1
R01 M2 0.184593647 4.026 4.5 4 40 0.237 8 0.008219 3 1 1
M2 R02 0.257305274 4.026 4.5 4 40 0.237 7 0.008219 5 1 1
WS MX02 0.060239978 2.469 2.875 2.5 40 0.203 38 0.003089 3 1 0
WS MX03 0.37135441 2.469 2.875 2.5 40 0.203 45 0.003089 4 1 0
WS MX04 0.021753598 2.469 2.875 2.5 40 0.203 54 0.003089 4 1 0
T03 MX04 0.007254445 3.548 4 3.5 40 0.226 21 0.006379 5 1 0
T04 MX02 0.012665247 3.548 4 3.5 40 0.226 19 0.006379 5 1 0
T05 MX03 0.057149564 3.548 4 3.5 40 0.226 17 0.006379 3 1 0
MX02 HX02 0.0609836 2.067 2.375 2 40 0.154 2 0.002165 3 0 0
MX03 HX03 0.380354196 2.067 2.375 2 40 0.154 3 0.002165 3 0 0
MX04 HX04 0.022204913 2.067 2.375 2 40 0.154 4 0.002165 3 0 0
R02 M3 0.175665868 5.047 5.563 5 40 0.258 9 0.01291 5 1 1
HX02 M3 0.0609836 3.068 3.5 3 40 0.216 2.5 0.004769 4 1 1
HX03 M3 0.380354196 3.068 3.5 3 40 0.216 2.5 0.004769 4 1 1
HX04 M3 0.022204913 3.068 3.5 3 40 0.216 2.5 0.004769 4 1 1
T02 MX05 0.299831394 1.049 1.315 1 40 0.133 23 0.000574 2 1 0
WS MX05 0.414555124 1.049 1.315 1 40 0.133 36 0.000574 2 1 1
MX05 M4 0.1970374 5.047 5.563 5 40 0.258 4.5 0.01291 2 1 0
R03 M4 0.14840505 5.047 5.563 5 40 0.258 18 0.01291 3 1 0
M4 P01 0.202323907 5.047 5.563 5 40 0.258 2.8 0.01291 0 1 0
M3 R03 0.633952529 5.047 5.563 5 40 0.258 15.5 0.01291 3 1 1
Table 7.4 Summary of Friction Losses
L hc Total F Wp Wp
Line Path Nre f Ff (J/kg) kf hf (J/kg) Kc z (m) Ws (J/kg)
(m) (J/kg) (J/kg) (Watt) (hp)
T01 M1 100.2270 0.15964 15 0.07505 10.75 0.00431 0.54997 0.00088 0.08024 -0.331 3.16554 -3.260173 -0.0044
M1 R01 1706.157 0.00938 5 0.22703 10 0.77586 0.54972 0.17060 1.17349 0.4145 -5.23807 115.12185 0.15432
WS MX01 6157.990 0.12626 20 0.61506 8.25 0.03150 0.54983 0.00210 0.64866 -1.0875 10.01536 -5.40717 -0.0072
MX01 M2 3014.053 0.06173 15 0.00115 9.25 0.00037 0.51056 2.03E-5 0.00153 6.19 -60.70067 32.78848 0.04395
R01 M2 236.2720 0.06772 8 0.00287 9.25 0.00063 0.54956 0.00015 0.00365 4.755 -46.63118 19.46744 0.02610
M2 R02 541.9911 0.02952 7 0.00576 10.75 0.00383 0.54917 0.00078 0.01038 0.15 -1.48128 1.41856 0.00190
WS MX02 333.6170 0.04796 38 0.00130 8.25 0.00005 0.54983 1.23E-5 0.00136 1.1625 -11.40084 0.33346 0.00045
WS MX03 3261.809 0.12706 45 0.39072 9 0.00964 0.54983 0.00059 0.40095 1.1625 -11.80043 3.37459 0.00452
WS MX04 26.14351 0.61201 54 0.00015 9 3.10E-07 0.54983 7.57E-8 0.00015 1.1625 -11.39962 0.02613 3.50E-5
T03 MX04 0.62372 25.65234 21 3.163E-7 9.75 6.45E-11 0.54909 1.4E-11 3.164E-7 1.6197 -15.88278 0.00192 2.57E-6
T04 MX02 5.79789 2.75962 19 8.349E-5 9.75 1.75E-07 0.54909 3.04E-8 8.371E-5 1.6197 -15.88286 0.01447 1.94E-5
T05 MX03 196.2866 0.08151 17 0.00010 8.25 6.79E-06 0.54909 1.81E-6 0.00011 1.6197 -15.88289 0.39719 0.00053
MX02 HX02 410.9126 0.03894 2 0.00014 2.25 0.00003 0.54858 2.66E-5 0.00020 0.125 -1.22595 0.03697 0.00005
MX03 HX03 4109.126 0.15961 3 0.08851 2.25 0.00546 0.54858 0.00133 0.09530 0.125 -1.32105 0.39843 0.00053
MX04 HX04 32.87301 0.48672 4 2.303E-5 2.25 1.75E-07 0.54858 1.70E-7 2.337E-5 0.125 -1.22577 0.00296 3.96E-6
R02 M3 166.5058 0.09609 9 0.00116 10.75 0.00023 0.54930 4.70E-5 0.00143 4.755 -46.62896 17.19748 0.02305
HX02 M3 276.8401 0.05780 3 3.707E-5 10 2.50E-05 0.54786 5.48E-6 6.754E-5 5.815 -57.02196 1.71979 0.00231
HX03 M3 2768.401 0.09925 3 0.00637 10 0.00500 0.54786 0.00027 0.01164 5.815 -57.03353 17.20140 0.02306
HX04 M3 22.14721 0.72244 3 2.965E-6 10 1.60E-07 0.54786 3.50E-8 3.160E-6 5.815 -57.02189 0.13758 0.00018
T02 MX05 4772.371 0.56378 23 24.7335 7.5 0.09529 0.54992 0.00699 24.83576 -0.6303 -18.65504 3.31627 0.00445
-
WS MX05 9804.205 0.56140 36 162.697 8.5 0.45580 0.54997 0.02949 163.18280 -1.0875 55.69995 0.07466
152.51878
MX05 M4 79.30650 0.20175 5 0.00486 7.5 0.00064 0.51056 0.00018 0.00567 6.19 -60.70481 32.96080 0.04418
R03 M4 761.4820 0.02101 18 0.00034 8.25 0.00012 0.54930 0.00003 0.00049 4.755 -46.62802 8.77201 0.01176
M4 P01 1652.555 0.00968 3 0.00012 6.00000 0.00041 0.54870 0.00015 0.00068 0.00000 -0.00068 0.00028 3.70E-7
M3 R03 2589.562 0.06193 16 0.01007 9.25000 0.00311 0.54870 0.00018 0.01336 4.75500 -46.64089 29.83910 0.04000
Figure 7.1 Piping system layout
CHAPTER 8
WASTE MANAGEMENT
8.1 MANUFACTURING PLANT WASTE PRODUCTION
Disposal of large volumes of wastes is one of the concerns on papaya peels
processing to produce bioplastic packaging film known as cellulose acetate film. In the
production of the film, a large quantity of papaya peelings and water are used, leading to
a large volume of waste generation. One of the major concern for these wastes is the acid
content which is highly corrosive and can affect human health, socioeconomic conditions,
water resources, and aquatic life (De Leon, Minsalan, Molinos, & Villaruz, 2016).
Although the manufacturing plant can help the economy of the area where it is
situated, the vicinity is still expose to environmental challenges due to these waste. Hence,
to attain more sustainable development in papaya peels processing, proper waste
management is vital.
8.2 TYPES OF WASTE
The waste generated by the plant is only liquid. The delignification tank generates
a solution of sodium hydroxide with dissolved lignin, the bleaching process generates
bleach solution with dissolved inert impurities, and the acetylation process generates a
dilute acidic mixture comprising acetic acid, acetic anhydride, and small amount of
sulfuric acid.
8.2.1 Liquid Waste
The first liquid waste stream is a mixture of the waste stream coming from the
rotary vacuum filters for the delignification tank and the acetylation and hydrolysis tank.
The total mass flow rate is 139,573.38 kg/day of waste stream. Figure 8.1 illustrates the
components of this waste stream.
impurities,
7.246499486
Washwater,
11.50712867
Calcium
Hypochlorite,
81.24637184
Figure 8.1 Components of Waste Stream 1 generated
The waste stream is mainly composed of a black liquor of sodium hydroxide with
dissolved lignin, acid and water, with negligible amounts of acetic anhydride and sulfuric
acid.
On the other hand, the second waste stream comes from the rotary vacuum filter
of the bleaching mixing tank which compose primarily of the calcium hypochlorite
solution, dissolved impurities, and water. Figure 8.2 illustrates the component breakdown.
impurities, 7.25
Washwater, 11.51
Calcium
Hypochlorite,
81.25
Figure 8 2 Components of Waste Stream 2
8.3 WASTEWATER TREATMENT
It is essential that waste stream 1 and 2 do not mix since the reaction between
bleach and acetic acid generates a toxic chlorine gas. Waste stream 1 will undergo
neutralization wherein the acidic and basic solutions are mixed in a tank until an
acceptable pH level is reached. Figure 8.3 illustrates the process of wastewater
neutralization.
Figure 8.1 Wastewater Neutralization Process
Figure 8.3 Wastewater Neutralization Process
The waste stream from the rotary vacuum 1 coming from the delignification
process will be mixed with the waste tream from the rotary vacuum 3 coming from the
acetylation process. The mixing of the basic (NaOH) and acidic (acetic acid) stream will
render a neutral solution that can be discharged for further processing. A third-party
contractor will process waste stream 1 to extract the dissolved lignin.
The waste stream 2 containing mostly of bleach with impurities will be fed to a
clarification tank where the impurities will be coagulated and precipitated. The clarified
bleach solution can then be reused or recycled for the manufacturing process. The
impurities or sludge will be disposed in a landfill.
8.3.1 Noise Pollution
Noise pollution is the disturbing or excessive noise which may harm the activity
or balance of human or animal life. Industrial noise is often a term used in relation to
environmental health and safety, rather than nuisance, as sustained exposure can cause
permanent hearing damage. Noise pollution is brought by the functioning of equipment.
To reduce noise pollution, noisy machines and equipment are place away from the site
boundary (De Leon, Minsalan, Molinos, and Villaruz, 2016) and noise-reducing
insulations are installed to keep the sound within the area. Employees are also required to
use ear plugs and ear muffs around the manufacturing area.
CHAPTER 9
ECONOMICS
9.1 PLANT OPERATION COSTS
9.1.1 Purchased Equipment Cost
The selection of equipment for the processing of raw papaya peelings into
bioplastic film is done by choosing the most economical and appropriate designs from
various suppliers. Most equipment will be fabricated by the suppliers according to the
needed capacity of the plant and these equipment will be imported from other countries.
The exchange rate as of May 12, 2017 is 1 US dollar = Php 49.993 (Bangko
Sentral ng Pilipinas, 2017). However, to account for the fluctuating inflation rate, an
exchange rate of 1 US dollar = Php 50.00 is used.
Table 9.1 summarizes the different equipment used and their corresponding
purchased cost (FOB).
Table 9.1 Purchased Equipment Cost for the Proposed Bioplastic Plant
Number of Unit Cost Equipment

Equipment
Units (Php) Cost (Php)
1. Shredder 1 2,500,000 2,500,000
2. Belt Conveyor 3 9,000/meter 27,000
3. Hammer Mill 1 1,000,000 1,000,000
4. Screw Conveyor 4 1,637.5/meter 6,550
5. Tray Cabinet Dryer 12 331,350 3,976,200
6. Steam Generator 1 425,000 425,000
7. Rotary Drum Vacuum Filter 3 49,950 149,850
8. Delignification Mixing Tank 3 1,500,000 4,500,000
9. Other Main Process Mixing Tanks 5 150,000 750,000
10. In line mixers 2 40,000 80,000
11. Reagent Mixing Tanks 3 80,000 240,000
12. Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers 3 500,000 1,500,000
13. Tape Casting Machine 1 4,000,000 4,000,000
14. Water Storage Tank 1 241,250 241,250
15. Plasticizer Storage Tank 1 60,650 60,650
16. Sulfuric acid, Acetic acid, Acetic
3 60,650 181,950
anhydride Storage Tank
17. NaOH storage tank 1 290,432.5 290,432.5
Total Equipment Cost 19,928,882.5
9.1.2 Total Capital Investment
The funds necessary to bring up the design into operation is referred to as the total
capital investment or the TCI. The funds will be used to purchase land, structures, design
and purchase equipment, and buildings. The TCI is composed of the fixed capital
investment (FCI) and working capital (WC). The FCI pertains to the total cost needed for
construction of the plant or the money paid to various contractors. FCI payments include
purchasing cost, delivery, manufacturing equipment installation, piping, automatic
controls, buildings, structures, insulation, painting, site preparation, environmental
control equipment, and engineering and construction cost (Perry & Green, 2008).
The fixed capital investment is not recovered at the end of the project life and is a once-
only expenditure. However, the scrap value is the only fund to be recovered. The WC on
the other hand, is the added investment to start up the plant operation until income is
earned. At the end of the plant life, most of the WC can be recovered (Coulson &
Richardson, 2005).
The fixed capital investment (FCI) is further divided into two groups: the
manufacturing FCI and the non-manufacturing FCI. The manufacturing FCI represents
the needed capital for the installed equipment and their necessary components needed for
complete process operation. Other inclusions of the manufacturing FCI are piping,
instrumentations, insulation, foundations, and site preparations. The non-manufacturing
FCI on the other hand, are expenses for the construction overhead and for all plant
components with no direct relation to the process operation (Peter & Timmerhaus, 1991).
Coulson and Richardson (2005), provides the corresponding percentage ranges for
FCI for different components. The FCI is estimated using the purchased equipment cost.
To compute for components cost of FCI, purchased equipment cost is multiplied to the
corresponding percentage for fluid-solid process type.
For the computation of components 1-9 of the fixed capital investment (FCI), the
equation below is used:
= ()
While for components 10-12 of the fixed capital investment (FCI), the equation below is
used:
= ()
From the estimated fixed capital investment (FCI), the working capital (WC) and
total capital investment are then calculated. Typically, WC is 15% of the FCI (Coulson &
Richardson, 2005). The summary of the calculations is tabulated in Table 9.2.
Table 9.2 Total Capital Investment of Proposed Bioplastic Plant
Components Factors Estimated Cost (Php)

Major Equipment, Total Purchase Cost (PCE) 19,928,882.500
1. Equipment erection 0.45 8,967,997.125
2. Piping 0.45 8,967,997.125
3. Instrumentation 0.15 2,989,332.375
4. Electrical 0.1 1,992,888.250
5. Buildings, process 0.1 1,992,888.250
6. Utilities 0.45 8,967,997.125
7. Storage 0.2 3,985,776.500
8. Site development 0.05 996,444.120
9. Ancillary Buildings 0.2 3,985,776.500
Total Physical Plant Cost (PPC) 42,847,097.380
10. Design and Engineering 0.25 10,711,774.340
11. Contractor's Fee 0.05 2,142,354.869
12. Contingency 0.1 4,284,709.738
Fixed Capital Investment (FCI) 59,985,936.330
Working Capital (WC) 8,997,890.449
Total Capital Investment (TCI) 68,983,826.770
9.1.3 Raw Material Cost
Raw materials are the materials which are processed into final products. The
primary raw material of the proposed plant is raw papaya peelings. The papaya peelings
will be supplied by Trinidad Cosmetics Laboratory, Inc in Quezon City, Metro Manila
and from companies like DOLE and Del Monte. The price for the raw material will be
essentially free and transportation cost will be the only expenditure for the papaya
peelings. Sulfuric acid will be purchased from Cebu Chemicals at Php 104.91 per
kilogram. The following price of other reagents are based on SD Fine Chem Limited,
2016. Acetic acid costs Php 118.83 per kilogram, Acetic anhydride costs Php 74.8 per
kilogram, Calcium Hypochlorite (Bleach) costs Php 55.25 per kilogram, Acetyl triethyl
citrate (Plasticizer) costs Php 35.88 per kilogram, and Sodium hydroxide costs Php 30.55
per kilogram.
The price of water in Novaliches, Quezon City, Manila is Php 58.14 / m 3 (Manila
Waters, 2017).
Table 9.3 Raw Material Cost of the Proposed Bioplastic Plant
Component Quantity (kg/yr) Price (Php/kg) Cost (Php/yr)

Sulfuric acid 38,045.23 104.91 3,991,324.82
Acetic Acid 475,565.29 118.83 56,511,423.29
Acetic Anhydride 7,609,044.36 74.8 569,156,518.13
Bleach 8,517,348.00 55.25 470,583,477.00
Plasticizer 6,505,867.60 35.88 233,430,529.56
Sodium Hydroxide 22,085,544.89 30.55 674,713,396.34
Water 5,835,711.51 0.058 338,471.27
Raw Material Cost 2,008,725,140.41
9.1.4 Utility Cost
The utility cost comprises the supplies for power, steam, compressedair, and
effluent treatment. Utility cost can be obtained from the material and energy balances and
the prices depend on the energy source and plant location (Coulsoun & Richardson,
2005).
The power cost is based on Manila Electric Corporation (2016), where the rate for
electric consumption is Php 7.4176/kWh. Table 9.4 tabulates the utility cost of the plant.
Table 9.4 Utility Cost of the Proposed Plant
Quantity Service Price Annual Cost

Component
(kWh/day (Php/kWh) (Php)
Power(Electricity) 8526 7.4176 23,083,497
9.1.5 Labor Cost
The labor cost refers to the cost needed for the operating labor in order for the
plant to operate. The costs are obtained from an estimate number of shift and day
personnel needed (Coulson & Richardson, 2005). The salary per day was based on the
study conducted by Daut et al. (2015). Table 9.5 summarizes the different plant personnel
and their respective salaries in order to calculate the total labor cost.
Table 9.5 Total Labor Cost of the Proposed Plant
Total
Number of Salary/Day Salary/Day Annual Salary
Position People (Php) (Php) (Php)
Plant Manager 1 1,500 1,500 547,500
Department Heads 5 1,000 5,000 1,825,000
Supervisors 5 500 2,500 912,500
Operators 30 440 13,200 4,818,000
Laboratory
2 440 880 321,200
Personnel
Accountant 2 440 880 321,200
Human Resources 2 390 780 284,700
Maintenance 2 390 780 284,700
Technician 2 390 780 284,700
Electrician 2 390 780 284,700
Medical Personnel 2 390 780 284,700
Pollution Control
1 340 340 124,100
Officer
Sales Clerk and
4 340 1,360 496,400
Secretary
Purchasing 2 340 680 248,200
Monitoring
5 340 1,700 620,500
Personnel
Canteen Personnel 4 340 1,360 496,400
Drivers 6 340 2,040 744,600
Security Guards 10 340 3,400 1,241,000
Total Labor Cost 14,140,100
9.1.6 Total Product Cost
The total product cost or TPC is the expenses in the operation of the plant selling
the products, recovery of the capital investment, and those that contributes to corporate
functions such as management and research and development. Manufacturing costs and
general expenses are the total product cost composition. All expenses that have a direct
connection to process operation or the physical equipment of a process plant itself fall
under the manufacturing costs. On the other hand, general expenses include
administrative, distribution and marketing, research and development, financing, and
gross-earnings expenses (Peters & Timmerhaus, 1991).
The calculation of TPC is based on different assumptions given by Coulson and
Richardson (2005).
These assumptions are as follows:
1. Raw material cost is computed from material balance.
2. Miscellaneous material cost is 10% of maintenance cost.
3. Utilities cost is computed from energy balance.
4. Maintenance cost is 5% of FCI.
5. Operating labor cost is computed according to number of employees.
6. Laboratory cost is 20% of operating labor cost.
7. Supervision cost is 20% of operating labor cost.
8. Plant overhead cost is 50% of operating labor cost.
9. Capital charge cost is 10% of FCI.
10. Insurance is 1% of FCI.
11. Local tax is 2% of FCI.
12. Royalty cost is 1% of FCI.
13. Sales expense, general overheads, and research and development cost is 30%
of direct production cost.
Table 9.6 Summarizes the total product cost.
Table 9.6 Total Product Cost of the Proposed Plant
Components Estimated Cost (Php/yr)

Variable Costs (CV)
Raw Materials 2,008,725,140.41
Misellaneous Materials 299,929.68
Utilities 23,083,497.02
Total CV 2,032,108,567
Fixed Costs (CF)
Maintenance 2,999,296.82
Operating Labor 14,140,100
Laboratory Costs 2,828,020
Supervision 2,828,020
Plant Overheads 7,070,050
Capital Charges 5,998,593.63
Insurance 599,859.36
Local Taxes 1,199,718.73
Royalties 599,859.36
Total CF 3,8263,517.9
Direct Production Costs 2,070,372,085
Sales Expense
General Overheads 621,111,625.5
Research and Development
Total Product Cost 2,691,483,711
9.2 PRODUCT SALES REVENUE
The revenue of the proposed bioplastic plant comes solely fom the product which
is the cellulose acetate bioplastic film.
The market price for cellulose-based bioplastic is based from Bio Plastics Info
which is US dollar 6.4 per kilogram. The exchange rate as of May 12, 2017, is 1 US
dollar = Php 49.993 (Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas, 2017). Table 9.7 tabulates the annual
sales.
Table 9.7 Annual Revenue of the Proposed Plant
Product Production (kg/yr) Price (Php/kg) Sales (Php/yr)

Bioplastic Film 8,644,053.407 320 2,766,097,090
9.3 PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS
The proposed bioplastic plant will undergo economic profitability evaluation.
This determines if the proposed plant is economically feasible or not. This method will
quantify the interest of constructing the proposed design. The three ways to calculate the
profitability of the design. These are the estimated annual profit, return on investment or
ROI, and the payback period (PBP).
9.3.1 Estimated Annual Profit
All industrial plants are designed to generate profit. The profit is determined by
getting the difference between the product sales revenue and the total expenses including
payment for taxes (Peter & Timmerhaus, 1991).
= 2,766,097,090 2,691,483,711
= 74,613,379.56
9.3.2 Payback Period (PBP)
Payback period or payout period is the theoretical length of time necessary for the
capital investment to be equal with the total return (Peters & Timmerhaus, 1991).
68,983,826.77
=
74,613,379.56
= 0.924550358
= 0.92455035812
= 11.0946 11
9.3.3 Return on Investment (ROI)
The return on investment or ROI is expressed in terms of annual percentage. It is
computed by dividing the total profit by the total initial investments necessary which is
the fractional return. Multiplying the fraction by 100 gives the standard percent return on
investment (Peters & Timmerhaus, 1991).

= 100

74,613,379.56
= 100
68,983,826.77
= 108.16
There will be an estimated return of 108.16% annually. It has an estimated
payback period of 11 months and the rest of the plant life is profit.
Table 9.8 Summary of Calculated Data
1. Total Equipment Cost (Php) 19,928,882.5

2. Total Physical Plant Cost(Php) 42,847,097.38
3. Fixed Capital Investment(Php) 59,985,936.33
4. Working Capital(Php) 8,997,890.449
5. Total Capital Investment(Php) 68,983,826.77
6. Raw Materials Cost(Php) 2,008,725,140.41
7. Total Utilities Cost(Php) 23,083,497.02
8. Total Labor Cost(Php) 14,140,100
9. Total Product Cost(Php) 2,691,483,711
10. Total Annual Revenue(Php) 920,591,685
11. Total Annual Profit(Php) 74,613,379.56
12. Payback Period (Year) 0.924550358
13. Return on Investment (%) 108.160685
9.4 COST OPTIMIZATION
The general strategy of determining the optimum conditions is to establish a
partial derivative of the dependent variable from which the absolute optimum conditions
are determined. The assumption for this procedure is that the absolute maximum and
minimum occurs within attainable operating limits and is restricted to relatively simple
conditions in which the limiting constraints are not exceeded (Peter and Timmerhaus,
1991).
According to Sullivan et. al (2006), as the selling price per unit (P) is increased,
there will be less demand for the product and vice versa. The relationship between price
and demand can be expressed as a linear function:
= +
Where, in a plot of price vs demand, a is the intercept on the price axis and -b is the slope.
Thus, b is the amount by which the demand D increases for each unit increase in price P.
Both a and b are constants and it follows that,

= , 0

The total revenue, TR, that will result from a business venture during a given
period is the product of the selling price per unit, P, and the number of units sold, D.
Thus,
If the relationship between price and demand as given is used,
= ( ) = 2
To obtain the Dmax that will produce TRmax or the maximum total revenue, the
first derivative of the equation above is determined and the maximum can be obtained by
equating the derived equation to zero:

= 2 = 0

=
2

= 2

Therefore,
2 2 2 2
= ( )( ) = =
2 2 2 4 4
2
=

2
= =
2 4
Cost optimization is achieved using a second order equation for the total annual
revenue (Sullivan, 2011). The proposed plant producing 8,644,053.407 kg bioplastic film
per year will have a total annual revenue of Php 2,766,097,090.
Dmax = 8,644,053.407 kg/yr
TRmax = Php 2,766,097,090
2Php 2,766,097,090.
= = 640
8,644,053.407 kg/yr
640
= = 3.70197105
2 8,644,053.407 kg/yr
Because of the cost-volume relationship, most businesses would not obtain the
maximum profit by maximizing the revenue. Therefore, the cost-volume relationship
must be considered and be related to the revenue (Sullivan et. al, 2006). This suggests the
application of a break-even analysis.
Based on the estimate costs obtained, the linear cost equations of the total revenue
(TR), total product cost (TC) variable cost (CV) and fixed cost (FC) with respect to
production (D) are as follows; where cV is the variable cost per unit.
FC = Php 38,263,517.9
CV = Php 2,032,108,567
TC = CV + FC
CV = cv x D
2,032,108,567
= = = 235.087 /
8,644,053.407 kg
Thus, for the plot on Total Cost (TC)
= 235.087
= 235.087 + 38,263,517.9
The plot for the Total Revenue is constructed using the resulting equation from the
values of a and b substituted in TR.
= 640 3.70197105 2
The break-even point is found when the total revenue (TR) is equal to the total cost (TC)
(Peter and Timmerhaus, 1991).
= +
640 3.70197105 2 = 235.087 + 38,263,517.9
3.70197105 2 404.913 + 38,263,517.9
D = 10,842,442 kg
D = 95,328.97 kg
From the relationship between total revenue (TR) and total cost (TC), the two
break-even points are calculated where the values (D) are obtained at production of
10,842,442 kg and 95,328.97 kg.
The conditions for which the break-even and maximum profit occur are the
primary interest in cost optimization. For any demand, D,
= ( 2 ) ( + )
= 2 + ( )
The optimal demand (D*) at which maximum profit will occur is calculated by
taking the first derivative of the Profit equation with respect to D and equating it to zero.
()
= 2 = 0

Therefore, D* is,
640 235.087
= = = 5,468,885.485
2 23.70197105
Hence, a maximum profit occurs at a demand production capacity of
5,468,885.485 kg per year.
D D* D
Figure 9. 1 Cost Optimization Break-even Chart
CHAPTER 10
FACILITY LAYOUT
One of the first decisions to be considered when designing a new chemical plant
should be the plant location. If the project is for a new grassroots facility, a suitable site
must be found and the site and equipment layout planned. Ancillary buildings and
services needed for plant operation must be made with provision as well as for the
environmentally acceptable disposal of effluent (Towler & Sinnott, 2013).
10.1 PLANT LOCATION
The location of the plant can have a crucial effect on the project especially in
terms of its profitability and also on the scope for future expansion. Many factors must be
considered when selecting a suitable site location of the bioplastic manufacturing plant.
The principal factors to be considered are: (a) location, with respect to marketing area; (b)
raw material supply; (c) transport facilities; (d) availability of labor; (e) availability of
utilities such as water, fuel and power; (f) availability of suitable land; (g) environmental
impact; (h) local community considerations; (i) climate; and (j) political, economic, and
strategic considerations (Towler & Sinnott, 2013).
Since the proposed plant site is located close to the manufacturing company
where majority of the raw materials will be obtained, transportation of these raw
materials would not be a problem. Other sources of raw materials will be coming from
the waste peelings of companies like DOLE and Del Monte. Moreover, the proposed
plant is situated in an urban community, thus, there would be no problem with energy
availability and water supply. The plant will be located in Tandang Sora, Novaliches,
Quezon City near Trinidad Cosmetics Laboratory, Inc. Shown in Figure 10.1 is the
geographical location of Novaliches, Quezon City.
Figure 10.1 Location of Novaliches, Quezon City, Metro Manila
(Google Maps, 2017)
10.1.1 Location, Land Area and Climate
Novaliches is a large outskirts district of Quezon City in Metro Manila, located to
the north from the city center; having a latitude of 14.721512 and a longitude of
121.051941. This district is among the largest in the city, having shared boundaries with
the two sections of Caloocan City, Valenzuela City, San Jose del Monte City in Bulacan
and Montalban, Rizal. It has a total land area of 166.20 square kilometers and is
composed of 142 barangays.
The district is mainly residential, but there are small business areas in Novaliches, along
with small industrial zones and facilities for recreation (Latlong, 2017). The
manufacturing plant will be situated in the 50 hectare economic zone behind Dumangas
Port (Conserrva, 2016).
Novaliches has a tropical climate. It has significant rainfall most months, with a
short dry season with a temperature averaging 27.0 C. In a year, the average rainfall is
2494 mm. The warmest month of the year is May, with an average temperature of 29C.
At 25.3C on an average, January is the coldest month of the year. Novaliches does not
have adverse climatic conditions with only a variation in annual temperature of around
3.7C. Thus, there will be lesser chances of increased costs at the site (Climate-data,
2012).
Figure
Figure 10.2
10.2 Actual
Actual plant
plant location
location (Google
(Google Maps,
Maps, 2017)
2017)
10.1.2 Water and Power Supply
The primary source of water for the manufacturing plant will be from Maynilad
Water Services, Inc. (Maynilad). It was granted a 25-year exclusive concession in 1997
by the Philippine Government which was extended by 15 years in 2010, to operate,
maintain and invest in the water and sewerage systems in the cities of Manila including
Quezon City (Maynilad Water, 2016). The power requirement of the plant will be
supplied by the Manila Electric Railroad and Light Company (MERALCO), which is the
largest electric distribution company in the Philippines covering 36 cities and 75
municipalities.
10.1.3 Availability of Labor and Transportation
Transportation of raw materials and products to and from the plant can be an
overriding consideration in site selection (Towler & Sinnott, 2013). That is why the
proposed site for the manufacturing plant will be situated 230 meters away from Trinidad
Cosmetics Laboratory, Inc. which is one of the major sources of the raw material. This
saves up a lot of time and reduces costs as the raw materials and products can be
delivered to and from the site via road transportation. It is also located 30 kilometers
away from the airport which then provides convenient and efficient movement of
essential equipment and supplies.
On the other hand, the labor needed for construction and operation of the plant
would not also be a problem since the proposed site is located in the urban community of
Quezon City having a population of almost 2.7 million.
There will be an adequate pool of skilled workers and even unskilled labor which are
locally available and suitable for training to operate the plant.
10.1.4 Political, Strategic, and Local Community Considerations
Construction of a new manufacturing plant in a community such as the Bioplastic
manufacturing plant requires labor force and thus, opens up new job opportunities to the
locals. Governments often direct new investment to preferred locations such as areas of
high unemployment, by giving capital grants, tax concessions, and other inducements
The availability of such grants can be the overriding consideration in site selection
(Towler & Sinnott, 2013).
On the other hand, the proposed plant must fit in with and be acceptable to the
local community. Full consideration must be given to the safe location of the plant so that
it does not impose a significant additional risk to the local population (Towler & Sinnott,
2013). Since the proposed plant utilizes raw materials which are organic and no harmful
chemicals are used in the process, the community around the plant won't have no problem
with the pollution and the possible toxic chemicals it may release to the environment. It is
also sited to a location so as not to be upwind of residential areas under the prevailing
wind.
The new site in Novaliches, which is an urban community, will be able to provide
adequate facilities for the plant personnel including: schools, banks, housing, and
recreational and cultural facilities. The local community will also be consulted about
plant water consumption and discharge and the effect of the plant on local traffic.
10.2 SITE PLAN AND FACILITY LAYOUT
The facilities around site plan are carefully arranged to give the most economical
construction and flow of materials and prioritizes the safety of the personnel. The
following figure shows the birds eye view of the lay-out of the site.
The overall plant will consist of the manufacturing area, wastewater treatment
facility, administration building, dormitory for employees and other amenities. The plant
will also have an area allotted for future expansion which includes the addition of a
processing plant for the bioplastic film. The process units and structures are laid out to
maximize workforce efficiency and economic flow of materials and personnel around the
site and to ensure safety. The site plan and plant layout of the proposed bioplastic film
manufacturing plant is shown in Figure 10.3 and Figure 10.4. The total land area is
46,151.8 m2 or approximately five hectares of land.
10.2.1 Structures
The area allotted for each building are based on the guidelines given by Demafelis
(2011). In designing a proper facility layout, guidelines are given in Table 10.1 with
typical constraint allowance for various equipment given in Table 10.2. The area allotted
for each building or structure accounts for both the equipment area and work area per
personnel. The summary of allotted area for each facility component is given in Table
10.3.
Table 10.1 Guide for Proper Facility Layout
Basis of Area
Facility Typical Areas
Computation
Equipment Area + Depending on the dimensions
Production Plant
Constraint Allowance and type of equipment used
Buildings (e.g.
10m2 per admin employee
Administration)
Workshops 20 m2 per workshop employee

Laboratories 20 m2 per laboratory employee
Number of Personnel/
0.10-0.15 m2 per employee
Occupants
Clinic depending on the complexity of
service
1 m2 per dining place; 3.5 m2
Canteen per place including kitchen and
store
Fire Stations, Garage Number of vehicles that
100 m2 per vehicle
Parking Lots the company uses
Main/Side Roads 10 m wide
Standard Dimensions 1.2 m - 2m wide up to 10 people
Pathways
per minute
Table 10.2 Typical Constraint Allowance for Various Equipment
Typical constraint allowance, m

Equipment
Horizontal Vertical Construction
Centrifuges,
3 3+L 5 m across the corridor
Crushers, Mills
2.5 m to building walls,

Dryers 1.5 + L 2+L
4m access area
40 m2 for each 1000 ft3

Reactors 1.5 3+L
reactor volume
Horizontal Heat 1.5 + L channel 2

1.5 + L -
Exchangers shell 1.5 sides
1/2 diameter
Tanks 3 -
between tanks
Figure 10.3 Plant facility layout
Figure10.4
Figure 10.4Manufacturing
ManufacturingArea
areaLayout
layout
10.3 FACILITY AREA AND COMPUTATION
Table 10.3 Summary of Area Allotment
Facility Area Allotment (m2)

Raw Material Storage 2,005.5
Tank Farm 1,361.23
Raw Material Receiving and Weighing Area 742.1
Manufacturing Area 4,572.9
Research and Development 439
Quality Control 439
Warehouse/ Product Storage 835.6
Machine Workshop 292.7
Evacuation Area 1311
Parking Area 2,211.56
Administration Building 1,646
Clinic 554.2
Recreation Area 622.6
Canteen 457
Dormitory 1,544.8
Fire Station 414
Truck Holding Area 2,540.6
Wastewater Treatment Facility 956
Guard Houses 408.7
Area for Expansion 7,357.7
Road and Pathways 15,439.61
Total 46,151.8
Raw Material Storage
The delivered raw materials to the plant will be stored in the raw materials storage
area. The storage area for the raw papaya peelings will be closed and maintained at a
temperature of 200C in order to prevent degradation of the raw materials. The storage
area will be monitored by three personnel with a total allotted area of 60m2.
Raw Material Receiving and Weighing Area
Raw papaya peelings delivered to the plant will be received in this area. The raw
materials will be placed in trucks and weighed using a truck weighing scale. The area
allotment for the equipment will be 350 m2. A sample of the raw materials will also be
taken to the laboratory for testing and quality check. The receiving and weighing area
will be monitored by two personnel with a total allotted area of 40 m2.
Tank Farm
Storage tanks for distilled water and other chemicals such as sodium hydroxide,
bleach, acetic acid, acetic anhydride, and sulfuric acid, will be situated in this area. It is
located beside the manufacturing area to provide economical and efficient transfer of
fluid to the manufacturing process. The tank farm will be monitored by three personnel
with a total allotted area of 60 m2.
Manufacturing Area
The manufacturing area is the place inside the facility where bioplastic film is
produced. It is located near the raw materials storage area in order to make materials
handling more economic and efficient. It is also located near the wastewater treatment
facility and near the product storage and shipping area. Major processing equipment such
as tray dryers, mixing tanks, rotary vacuum filters, and tape casting machine are situated
inside the manufacturing area. The manufacturing area has a total of 59 operators and
personnel per shift with two shifts rotating per day. The total area allotted for one shift of
operators and personnel, three department heads and the plant manager is 1260 m2.
Research and Development
The research and development building is situated right beside the quality control.
Data from the quality control will be utilized by R&D personnel to look for further
improvements that can be made for the manufacturing processes. The research and
development room will be operated by two supervisors and four personnel and will have
a total allotted area of 120m2.
Quality Control
The quality control room is situated right beside the manufacturing area near the
control room. It is near the raw material storage and finished product warehouse to
closely monitor and control the quality of the product. The control room will be operated
by two supervisors and 4 personnel and will have a total allotted area of 120 m2
Warehouse/Product Storage
The product storage area is located near the manufacturing plant and the road
close to the gate to provide convenience in the transport of the product. Rolls of
bioplastic film are stored in this area before being transported out of the plant. The area
will be monitored by three personnel with a total allotted area of 60m2.
Machine Workshop
The machine workshop is the space allotted with the plant for the servicing of
dysfunctional or broken parts of old equipment. The workshop will be situated beside the
manufacturing area. There will be four skilled technicians assigned in the workshop with
total allotted area of 80 m2.
Fire station and Evacuation Area
The evacuation area is situated right beside the manufacturing area for preparation
in an event of a disaster. The evacuation area is close to the emergency exit which is the
closest exit for the general population of the plant facility. In case of an emergency, all
employees are to go to the evacuation. The fire station is situated near the manufacturing
plant where fire incidents will most likely occur.
Parking Area and Truck Holding Area
Two parking areas are provided for the convenience of employees of the facility.
The parking area is adjacent to the gate of the plant and the administration building. The
parking area is also intended for guests and visitors. One parking area is also allotted for
the delivery trucks both for raw material delivery and product delivery.
Administration Building
The administration building is adjacent to the main road and entrance of the plant
facility. The administration building is responsible for handling administrative works of
the plant and will house the offices of the human resources, accounting, purchasing, and
sales department. The building will have an audio-visual room where guests and visitors
will be entertained. There will be 25 administration personnel in the building and will
have a total allotted area of 250 m2.
Clinic and Recreation area
A clinic is allotted in order to ensure the safety and well-being of the employees
in the plant. The recreation area includes sports facilities such basketball court or other
indoor activities. The clinic and recreation area are situated at the front of the dormitory.
Canteen
A canteen will be situated close to the dormitory and the administration building.
The canteen will be used for dining and the food will be prepared in the kitchen. The
canteen will be operated by four employees with an allotted area of 80m2.
Dormitory
The dormitory will house employees who live far from the plant facility. It is
constructed at the corner of the plant facility to provide a peaceful environment where
employees can rest well.
Wastewater Treatment Facility
The wastewater treatment facility is located downwind of the plant and near the
manufacturing facility where large volumes of wastewater is generated. The facility will
be responsible for treating the effluents of the plant and treated water can be recycled to
the plant for further use or discharged to the nearby river. Monitoring of the wastewater
treatment facility will be done by two personnel with a total allotted area of 40 m2.
Guard Houses
The guard houses provide shelter for guards that manage the security of the plant
and keeps track of everything that comes in and out of the plant. Each of the three guard
houses will have one guard which will have a total allotted area of 60m2.
Area for Expansion
An area is allocated for further expansion of the plant facilities. The area is
allotted for a facility to further process the bioplastic film into other plastic products such
as plastic bags, plastic wrappers, and other packaging products. The total area allotted for
expansion is approximately 7,357.7 m2 of land.
Road and Pathways
The roads and pathways will provide employees and visitors safe passage along
the plant. The roads inside the plant will be two lanes.
CHAPTER 11
RECOMMENDATIONS
With the worsening issue on environmental pollution brought about by global
warming, the demand for more eco-friendly materials such as plastics is continuously
increasing. Various raw materials and processes have been used and this includes papaya
peelings. However, the major problem in the manufacturing plant is that there was only a
minimal amount of cellulose recovered from papaya peelings. The challenge of process
modification and optimum raw material utilization could be furthered improved in order
to come up with a higher yield of bioplastic.
In utilizing papaya peelings as a raw material for bioplastics, acetylation and
hydrolysis of papaya peelings are the most important processes and are the pre-
determining steps in determining the amount of bioplastic that could be produced. In this
study, it was found that the acetylation and hydrolysis process converts a small
percentage of the cellulose to cellulose acetate. There is a great amount of needed
reagents needed for the reactions but the cellulose acetate yield is small. For further
improvement of the study, it is highly recommended that processes regarding the
recovery of cellulose acetate which promote optimum utilization of the cellulose from
papaya peelings be applied. There are various reagents used by different researchers
nowadays in recovering cellulose acetate which could be used in order to improve the
yield of the bioplastic film.
Also, it is recommended that the process on how biofilms are being cut or
reshaped into specific container be explored in order to meet the growing demands of the
market. Moreover, a more rigorous research on the characteristics and properties of the
biofilm produced could be done to pave way for the safe applications of bioplastics in
various industries such as food and pharmaceuticals.
For further alternatives, a research on the tape casting process and other related
processes that could serve as a substitute could be explored. It is suggested to employ
better wastewater treatment processes in order to lessen the waste generated into the
environment. This would relatively reduce productions costs since the processed
wastewater could be reused in manufacturing plant.
For the lignin by-product, it is recommended that a research on possible processes
and materials in the market that require the usage of lignin be done. Finding feasible
methods that would bring this by-product into the market as a raw material to other
manufacturing process could achieve zero waste generation in the plant. Lastly, it is
recommended to explore the possibilities of marketing the produced cellulose acetate
polymer aside from utilizing it to produce the biofilm alone.
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APPENDIX A
APPENDIX A
QUOTATIONS OF EQUIPMENT
Figure A.1 Quotation for the Water Storage Tank
Figure A.2 Quotation for the Sulfuric acid, Acetic acid and Acetic Anhydride Storage
Tanks
APPENDIX B
APPENDIX B
PERTINENT TABLES AND DIAGRAMS
Figure B.1 Grosvenor Psychrometric Chart (High Temperatures) for the air-water
system and at Standard Atmospheric Pressure (Green & Perry, 2013)
Figure B.2 Grosvenor Psychrometric Chart (Medium Temperatures) for the air-water system and at Standard
Atmospheric Pressure (Green & Perry, 2013)
Table B.1 Dimensions of Standard Steel Pipe (Geankoplis, 1993)
Table B.2 Friction Loss for Turbulent Flow Trough Valves and Fittings (Geankoplis, 1993)
Table B.3 Friction Loss for Laminar Flow Trough Valves and Fittings (Geankoplis, 1993)
APPENDIX C
APPENDIX C
ORGANIZATIONAL CHART
The organizational structure of the company has to satisfy the basic
manufacturing requirements and fulfil common operational functions. The size of the
plant determines the exact size of the management group and the number of workers.
Each member plays a role in order to attain maximum facility utilization.
Plant Manager
Health and
Process Maintenance Quality Control Human Resources Sales and
Environment
Department Head Department Head Head Department Head Marketing Head
Department Head
Supervisor Supervisor
Supervisor Medical Personnel Supervisor Logistics Accountant
(Morning Shift) (Night Shift)
Pollution Control Laboratory Sales and

Operators Operators Technicians Sales Personnel
Officers Personnel Technician
Security Officers Purchasing
Figure B.3 Company Organizational Chart
Manager
The plant manager overlooks all the processes in the plant. He or She is well-
versed with the plant operation and has the authority to change specification for
optimization. He or She also has the authority to appoint department heads. The plant
manager watches over and organizes the daily operations. Plant managers oversee
employees, production and efficiency, to make sure the plant is running smoothly,
quickly, efficiently and safely.
Process Department Head
The process head is responsible for the overall manufacturing process. He or She
oversees the production process, from the raw cassava up to the bioplastic film. He or
She reports to the plant manager.
Quality Control Head
The quality control head is responsible for checking the quality of the vital
materials in the plant such as the raw materials, process water and final product.
Materials or products that do not pass the standards are rejected and quality assurance of
products is monitored before releasing to the market.
Maintenance Department Head
The Maintenance Department Head is responsible for any repairs and optimization of
machineries. He or She makes sure and verifies any incoming equipment for optimization
Health and Environment Department Head
The Health and Environment Department Head is in charge of monitoring the
wastes generated by the plant and their corresponding treatment. He or She is also
responsible for the health and safety of the employees. He or She creates and verifies
safety hazards.
Human Resources Department Head
The Human Resources Department Head is responsible for recruiting new
employees and monitoring their working behavior. He or She also experiments on future
products by the plant.
Sale and Marketing Head
The Sales and Marketing Head is responsible for the expansion of the plant and
finding suitable customers and third parties for the products of the plant.
Supervisors
The supervisors are responsible for the operators who manage equipment in the
plant. They have the responsibility of monitoring the work area especially in the process
department. Troubles encountered during operation that need immediate action are
attended to by the supervisors. Shifting schedule of supervisors is implemented to
observe continuous operations.
Operators
The operators are responsible on making the equipment work. He or She ensures
that standards and specifications are met and records equipment conditions. There are
two shifts.
Laboratory Personnel
The Laboratory Personnel is responsible for on testing of the products and other
materials for the process. They have the authority to reject or accept materials. There will
be two shifts for the laboratory personnel.
Technicians
The technicians are responsible for mechanical and electrical maintenance of the
plant. They repair and optimize all equipment including pumps. They are also in charge
in the monitoring of electricity consumption.
Medical Personnel
The medical personnel is in-charge of the health of the employees. He or She
attends to the personal needs of the employees and conducts first-aid and prescribe
medicines. He or She also supervises monthly check-up of the workers.
Pollution Control Officer
The Pollution control officer is responsible for monitoring the emissions of the
plant. He or She makes sure that the emissions are within the DENR standards. He or She
is also responsible for the wastewater treatment facility. He or She researches on waste
mitigation and waste utilization and makes sure that the plant is safe for operation.
Logistics Officer
The logistics Officer is in-charge with other activities by the plant such as social
responsibilities; outreach activities, and other activities for the holistic approach of the
plant to its employees. He or She is also in-charge of the canteen personnel of the plant.
Security Officers
The security officer is in-charge with the safety of the plant from outsiders He or
She is responsible for keeping the record of all incoming and outgoing people in the plant.
Accountant
The accountant is responsible for measuring, processing and communicating
financial information in the whole plant. He ensures that financial records are accurate
and taxes are properly paid.
Purchasing
The purchasing department personnel is responsible for looking for other
suppliers and equipment manufacturers. He or She is also responsible for keeping track of
the purchased equipment and other materials.
Sales and Technical
The Sales and Technical personnel are responsible for endorsing the products of
the plants to other consumers. They are responsible for the advertisement of the product.
DESIGNERS' PROFILE
BRYLE KRISTIANN C. CAMAROTE
Address: Davao City, Davao del Sur
E-mail address: brylekristianncamarote@gmail.com
Contact number: 09988505439
Don't get caught up in the negativity. Tough times will

pass, you'll learn, and you'll grow stronger.
NIMROD B. ROMELO
Address: Sagay City, Negros Occidental
E-mail address: nbromelo@up.edu.ph
Contact number: +639755177806
The aim of education should be to teach us rather how to

think, than what to think rather to improve our minds, so
as to enable us to think for ourselves, than to load the
memory with thoughts of other men. Bill Beattie
SARAH JANE I. VALDON
Address: Gusa, Cagayan de Oro City
E-mail address: iamsjvaldon@gmail.com
Contact number: +639263687650
Even if you managed to escape from one cage, werent

you just in another, larger one? -Haruki Murakami

Production of Cellulose Acetate Biofilm From Carica Papaya L.

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PRODUCTION OF CELLULOSE ACETATE BIOPLASTIC FILM FROM

PAPAYA (Carica papaya L.) PEELINGS

Presented to the Faculty of the

University of the Philippines Visayas

In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree

Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering

BRYLE KRISTIANN CASINILLO CAMAROTE

NIMROD BALICAS ROMELO

SARAH JANE INIEGO VALDON

Philippines had an average production volume of Papaya of about 121,304 tons

tasteless, nontoxic, have good flexibility, transparency and thermoplastic properties

comparable to the commercially-available plastics. The proposed plant, located at

produce 8,644.053 metric tons of film in a year.

2,691,483,711 the estimated total revenue is Php 2,766,097,090 resulting to an annual

annually and an estimated payback period of 11 months or 0.92 years.

This plant design, entitled PRODUCTION OF CELLULOSE ACETATE

Accepted as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of

plant design a successful one.

there to give your best to help us. Thank you so much.

it, thank you so much Mama and Papa. We love you.

Bryle Kristiann C. Camarote

Sarah Jane I. Valdon

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................................. i

FIGURE TITLE PAGE

Figure 2.3 Chemical Structure of Cellulose ...................................................................... 11

Figure 2.5 Global Production Capacities of Bioplastics in 2016 ...................................... 14

Figure 2.6 Global Bioplastics Production in 2016 ............................................................ 16

Figure 2.7 Global Production Capacities .......................................................................... 20

Figure 2.8 Global Production Capacities by Region in 2016 ........................................... 21

Figure 2.9 Carica papaya L. plant and fruit ...................................................................... 26

Figure 2.11 Utilization of Papaya in the Philippines, 1992-2001 ..................................... 28

Figure 3.1 Tape Casting Mechanism.................................................................................41

Figure 4.1 Material balance around the shredder...............................................................50

Figure 4.2 Material balance around tray dryer 1............................................................... 53

Figure 4.3 Material balance around hammer mill ............................................................. 56

Figure 4.4 Material balance around mixing tank 1 ........................................................... 59

Figure 4.5 Material balance around rotary vacuum filter 1 .............................................. 62

Figure 4.6 Material balance around in-line mixer 1 ......................................................... 66

Figure 4.7 Material balance around mixing tank 2 ........................................................... 69

Figure 4.11 Material balance around H2SO4 storage tank ............................................... 82

Figure 4.12 Material balance around mixing tank 6 ......................................................... 86

Figure 4.13 Material balance around rotary vacuum filter 3 ............................................ 93

Figure 4.14 Material balance around in-line mixer 4 ....................................................... 97

Figure 4.15 Material balance around mixing tank 7 ....................................................... 100

Figure 4.17 Material balance around the plant ............................................................... 104

Figure 5.1 Energy balance around the tray dryer.............................................................107

Figure 5.9 Energy balance around acetylation tank ........................................................ 133

Figure 5. 11 Cooling of bioplastic film ........................................................................... 138

Figure 6.1 Industrial Food Waste Shredder.....................................................................140

Figure 6.2 Belt Conveyor ................................................................................................ 141

Figure 6.4 Screw Conveyor ............................................................................................ 143

Figure 6.5 Tray Cabinet Dryer ........................................................................................ 144

Figure 6.6 Steam Generator ............................................................................................ 145

Figure 6.7 Rotary Drum Vacuum Filter .......................................................................... 146

Figure 6.8 Mixing Tank .................................................................................................. 147

Figure 6.9 Calcium hypochlorite in-line mixer............................................................... 148

Figure 6.10 Plasticizer in-line mixer ............................................................................... 149

Figure 6.11 Sulfuric acid Mixing Tank........................................................................... 150

Figure 6.12 Acetic acid Mixing Tank ............................................................................. 151

Figure 6.13 Acetic anhydride Mixing Tank .................................................................... 152

Figure 6.15 Tape Casting Machine ................................................................................. 155

Figure 6.16 Water Storage Tank ..................................................................................... 156

Figure 6.17 Reagents and Plasticizer Storage Tanks ...................................................... 157