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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

UNIVERSITY OF BUEA
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Laboratory of Research on Advanced Material and Nonlinear Sciences
(LaRAMaNS)
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN
TELECOMMUNICATIONS

A Research Project (PHY498) Submitted to the Department of Physics in Partial


Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Award of A Bachelor of Science (BSc.)
Degree in Physics

By

TANJOH KLAUS KAH

(SC13A732)

SUPERVISOR:

Dr. F. M. MOUKAM KAKMENI.

Associate Professor.

JUNE, 2016

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

CERTIFICATION

UNIVERSITY OF BUEA
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
This is to certify that the work in the project entitled:

Electromagnetic Waves and Their Applications in Telecommunications

By

TANJOH KLAUS KAH

(SC13A732)

Was carried out in the Department of Physics under the supervision of

________________________________

Dr. F.M. MOUKAM KAKMENI


Associate Professor
(Supervisor)

Date_______________________________
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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to my mum: Mme.
Abia Susane Mah, and to my fiance: Mbah
Sounita Nnah.

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Firstly, I would like to thank the University of Buea for providing a
welcoming, encouraging and flexible study environment that helped me
grow in so many ways. Special thanks go to my project supervisor:
Dr. F. M. Moukam Kakmeni (Associate Professor, Physics) for his great
support in developing this project, and also to the entire staff of the
department of physics of the University of Buea for their
comprehensive lectures which have really boosted my level of
consciousness as far as science is concerned. I also thank all my
teachers back in secondary education for their basic knowledge they
imparted in me.

I would like to thank my fellow final year student of the physics


department of the University of Buea. I had a great three years with
you and wish you all the best of luck in your future. Also, I would like to
thank my family members and friends for supporting me in any way
they could. Finally, great thanks go to The Almighty God for my health,
His grace, and his mercy in my life.

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

ABSTRACT
Electromagnetic waves play a very important role in the world as
far as telecommunication is concerned. The discovery of
electromagnetic waves (that is, the unification of electric and magnetic
fields) has been a great breakthrough in the field of
Telecommunications Engineering. The study of electromagnetic waves
and a deep understanding of their properties will be helpful in the
development of better technologies in new ways of communication.

This work discusses the some basic concepts of electromagnetic waves


and their generalities, that is, how they propagate and interact with
their environment during propagation, form physical and mathematical
points of view. It goes further to isolate each type of electromagnetic
wave in the electromagnetic spectrum giving their characteristics and
their production. Finally, the applications of each of these
electromagnetic waves in telecommunications are given.

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
COVER PAGEi

CERTIFICATION ................................................................................................... ii
DEDICATION ...................................................................................................... iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................ iv
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................... v
List of figures. .................................................................................................... ix

INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS


DERIVATION OF THE MAXWELLS EQUATIONS. ........................................................................................ 2
The Displacement Current...........................................................................................................2
Gausss Law for Magnetism.........................................................................................................3
Maxwells Equations. ..................................................................................................................3

CHAPTER ONE

GENERALITIES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES.


INTRODUCTION. ........................................................................................................................................ 7
I.1 SOME DEFINITIONS. ........................................................................................................................... 7
I.2 PLANE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES. .................................................................................................. 8
I.3 STANDING ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES........................................................................................... 13
I.4 POLARIZATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES. ............................................................................. 14
I.5 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES IN VACUUM. ....................................................................................... 15
I.5.1 The Wave Equation for E and B. ........................................................................................ 15
I.5.2 Energy and Momentum in Electromagnetic Waves. ........................................................... 16
I.6 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES IN MATTER.......................................................................................... 18
I.6.1 Propagation in Linear Media. ............................................................................................ 18
I.6.2 Reflection and Transmission at Normal incidence. ............................................................ 20
I.7 ABSORPTION AND DISPERSION......................................................................................................... 23
I.7.1 Electromagnetic waves in conductors. .............................................................................. 23
I.8 GUIDED WAVES AND WAVE GUIDES. ............................................................................................... 27
I.9 CONCLUSION. .................................................................................................................................... 29

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

CHAPTER TWO

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM


II.1 INTRODUCTION. ................................................................................................................................ 30
II.1.1 Electromagnetic spectrum ............................................................................................... 30
II.1.2 Rules of Thumbs. ............................................................................................................. 31
II.2 RADIO AND TV WAVES. .................................................................................................................... 32
II.2.1 Am radio waves ............................................................................................................... 33
II.2.2 Fm radio wave ................................................................................................................. 33
II.2.3 TV Waves. ...................................................................................................................... 34
II.2.4 Radio Wave Propagation ................................................................................................. 35
II.2.5 Radio Wave Interference ................................................................................................. 37
II.3 MICROWAVES. ................................................................................................................................. 38
II.3.1 Heating with Microwaves. ............................................................................................... 38
II.4 INFRARED RADIATION. ..................................................................................................................... 39
II.5 VISIBLE LIGHT. .................................................................................................................................. 40
II.6 ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION. ............................................................................................................... 41
II.6.1 Benefits of UV Light. ........................................................................................................ 42
II.7 X RAYS........................................................................................................................................... 42
II.7.1 A Submicroscopic view of X ray production.................................................................. 43
II.7.2 Some Uses of X rays. ..................................................................................................... 45
II.8 Gamma Rays ( rays). .................................................................................................................... 47
II.9 CONCLUSION. ................................................................................................................................... 48

CHAPTER THREE

APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.


III.1 INTRODUCTION. ............................................................................................................................. 50
III.2 RADIO AND TV WAVES COMMUNICATIONS. .................................................................................. 50
III.2.1 AM Radio Waves Communications.................................................................................. 51
III.2.2 FM Radio Waves Communications. ................................................................................. 51
III.2.3 TV Waves Communications. ........................................................................................... 51

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

III.3 MICROWAVES COMMUNICATIONS. ............................................................................................... 52


III.4 WIRELESS INFRARED COMMUNICATIONS. .................................................................................... 53
III.5 VISIBLE LIGHT COMMUNICATIONS (VLC). ...................................................................................... 54
III.6 ADVANTAGES OF OWCs OVER RADIO WAVES COMMUNICATIONS. ............................................. 55
III.7 CONCLUSION. ................................................................................................................................. 55

GENERAL CONCLUSION ..56


APPENDICES

APPENDIX A: MATHEMATICAL REVIEW..................................................................57


A.1 VECTOR ANALYSIS. ............................................................................................................................ 57
Partial Derivatives. ............................................................................................................ 58
Divergence and Curl. ......................................................................................................... 58
A.2 Some Useful Theorems. ................................................................................................................... 58
Green Orthogratzski Theorem. ........................................................................................ 58
Stokes Theorem. .............................................................................................................. 59

APPENDIX B: SOME USEFUL EQUATIONS AND FORMULAE ..59

B.1 Poissons Equation and Laplaces Equation...59

BIBLIOGRAPHY..60

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

List of figures.
I.1: A plane electromagnetic wave.9

I.2: Spatial variation of electric field9

I.3: Spatial variation of magnetic field.11

I.4: Plane EM wave propagating in the x-direction.13

I.5: Reflection and Transmission at normal incidence..21

I.6: Phase difference between electric and magnetic fields.27

II.1: The electromagnetic spectrum.31

II.2: High-voltage traction power line..32

II.3: Amplitude modulation for AM radio..33

II.4: Frequency modulation for FM radio34

II.5: TV and mobile phone antennae.35

II.6: Radio waves propagation paths37

II.7: The visible spectrum.41

II.8: Production of x-rays by an accelerated electron43

II.9: Production of x-rays by an energetic electron striking a metal45

II.10: X-ray image of the chest..46

II.11: Gamma ray image....48

III.1: Communication between cell phone53

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS.


Electromagnetic (EM) waves are waves that contain an electric field (E-
field) and a magnetic field (B-field) and carrying energy. These waves are
produced by the acceleration of an electric charge and propagated by a periodic
variation of intensities of, usually, perpendicular electric and magnetic fields. [12]
EM waves have been known to propagate at the speed of light (that is
3x108m/s) [13] as we are going to demonstrate in the next chapter. This property
makes EM waves to have many applications and most notably in
telecommunications since we want our signals to reach their destinations as early
as possible.

The aim of this work is to understand the beautiful electromagnetic


spectrum, how each member of the electromagnetic spectrum is produced, its
characteristics and how they are applied in the field of telecommunications
engineering and consequently, us to send and receive information quickly.

Before entering into our study of electromagnetic radiations and how they
are applied in telecommunications, we should look back in their early days in
order to have some knowledge about their discovery.
In 1865, the Scottish Mathematician and Physicist, James Clerk Maxwell
(*1831 - 1879) proposed and published the theory of electromagne c radia ons.
Electromagnetic radiation is energy radiated in the form of a wave as a result of
the motion of electric charges. [9] IF the motion of a magnetic field changes or
accelerates, the magnetic field can provide an electric field (2008). The produced
electromagnetic wave is both a transverse and a polarized wave (2008). More
importantly, electromagnetic radiation does not require a material medium and
can travel through a vacuum (2008).[9]
In November 1886, the German Scientist, Heinrich Rudolph Hertz (*1857 -
1894) who was a student to Kirchho and Helmholtz, discovered

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

electromagnetic waves in a laboratory. In his experiment, Hertz proved wireless


transmission between the open circuits over 1.5m and the decisive paper on the
finite velocity of propagation of EM waves in air (vphase = 1/). [9]

DERIVATION OF THE MAXWELLS EQUATIONS.


Before jumping into the study of EM waves, It is proper that we should first
of all have some view of the beautiful set of equations that completely describe
the behavior of electromagnetic waves. These equations were developed by the
Scottish Mathematician and Physicist, James Clerk Maxwell (*1831 - 1879) [9].
A derivation of these equations is presented as follows;

The Displacement Current.


From electrodynamics, we know that when a current carrying wire
possesses certain symmetry, the magnetic field can be obtained using Amperes
law;
. = 0Ienc. (0.3.1)
That is, the line integral of a magnetic field (of field strength B) around an
arbitrary closed loop is equal to 0Ienc., where Ienc. Is the conduction current passing
through the surface bound by the closed path. We also know that as a
consequence of Faradays law of electromagnetic induction, a changing magnetic
field B, can produce an electric field E according to the equation [5];
. =- . (0.3.2)
Also, the converse of equation (0.3.2) is true, that is , a time varying electric field
can create magnetic fields. However, there is an ambiguity in Amperes law and
thus Maxwell showed that the ambiguity can be removed by adding an extra term
on the right-hand-side (RHS) of equation (0.3.1)
Id = 0( E/ t) (0.3.3)
which is called displacement current where E and the generalized amperes
law is thus

. = 0I + 00( E/ t) = 0(I + Id) (0.3.4)

Where here, I = Ienc..

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

Gausss Law for Magnetism.

First lets acknowledge the fact that Gausss law for electrostatics implies
the electric flux through a closed surface is proportional to the charge enclosed.
The electric field lines originate from the positive charge (source) and terminate
at the negative charge (sink) [5].

E = . = / 0 (0.3.5)

One would then be tempted to write down the magnetic equivalent as

B = . = m/0 (0.3.6)

Where m is the magnetic charge (monopole) enclosed by the Gaussian surface.


However, despite intense search effort, no isolated magnetic monopole has ever
been observed. [5] Hence, m = 0 and Gausss law for magnetism becomes

B = . = 0. (0.3.7)

This implies that the number of magnetic field lines entering a closed surface is
equal to the number of field lines leaving the surface. That is, there is no source
or sink. In addition, the lines must be continuous with no starting or end points.

Maxwells Equations.

We now have four equations which form the foundation of electromagnetic


phenomena.

The Maxwells Equations in integral forms and their physical interpretations are
given in table 1 below.

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

Law Equation Physical Interpretation

Gausss law for E . = /0 Electric flux through a closed surface is


proportional to the charge enclosed. [5]

Faradays Law . = - B/ t Changing magnetic flux produces an


electric field. [5]

Gausss law for B . = 0. Total magnetic flux through a closed


surface is zero. [11]

Ampere Maxwell . = 0I + 00( E/ t) Electric current and changing electric


law flux produce a magnetic field. [11]

Table 1: Integral forms of Maxwells equations and their physical interpretations.

Now, let us transform these equations into their respective differential forms
which will look much clearer and simpler.

From Gausss law for E, . = /0 where = is the total charge


and is the charge density (charge per unit volume). Thus, we have . =
(1/0) , now, applying Green-Orthogratski theorem [SEE APPENDIX
A.2] on the left-hand-side(LHS), we have, . = (1/0) and
thus;

. = /0 (0.3.8)

From Faradays law, . = - B/ t, where B = . ; applying


Stokes theorem [SE APPENDIX A.2] on the LHS, we have . =
(- / t) . .Therefore,
= - (0.3.9)

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

From Gausss law for B, . = 0, applying Green-Orthogratski theorem on


the LHS, we have
. = 0. (0.3.10)

And finally, from Ampere-Maxwell law, . = 0I + 00( E/ t), where E


= . and I = . where is the current density. Applying Stokes
theorem on the LHS, we have
. = 0 . + 00 . and consequently;
= 0 + 00 (0.3.11)

Finally, the set Maxwells Equations in differential form is;


) . = /, ) = .
(0.3.12)
) . = 0, ) = +
The following section gives some generalities of electromagnetic waves and
how the above Maxwells Equations are applied in certain aspects of
electromagnetic waves propagation.

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

CHAPTER ONE.

GENERALITIES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES.


INTRODUCTION.
Recall that electromagnetic waves consist of the electric field E and the
magnetic field B, and these waves travel at the speed of light. In this chapter, we
are going to see the general properties of electromagnetic waves and the
behavior of the waves when traveling in different media such as vacuum, matter,
wave guides and earth. We are also going to see how the waves are reflected,
transmitted, when they reach a boundary between two media and most
interesting, we are going to see how the waves, can be polarized and how the
waves, can interfere with each other while in transit.

I.1 SOME DEFINITIONS.


1. A Wave: A wave is a disturbance of a continuous medium that propagates
with a fixed shape at constant velocity.
2. Transverse waves: A transverse wave is a wave in which the direction of
vibration of the wave particles is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of
the wave.
3. Standing waves: These are waves whose components are expressed as sums
of sines and cosines of the time and spatial coordinates.
4. Plane Waves: These are waves whose fields are uniform over every plane
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.[5]
5. Monochromatic Waves: These are waves with a particular frequency (and of
course wavelength) and consequently, a unique colour.
6. The Wave Equation: The wave equation is a second order partial differential
equation whose solution is a wave function. In one dimension, (x-direction say)
the wave equation is written as;

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.


= (I.1.1)

In three dimensions, (x, y, and z say) the wave equation is;

f = (I.1.2)


Where f = f(x, t) is the wave function and = + + , is the laplacian in

the rectangular coordinate system, v is the velocity of the wave.
7. Propagation or a Wave Vector: This is the vector that describes the direction
of propagation of the wave and we shall denote it by k, in our study.
8. Complex Notation of EM waves: The complex form of an electromagnetic
wave f is represented in exponential form as
( . )
(r, t) = (I.1.3)
and in trigonometric form as
(r, t) = cos( . t + ) + sin( . t + ) (I.1.4)
where the real part is
(r, t) = cos( . t + ) (I.1.5)
where is the polarization vector and
= (I.1.6)
is the complex amplitude where is the real amplitude and is the phase
constant. [13]

I.2 PLANE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES.


Lets consider for simplicity an electromagnetic wave propagating in the +x
direction, with the electric field E pointing in the +y direction and the magnetic
field B pointing in the +z direction, as shown in the figure below.

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

Figure I.1: A plane electromagnetic wave. (Source: [12])

What we have here is an example of a plane wave since at any instant,


both E and B are uniform over any plane perpendicular to the direction of
propagation. In addition, the wave is transverse because both fields are
perpendicular to the direction of propagation which points in the direction of the
cross product ExB.

We can obtain the relationship between the magnitudes of the fields using
Maxwells Equations. To see this, we consider the rectangular loop below which
lies in the xy-plane.

Figure I.2: Spatial variation of electric field. (Source: [12])

Let the unit vector normal to the loop be in the positive z-direction, = k.

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

Using Faradays law,

. = - B/ t (I.2.1)

the LHS can be written as

. =Ey(x+x)y-Ey(x)y=[Ey(x+x)-Ey(x)]y = (Ey/x)(xy) (I.2.2)

Where the expansion

Ey(x+x) = Ey(x)(Ey/x)x + (I.2.3)

has been made use of.

On the other hand, the rate of change of magnetic flux on the RHS of equation
(I.2.1) is given by

- . = - (Bz/t)xy (I.2.4)

Now, substituting (I.2.2) and (I.2.4) into (I.2.3), we have

Ey/x = - Bz/t (I.2.5)

The second condition on the relationship between E and B may be deduced using
the Ampere-Maxwell equation

. = 00 . (I.2.6)

Consider a rectangular loop in the xy-plane depicted in figure I.3 below with a
unit normal =

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

Figure I.3 : Spatial variation of magnetic field B (Source: [12])

The line integral of the magnetic field is

. = Bz(x)z - Bz(x+x)z =[Bz(x) - Bz(x+x)]z = -(Bz/x)(xz) (I.2.7)

On the other hand, the time derivative of the electric flux is

. = (Ey/t)xz (I.2.8)

Now, substituting (I.2.7) and (I.2.8) into (I.2.6) we have

Bz/x = 00 (Ey/t) (I.2.9)

The result indicates that a time-varying electric field is generated by a spatially


varying field. Using equations (I.2.4) and (I.2.5), one may verify that both the
electric and magnetic and magnetic fields satisfy the one dimensional wave
equation. To show this, we take the partial derivatives of (I.2.5) with respect to x,
and another partial derivative of (I.2.9) with respect to t.

2Ey/x2 = - (Bz/t) = - (Bz/x) = - (-00 (Ey/t)) = 00 (2Ey/t2) (I.2.10)

noting the interchangeability of the partial differentiations

(Bz/t) = (Bz/x) (I.2.11)

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

Similarly, another partial derivative of equation (I.2.9) with respect to x yields, and
then another partial derivative of equation (I.2.5) with respect to x give

2Bz/x2 = - (00 (Ey/t)) = - 00 (Ey/x) = - 00 (Bz/t) = 00 (2Bz/t2)

(I.2.12)

These results may be summarized as


( , )
( - 00 ) ( , )
= 0 (I.2.13)

Recall that the general form of a 1-D wave equation is given by



( - )f(x, t) = 0 (I.2.14)

Where v is the speed of propagation. We see clearly that both Ey and Bz satisfy
the wave equation and propagate with speed

v= =c (I.2.15)

where c 3.0 x108m/s is the speed of light in vacuum.

From this we can conclude that light is an electromagnetic wave.

It should be noted that if f1(r, t) and f2(r, t) are both solutions to the wave
equation (I.1.2), then f1(r, t)+ f2(r, t) and f1(r, t)- f2(r, t) are also solutions.
Therefore, electromagnetic waves obey the superposition principle. [5]

One possible solution of the wave equation is

E = Ey(x, t) = E0cosk(x-vt) = E0cos(kx-t) (I.2.16)

B = Bz(x, t) =B0cosk(x-vt) = B0cos(kx-t) (I.2.17)

Where the fields are sinusoidal with amplitudes E0 and B0, k is the wave number
related to the wavelength, , by

k = (I.2.18)

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

The angular frequency, , is given by

= kv = 2 = 2 (I.2.19)

where f is the linear frequency. The characteristic behavior of the above


electromagnetic wave is shown below.

Figure I.4: Plane electromagnetic wave propagating in the x-direction. (Source:


[13])

We see that E and B fields are always in phase (attaining maxima and minima at
the same time).

I.3 STANDING ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES.


Let us examine the situation where there are two sinusoidal waves,
one travelling in the +x direction, with

y(x, t) = cos(kx t)
(I.3.1)
z(x, t) = cos(kx t)

And the other travelling in the x direction, with

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

y(x, t) = cos(kx + t)
(I.3.2)
z(x, t) = cos(kx + t)

Lets assume for simplicity that these electromagnetic waves have the same
amplitudes ( = = , = = ) and wavelengths (k1 = k2 = k, =
= ).

Using the superposition principle,

Ey(x, t) = E1y(x, t) + E2y(x, t) = E0[cos(kx-t) cos(kx+t)] (I.3.3)

Bz(x, t) = B1z(x, t) + B2yzx, t) = B0[cos(kx-t) + cos(kx+t)] (I.3.4)

Now recall that,

cos (+) = coscos sinsin and cos(-) = coscos + sinsin (I.3.5)

If we apply equation (I.3.5) to (I.3.3) and (I.3.4), we get

Ey(x, t) = 2E0sin(kx)sin(t) (I.3.6)

Bz(x, t) = 2B0cos(kx)cos(t) (I.3.7)

These waves do not propagate but simply oscillate in space and time.

I.4 POLARIZATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES.

Polarization is defined by the locus traced by the tip of electric field


vector as time flows. They are three types of polarization namely; linear, circular
and elliptic polarization.

For linear polarization, they are two types namely; vertical and horizontal
polarizations.

In vertical polarization, the wave oscillates up and down while in horizontal


polarization, the wave oscillates left and right.[5] That is,

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

( )
v(z, t) = (I.4.1)

( )
h(z, t) = (I.4.2)

Now, along an arbitrary direction,


( )
(z, t) = (I.4.3)
where the polarization vector, describes the plane of vibration. Because the
waves are transverse, is perpendicular to the direction of propagation. [5]
. = 0 (I.4.4)
In terms of the polarization angle, , we have that
= cos + sin (I.4.5)
Circular and elliptic polarizations can be right-hand (clockwise) or left-hand
(counter-clockwise).
In microwave and antenna engineering, the sense of rotation is determined by
looking along the direction of propagation (thumb points along direction of
propagation).
Every plane wave can be decomposed into
1) Two mutually orthogonal linearly polarized terms, or
2) Two circularly polarized terms of opposite sense of rotation. [12]

I.5 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES IN VACUUM.


In this section, I want us to now study the behavior of electromagnetic
waves as they propagate through a vacuum. Generally, a vacuum is a region of
space considered to contain no free , charge or free current J.[5] Therefore, the
Maxwells Equations in differential form now become;
) . = 0, ) = .
(I.5.1)
) . = 0, ) =

I.5.1 The Wave Equation for E and B.


Recall from section I.2 and equation (I.2.13) how the components of the electric
and magnetic fields obey the wave equation. In a vacuum, the situation is not

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

different. As a matter of fact, if we take the curl on both sides of Maxwell


equation (ii) from equation (I.5.1), we have

= ( . ) = (I.5.2)

Now, substituting (i) and (iv) into equation (I.5.2), we have



( - 00 )E = 0 (I.5.3)

Similarly, taking the curl of (iv) and substituting (ii) and (iii) into the result, we
have


( - 0 0 )B = 0 (I.5.4)

Where = + + is the Laplacian in the Cartesian coordinate system.

Comparing each of equations (I.5.3) and (I.5.4) with equation (I.2.14), it is clear
that electromagnetic waves travel in a vacuum with speed

v= =c

(I.5.5)

where c 3.0 x108m/s is the speed of light in vacuum.

I.5.2 Energy and Momentum in Electromagnetic Waves.


From electrodynamics, the energy in electric field is given by

UE = E (I.5.6)

And the energy in magnetic field is given by

UB =

B (I.5.7)

Therefore, the total electromagnetic energy is given by

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

Uem = ( +
B) (I.5.8)

The energy density (energy per unit volume ) is therefore

u = ( + B) (I.5.9)

For monochromatic plane waves,

B = E = E (I.5.10)

So, the electric and magnetic contributions are equal: that is

u = E = Ecos(kz-t+) (I.5.11)

where is the phase constant.

As the wave travels, it carries this energy along with it. The energy flux
density (energy per unit area per unit time) transported by the fields is given
by

S = [E x B ] (I.5.12)

The quantity S, is known as the Poynting vector.

For monochromatic plane waves propagating in the z-direction,

S = c Ecos(kz-t+) = cu (I.5.13)
Notice that the Poynting vector is the energy density u, multiplied by the
velocity of the wave c , as it should be.

Electromagnetic waves also carry momentum with momentum density stored


in the field given by

= S (I.5.14)

Therefore, for monochromatic plane waves,

17
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

= c Ecos(kz-t+) = u (I.5.15)

Notice that we are not interest in the fluctuating cosine-squared terms in


energy and momentum densities but all we want is the average values. Since
the average value of cosine-square is , [5] then the average values of the
above quantities are

<u> = E (I.5.16)

<S> = E (I.5.16)

<> = E (I.5.16)

I have used <> to denote (time) average over a complete cycle. The average
power per unit area transported by an electromagnetic wave is given by

I = <S> = E (I.5.17)

The quantity I, is called the intensity of the electromagnetic wave.

I.6 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES IN MATTER.

I.6.1 Propagation in Linear Media.


In this subsection, we will be dealing with the propagation of
electromagnetic waves inside matter, in regions where there is no free charge or
free current: that is to say, a dielectric material or an insulator (or non-conducting
material).

The Maxwells Equations now become

) . = 0, ) = .
(I.6.1)
) . = 0, ) =
Where, if the medium is linear,
D = E, H = B. (I.6.2)

18
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

If the medium is homogeneous, that is and do not vary from point to point,
then Maxwells Equations reduce to
) . = 0, ) = .
(I.6.3)
) . = 0, ) =
Therefore, through a linear homogeneous medium, electromagnetic waves
propagate at speed
v = = (I.6.4)

where
c = (I.6.5)

The quantity n, is the refractive index of the material. Note that for most
materials, is so close to and so,
n (I.6.6)
The quantity is called the dielectric constant. Since is always greater than 1,
light travels more slowly through matter.
All of our previous results carry over, with the simple transcription and
and hence, c v.
The energy density is
u = ( + B) (I.6.7)

and the Poynting vector is

S = [E x B ] (I.6.8)

For monochromatic waves, the frequency and wave number are related by =
kv, and the amplitude of B is 1/v times the amplitude of E and the intensity is

I = vE (I.6.9)

More interestingly, we wish to know what happens when a wave passes from
one transparent medium to another. For example glass to plastic say. We
expect to get a reflected wave and a transmitted wave.

19
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

The equations that relate electric and magnetic fields just to the left and just to
the right of the interface between the two media are;

) = , c) || = || .
|| (I.6.10)
) = , d) = || .

where , , , and || , || , || , || are the perpendicular and
parallel components of the fields respectively, where the subscripts represent the
respective media when the wave is travelling from medium 1 to medium 2.
I shall use these equations to deduce the laws governing reflection and refraction
of electromagnetic waves. Thus, equation (I.5.10) is the boundary condition. [5]

I.6.2 Reflection and Transmission at Normal incidence.


Suppose the xy plane forms a boundary between two media. A plane wave
of frequency , travelling in the z-direction and polarized in the x-direction,
approaches the interface from the left. The incident fields are
( )
=
( ) (I.6.11)
=

The reflected fields are


( )
=
( ) (I.6.12)
=

And the transmitted fields are
( )
=
( ) (I.6.13)
=

The above, are shown in the following figure.

20
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

Figure I.5: Reflection and transmission at normal incidence. (Source: [5])

The incident and the reflected fields are in medium 1 and so have the
same velocity though the reflected wave is in the opposite direction to the
incident wave. The transmitted wave is in medium 2 with velocity .

At the boundary (z=0), the combined fields on the left must equal that on
the right in accordance with the boundary condition (equation I.6.10) but in this
case, there are no components perpendicular to the surface and so, (a) and (b) of
equation (I.6.10) are trivial. However, (c) requires that,

+ = (I.6.14)

While (d) says,

( ) = ( ) (I.6.15)

Or

- = (I.6.16)

Where

= (I.6.17)

21
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

Now, we solved (I.6.14) and (I.6.16) for and in terms of and . We


get

= ( ) , = ( ) (I.6.18)

If now, the permeabilities , are close to their values in vacuum, (that is



and )as it is the case for most media, then = and we have


= ( ) , = ( ) (I.6.19)

Then we see that the reflected wave is in phase (right side up) if v > v and out of
phase (upside down) if v < v. the real amplitudes are related by

= | | , = ( ) (I.6.20)

or in terms of indices of refraction,



= | | , = ( ) (I.6.21)

At this point, we wish to know what fraction of the incident energy is


reflected, and what fraction is transmitted. We found in section I.5.3 and
equation (I.5.23) that the intensity of the wave (average power per unit area) is
E. In matter, we will have

I = E (I.6.22)

The ratio of the reflected intensity to the incident intensity is generally


R = IR/II = ( ) = ( ) (I.6.23)

And the ratio of the transmitted intensity to the incident intensity is generally


T = IT/II =
( ) =

( ) (I.6.24)

22
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

R is the fraction of incident energy reflected and T is the fraction transmitted. We


wish to show that these two sum up to unity as expected. That is

R+T= ( ) + ( ) (I.6.25)

But

= = ( ) = =

This implies that

R+T=( ) + ( ) = (4 + 1 2 + ) = 1
( )

Therefore,

R + T = 1 (I.6.26)

Where, R is known as the reflection coefficient and T is the transmission


coefficient.

I.7 ABSORPTION AND DISPERSION.

I.7.1 Electromagnetic waves in conductors.


In section I.5 we saw that that the free charge f and the free current Jf are
zero and everything that followed was based on that assumption. Here, in the
case of conductors we do not independently control the flow of charge and in
general, Jf is certainly not zero. [13] According to Ohms law,
Jf = E (I.7.1)
Where is the conductivity of the conductor. Thus, with this, the Maxwells
Equations for linear media assume the form

) . = , ) = .
(I.7.2)
) . = 0, ) = +
And the continuity equation for free charge is

23
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

. = (I.7.3)

Together with Ohms law and Gauss law, (i) gives

= ( . ) =

For homogeneous linear media, from which it follows that

( ) = ( / ) (0) (I.7.4)

Thus any initial charge density (0) dissipates in a characteristic time


/. This reflects the familiar fact that if you put some free charge on a conductor,
it will flow out of the edges. The time constant affords a measure of how
good a conductor is: For a perfect conductor, = and = 0; for a good
conductor, is much less than the other relevant times in the problem (in
oscillatory systems, that means 1/ ); for a poor conductor, is greater
than the characteristic times in the problem ( 1/ ). At present, were not
interested in this transient behavior-well wait for any accumulated free
charge to disappear.[5]

From then on, = 0, and we have

) . = 0, ) = .
(I.7.5)
) . = 0, ) = +
You can see clearly that only the term of equation (iv) of (I.7.5) makes the
equation (I.7.5) to differ from equation (I.6.3) (that is, for non conducting media).
Now, applying the curl to (ii) and (iv) as before, we obtain the modified wave
equation for E and B as follows;

= + , = + (I.7.6)

These equations will admit plane wave solutions,
( ) ( )
( , ) = , ( , ) = (I.7.7)
But this time, the wave number is complex:

24
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

= + i (I.7.8)

As a matter of fact, plugging equation (I.7.7) into (I.7.6) we have


( ) ( ) ( )
( ) = i

= i

= + i

Taking the square root, we have

= k + i (I.7.9)

Where

k [ 1 + ( ) + 1]
(I.7.10)
[ 1 + ( ) 1]

The imaginary part of results in an attenuation of the wave (decreasing


amplitude with increasing z);
( ) ( )
( , ) = , ( , ) = (I.7.11)

The distance it takes to reduce the amplitude by a factor of 1/e (about a third) is
called skin depth d given by

d ; (I.7.12)

the skin depth is the measure if how far the electromagnetic wave penetrates into
the conductor. Meanwhile, the real part of , determines the wavelength, the
propagation speed, and the index of refraction, in the usual way:

= , v = , n = (I.7.13)

25
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

the attenuated plane waves (equation I.7.11) satisfy the modified wave equation
(I.7.6) for any and . But Maxwells Equations (I.7.5) impose further
constraints, which serve to determine the relative amplitudes, phases,
polarizations of E and B. As before, (i) and (iii) rule out any z components: the
fields are transverse. We may as well orient our axes so that E is polarized along
the x direction.
( )
( , ) = (I.7.14)

Then (ii) gives


( )
( , ) = (I.7.15)

(Equation (iv) gives the same result). Once again, the electric and magnetic fields
are mutually perpendicular.

Like any other complex number, can be expressed in terms of its


modulus and phase (that is, the polar decomposition of ).

= K (I.7.16)

Where

K | | = + = 1 + ( ) (I.7.17)

And

tan-1( ) (I.7.18)

According to equation (I.7.14) and (I.7.15), the complex amplitudes = E0


and = B0

and are related by



B0 = E0 (I.7.19)

26
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

Evidently, the electric and magnetic fields are no longer in phase; in fact,

= (I.7.20)

This means that the magnetic field lags behind the electric field. Meanwhile, the
(real) amplitude of E and B are related by


= = 1 + ( ) (I.7.21)

The (real) electric and magnetic fields are finally,

( , ) = ( + )
(I.7.22)
( , ) = ( + + )

These fields are shown in the figure below.

Figure I.6: Phase difference between electric and magnetic fields.(Source: [5])

I.8 GUIDED WAVES AND WAVE GUIDES.


So far, we have been dealing with plane waves of infinite extend; now let us
consider electromagnetic waves confined to the interior of a hollow pipe, or wave
guide. Well assume that the wave guide is a perfect conductor, so that E = 0 and
B = 0 inside the conductor itself, and hence boundary conditions at the inner walls
are

27
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.


) = 0
(I.8.1)
) = 0

Free charge and current will be induced on the surface in such a way as to enforce
these constraints. We are interested in monochromatic waves that propagate
down the tube, so E and B will have the generic form

( ) ( )
( , , , ) = ( , )
( )
(I.8.2)
( ) ( , , , ) = ( , )

(For the case of interest k is real, so I shall dispense with the tilde.) The electric
and magnetic fields must, of course, satisfy Maxwells Equations, in the interior of
the wave guide.

) . = 0, ) = .
(I.8.3)
) . = 0, ) =
A wave guide is a conductor capable of transmitting electromagnetic waves,
where the electric and magnetic fields inside the conductor are both zero. If the z
component of the electric field is zero ( = 0), then the waves are said to be a TE
(Transverse Electric) waves; if the z component of the magnetic field is zero
( = 0), then the waves are said to be TM (Transverse Magnetic") waves. If
( = 0 and = 0, then we call the waves TEM waves. It turns out that TEM
waves cannot occur in hollow wave guides. [5] As a matter of fact,

If = 0, Gauss law (equation (I.8.3)i) says

+ = 0,

And if = 0, Faradays law (equation (I.8.3)ii) says

- = 0.

Indeed, the vector the complex amplitude vector of the electric field, , has zero
divergence an zero curl. It can therefore be written as the gradient of a scalar
potential that satisfies Laplaces equation (see appendix B.1). but the boundary
28
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

condition on E (equation I.8.1) requires that the surface be an equipotential, and


since Laplaces equation admits no local maxima or minima, this means that the
potential is constant throughout, and hence the electric field is zerono wave at
all. [5] qed

I.9 CONCLUSION.
As we have seen in this chapter, the above subsections include some of the
generalities of electromagnetic waves. That is, plane electromagnetic waves and
the wave equation, standing electromagnetic waves, polarization of
electromagnetic waves, electromagnetic waves in vacuum, energy and
momentum in electromagnetic waves, electromagnetic waves in matter and
transmission in linear media, reflection and transmission of electromagnetic
waves at normal incidence, electromagnetic waves in conductors and
waveguides. These generalities will help us to understand how electromagnetic
waves are transmitted in various media in daily life. The above generalities apply
to all the types of electromagnetic waves present in the electromagnetic
spectrum which well see in the next chapter.

29
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

CHAPTER TWO

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM


II.1 INTRODUCTION.
In this chapter we examine how electromagnetic waves are classified into
various categories so that we can understand some of their similarities as well as
some differences. We will also find that they are many connections with other
waves.

II.1.1 Electromagnetic spectrum


The electromagnetic spectrum is divided into different sections called the
various electromagnetic waves ranging from low frequency, long wavelength
(radio waves, microwaves and infrared radiations) waves through the visible part
and to the high frequency, short wavelength (ultraviolet radiations, X rays and
gamma rays) waves, as shown in the figure below.

30
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATION
TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

Figure II.1
The electromagnetic spectrum. (Physics for Scientists and Engineers, Sixth Edition
Raymond A. Serway and John W. Jewett, Jr) [6]

II.1.2 Rules of Thumbs.


Threee rules that apply to electromagnetic waves in general are as fellows;
1) High frequency electromagnetic waves are more energetic and are more
able to penetrate than low frequency waves
2) High frequency electromagnetic waves can carry more information per unit
time than low frequency waves.
3) The shorter the waves length of any electromagnetic wave probing a
material, the smaller the detail it is possible to resolve.[13]
resolve.
But however, they are exception to these rules of thumb

31
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

II.2 RADIO AND TV WAVES.


The broad category of radio waves is defined to contain any electromagnetic
waves produced by current and circuits. Its name devices from their most
common use as a carrier of audio information that is radio. The name is applied to
electromagnetic waves of similar frequencies regardless of source. Radio waves
from other space, for example, do not come from alien radio stations. They are
created by many astronomical phenomena, and their study has revealed much
about nature on the largest scales.
The lowest commonly encountered radio frequencies are produced by high
voltage AC power transmission lines at frequencies of 50 or 60Hz. These
extremely long waves length electromagnetic waves about 6000Km are one
means of energy loss in long distance power transmission [6](see figure II.2).

Figure II.2
This high-voltage traction power line running to Eutingen Railway Substation in
Germany radiates electromagnetic waves with very long wavelengths.(credit:
Zonk43, Wikimedia Commons)

Note that the ability of radio waves to penetrate salt water is related to their
wave length much like ultrasound. Penetrating tissue. The longer the waves
length the farther they penetrate.

32
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

II.2.1 Am radio waves


AM means amplitude modulation. Carrier waves having the basic frequency of
the radio station, say 1530 KHz, is varied or modulated in amplitude by an audio
signal. The resulting wave has a constant frequency but a varying amplitude .A
radio receiver turned to have the same resonant frequency as the carrier waves
can pick up the signal, while rejecting the many other frequencies impinging on its
antenna. The receiver circuiting is designed to respond to vibrations in amplitude
of the carrier wave to replicate the original audio signal. The audio signal is
amplified to drive a speaker or perhaps to be recorded.

Figure II.3: Amplitude modulation for AM radio


a) A carrier wave at station basic frequency b) An audio signal at much lower
audible frequencies c) The amplitude carrier is modulated by the audio
signal without changing its basic frequency. (Source: [12] )

II.2.2 Fm radio wave


FM stands for frequency modulation. FM radio waves are in the frequency
range 88 to 108Hz.see figure II.2. Here a carrier wave having the basic frequency
of the radio station. Perhaps 105.1MHz producing a wave of constant amplitude
but varying frequency. [6]

33
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

Figure II.4: Frequency modulation for FM radio


a) A carrier waves at the station basic frequency b) An audio signal at much lower
audible frequencies c) The frequency of the carrier is modulated by the audio
signal without changing its amplitude. (Source: [12] )

Since audible frequencies range up to 20KHz or 0.020MHz at most, the frequency


of the FM radio waves can vary from the carrier by as much as 0.020MHz. Thus
the carrier frequencies of two different radio stations cannot be closer than
0.020MHz. An FM receiver is tuned to resonate at the carrier frequency and has
circuitry that responds to vibrations in variations in frequency, reproducing the
audio information.
FM radio is inherently more subjected to noise from the stray radio sources than
AM radio. The reason is that amplitudes of add. So an AM receiver would
interpret noise added onto the amplitudes of its carrier wave as part of the
information[6]. An FM receiver can be made to reject other than that of the basic
carrier wave and only look for variations in frequency. Its thus easy to reject
noise from FM since noise produces a variation in amplitude.

II.2.3 TV Waves.
Television is also broadcast on electromagnetic waves. Since the waves must
carry a great deal of visual as well as audio information, each channel requires a
34
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

larger range of frequencies than simple radio transmission. TV channels utilize


frequencies in the range of 54 to 88 MHz and 174 to 222MHz. (The entire FM
radio band lies between channels 88 MHz and 174 MHz.) These TV channels are
called VHF (for very high frequency). Other channels called UHF (for ultra high
frequency) utilize an even higher frequency range of 470 to 1000 MHz. [8] The TV
video signal is AM, while the TV audio is FM. Note that these frequencies are
those of free transmission with the user utilizing an old fashioned roof antenna.
Satellite dishes and cable transmission of TV occurs at significantly higher
frequencies and is rapidly evolving with the use of the high-definition or HD
format.

Figure II.5: TV and Mobile phone antennae


(a) A large tower is used to broadcast TV signals. The actual antennas are small
structures on top of the towerthey are placed at great heights to have a clear
line of sight over a large broadcast area. (credit: Ozizo, Wikimedia Commons) (b)
The NTT Dokomo mobile phone tower at T okorozawa City, Japan. (credit:
tokoroten, Wikimedia Commons).

II.2.4 Radio Wave Propagation


Propagation is defined as how radio signals radiate outward from a
transmitting source. Radio waves are often believed to travel in a straight line like
a stone tossed into a still lake. The true path radio waves take, however, is often

35
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

more complex.[3] There are two basic modes of propagation: ground waves and
sky waves. As their names imply, ground waves travel along the surface of the
earth, while sky waves bounce back to earth. Figure II.6 the different
propagation paths for HF (High Frequency) radio waves. Ground waves consist of
three components: surface waves, direct waves, and ground-reflected waves.
Surface waves travel along the surface of the earth, reaching beyond the horizon.
Eventually, surface wave energy is absorbed by the earth. The effective range of
surface waves is largely determined by the frequency and conductivity of the
surface over which the waves travel.[3] Absorption increases with frequency.
Transmitted radio signals, which use a carrier traveling as a surface wave, are
dependent on transmitter power, receiver sensitivity, antenna characteristics, and
the type of path traveled. For a given complement of equipment, the range may
extend from 200 to 300 km over a conductive, all-sea-water path. Over arid, rocky,
non-conductive terrain, however, the range may drop to less than 30 km, even with
the same equipment. Direct waves travel in a straight line, becoming weaker as
distance increases. They may be bent, or refracted, by the atmosphere, which
extends their useful range slightly beyond the horizon. Transmitting and receiving
antennas must be able to see each other for communications to take place, so
antenna height is critical in determining range. Because of this, direct waves are
sometimes known as line-of-sight (LOS) waves. Ground reflected waves are the
portion of the propagated wave that is reflected from the surface of the earth
between the transmitter and receiver. Sky waves make beyond line-of-sight
(BLOS) communications possible. At certain frequencies, radio waves are
refracted (or bent), returning to earth hundreds or thousands of miles away.
Depending on frequency, time of day, and atmospheric conditions, a signal can
bounce several times before reaching a receiver. Using sky waves can be tricky,
since the ionosphere is constantly changing. [3]

36
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

Figure II.6: Radio Waves Propagation Paths. (Source: Harris assured


communications)[3]

II.2.5 Radio Wave Interference


Astronomers and astrophysicists collect signals from outer space using
electromagnetic waves. A common problem for astrophysicists is the pollution
from electromagnetic radiation pervading our surroundings from communication
systems in general.[12] Even everyday gadgets like our car keys having the facility
to lock car doors remotely and being able to turn TVs on and off using remotes
involve radio-wave frequencies. In order to prevent interference between all
these electromagnetic signals, strict regulations are drawn up for different
organizations to utilize different radio frequency bands. One reason why we are
sometimes asked to switch off our mobile phones (operating in the range of 1.9
GHz) on airplanes and in hospitals is that important communications or medical
equipment often uses similar radio frequencies and their operation can be
affected by frequencies used in the communication devices.[8] For example, radio

37
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

waves used in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) have frequencies on the order
of 100MHz, although this varies significantly depending on the strength of the
magnetic field used and the nuclear type being scanned. MRI is an important
medical imaging and research tool,
producing highly detailed two- and three-dimensional images. Radio waves are
broadcast, absorbed, and reemitted in a resonance process that is sensitive to the
density of nuclei (usually protons or hydrogen nuclei). The wavelength of 100-
MHz radio waves is 3 m, yet using the sensitivity of the resonant frequency to the
magnetic field strength, details smaller than
a millimeter can be imaged. This is a good example of an exception to a rule of
thumb (in this case, the rubric that details much smaller than the probes
wavelength cannot be detected). The intensity of the radio waves used in MRI
presents little or no hazard to human health.

II.3 MICROWAVES.
Microwaves are the highest-frequency electromagnetic waves that can be
produced by currents in macroscopic circuits and devices. Microwave
frequencies range from about 109Hz to the highest practical LC resonance at
nearly 1012Hz . [6] Since they have high frequencies, their
wavelengths are short compared with those of other radio waveshence the
name microwave. Microwaves can also be produced by atoms and molecules.
They are, for example, a component of electromagnetic radiation generated by
thermal agitation. The thermal motion of atoms and molecules in any object at a
temperature above absolute zero causes them to emit and absorb radiation. Since
it is possible to carry more information per unit time on high frequencies,
microwaves are quite suitable for communications. [12]

II.3.1 Heating with Microwaves.


How does the ubiquitous microwave oven produce microwaves electronically,
and why does food absorb them preferentially? His is a question we should ask
ourselves in daily life. The answer to this question is as follows: microwaves at a
frequency of 2.45 GHz are produced by accelerating electrons. The microwaves
are then used to induce an alternating electric field in the oven. Water and some
38
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

other constituents of food have a slightly negative charge at one end and a
slightly positive charge at one end (called polar molecules). The range of
microwave frequencies is specially selected so that the polar molecules, in trying
to keep orienting themselves with the electric field, absorb these energies and
increase their temperaturescalled dielectric heating. The energy thereby
absorbed results in thermal agitation heating food and not the plate, which does
not contain water. Hot spots in the food are related to constructive and
destructive interference patterns. Rotating antennas and food turntables help
spread out the hot spots. Another use of microwaves for heating is within the
human body. Microwaves will penetrate more than shorter wavelengths into
tissue and so can accomplish deep heating (called microwave diathermy). This is
used for treating muscular pains, spasms, tendonitis, and rheumatoid arthritis.

II.4 INFRARED RADIATION.


The microwave and infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum overlap
(see Figure II.1). Infrared radiation is generally produced by thermal motion and
the vibration and rotation of atoms and molecules. Electronic transitions in atoms
and molecules can also produce infrared radiation. [6] The range of infrared
frequencies extends up to the lower limit of visible light, just below red. In fact,
infrared means below red. Frequencies at its upper limit are too high to be
produced by accelerating electrons in circuits, but small systems, such as atoms
and molecules, can vibrate fast enough to produce these waves. Water molecules
rotate and vibrate particularly well at infrared frequencies, emitting and
absorbing them so efficiently that the emissivity for skin is e = 0.97 in the infrared.
Night-vision scopes can detect the infrared emitted by various warm objects,
including humans, and convert it to visible light.[12] We can examine radiant heat
transfer from a house by using a camera capable of detecting infrared radiation.
Reconnaissance satellites can detect buildings, vehicles, and even individual
humans by their infrared emissions, whose power radiation is proportional to the
fourth power of the absolute temperature. More mundanely, we use infrared
lamps, some of which are called quartz heaters, to preferentially warm us
because we absorb infrared better than our surroundings. The Sun radiates like a

39
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

nearly perfect blackbody (that is, it has e = 1 ), with a 6000 K surface temperature.
About half of the solar energy arriving at the Earth is in the infrared region, with
most of the rest in the visible part of the spectrum, and a relatively small amount
in the ultraviolet. On average, 50 percent of the incident solar energy is absorbed
by the Earth.
The relatively constant temperature of the Earth is a result of the energy
balance between the incoming solar radiation and the energy radiated from the
Earth. Most of the infrared radiation emitted from the Earth is absorbed by CO2
and H2O in the atmosphere and then radiated back to Earth or into outer space.
This radiation back to Earth is known as the greenhouse effect, and it maintains
the surface temperature of the Earth about 40C higher than it would be if there
is no absorption. Some scientists think that the increased concentration of CO2
and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, resulting from increases in fossil
fuel burning, has increased global average temperatures.

II.5 VISIBLE LIGHT.


Visible light is the narrow segment of the electromagnetic spectrum to which
the normal human eye responds. Visible light is produced by vibrations and
rotations of atoms and molecules, as well as by electronic transitions within
atoms and molecules.[4] The receivers or detectors of light largely utilize
electronic transitions. We say the atoms and molecules are excited when they
absorb and relax when they emit through electronic transitions. Figure II.7 shows
this part of the spectrum, together with the colors associated with particular pure
wavelengths. We usually refer to visible light as having wavelengths of between
400 nm and 750 nm. [6] (The retina of the eye actually responds to the lowest
ultraviolet frequencies, but these do not normally reach the retina because they
are absorbed by the cornea and lens of the eye.)
Red light has the lowest frequencies and longest wavelengths, while violet has the
highest frequencies and shortest wavelengths. Blackbody radiation from the Sun
peaks in the visible part of the spectrum but is more intense in the red than in the
violet, making the Sun yellowish in appearance.

40
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

Figure II.7: The visible spectrum.


A small part of the electromagnetic spectrum that includes its visible components.
The divisions between infrared, visible, and ultraviolet are not perfectly distinct,
nor are those between the seven rainbow colors. (Source: [6])

Living thingsplants and animalshave evolved to utilize and respond to parts of


the electromagnetic spectrum they are embedded in. Visible light is the most
predominant and we enjoy the beauty of nature through visible light. Plants are
more selective. Photosynthesis makes use of parts of the visible spectrum to
make sugars.
Optics is the study of the behavior of visible light and other forms of
electromagnetic waves.[13] Optics falls into two distinct categories. When
electromagnetic radiation, such as visible light, interacts with objects that are
large compared with its wavelength, its motion can be represented by straight
lines like rays. Ray optics is the study of such situations and includes lenses and
mirrors. When electromagnetic radiation interacts with objects about the same
size as the wavelength or smaller, its wave nature becomes apparent. For
example, observable detail is limited by the wavelength, and so visible light can
never detect individual atoms, because they are so much smaller than its
wavelength. Physical or wave optics is the study of such situations and includes all
wave characteristics.

II.6 ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION.


Ultraviolet means above violet. The electromagnetic frequencies of
ultraviolet radiation (UV) extend upward from violet, the highest-frequency
visible light. Ultraviolet is also produced by atomic and molecular motions and
electronic transitions. The wavelengths of ultraviolet extend from 400nm down to

41
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

about 10nm at its highest frequencies, [6] which overlap with the lowest X-ray
frequencies. It was recognized as early as 1801 by Johann Ritter that the solar
spectrum had an invisible component beyond the violet range. Solar UV radiation
is broadly subdivided into three regions: UV-A (320400 nm), UV-B (290320 nm),
and UV-C (220290 nm), ranked from long to shorter wavelengths (from smaller
to larger energies). Most UV-B and all UV-C is absorbed by ozone ( O3) molecules
in the upper atmosphere. Consequently, 99% of the solar UV radiation reaching
the Earths surface is UV-A.

II.6.1 Benefits of UV Light.


Besides the adverse effects of ultraviolet radiation, there are also benefits of
exposure in nature and uses in technology. Vitamin D production in the skin
(epidermis) results from exposure to UVB radiation, generally from sunlight. A
number of studies indicate lack of vitamin D can result in the development of a
range of cancers (prostate, breast, colon), so a certain amount of UV exposure is
helpful. Lack of vitamin D is also linked to osteoporosis. Exposures (with no
sunscreen) of 10 minutes a day to arms, face, and legs might be sufficient to
provide the accepted dietary level. However, in the winter time north of about
37 latitude, most UVB gets blocked by the atmosphere. UV radiation is used in
the treatment of infantile jaundice and in some skin conditions. It is also used in
sterilizing workspaces and tools, and killing germs in a wide range of applications.
It is also used as an analytical tool to identify substances. When exposed to
ultraviolet, some substances, such as minerals, glow in characteristic visible
wavelengths, a process called fluorescence. So-called black lights emit ultraviolet
to cause posters and clothing to fluoresce in the visible. Ultraviolet is also used in
special microscopes to detect details smaller than those observable with longer-
wavelength visible-light microscopes.[12]

II.7 X RAYS.
In the 1850s, scientists (such as Michael faraday) began experimenting with
high voltage electrical discharges in tubes filled with rarefied gases. It was later
found that these discharges created an invisible, penetrating form of very high

42
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

frequency electromagnetic radiation. This radiation was called x ray, because its
identity and nature were unknown. [6]

II.7.1 A Submicroscopic view of X ray production


X-rays can be created in a high-voltage discharge. They are emitted in the
material struck by electrons in the discharge current. In this section, we are going
to see two mechanisms by which the electrons create X-rays.

II.7.1.1 Production of X rays by an Accelerated Electron in an Evacuated


Tube by a High Positive Voltage.
As shown in figure II.8 below, an electron is accelerated in an evacuated tube by a
high positive voltage. The electron strikes a metal plate (e.g., copper) and
produces X-rays. Since this is a high-voltage discharge, the electron gains
sufficient energy to ionize the atom.

Figure II.8
Artists conception of an electron ionizing an atom followed by the recapture of an
electron and emission of an X-ray.

43
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

An energetic electron strikes an atom and knocks an electron out of one of the
orbits closest to the nucleus. Later, the atom captures another electron, and the
energy released by its fall into a low orbit generates a high-energy EM wave called
an X-ray.

In the case shown, an inner-shell electron (one in an orbit relatively close to and
tightly bound to the nucleus) is ejected. A short time later, another electron is
captured and falls into the orbit in a single great plunge. The energy released by
this fall is given to an EM wave known as an X-ray. Since the orbits of the atom are
unique to the type of atom, the energy of the X-ray is characteristic of the atom,
hence the name characteristic X-ray.

II.7.1.2 Production of X rays by an Energetic Electron Striking a Metal.


As illustrated in Figure II.9, the electron interacts with charges in the material
as it penetrates. These collisions transfer kinetic energy from the electron to the
electrons and atoms in the material. A loss of kinetic energy implies acceleration,
in this case decreasing the electrons velocity. Whenever a charge is accelerated,
it radiates EM waves. Given the high energy of the electron, these EM waves can
have high energy. We call them X-rays. Since the process is random, a broad
spectrum of X-ray energy is emitted that is more characteristic of the electron
energy than the type of material the electron encounters. Such EM radiation is
called bremsstrahlung (German for braking radiation).[12]

44
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

Figure II.9
Artists conception of an electron being slowed by collisions in a material and
emitting X-ray radiation. This energetic electron makes numerous collisions with
electrons and atoms in a material it penetrates. An accelerated charge radiates
EM waves, a second method by which X-rays are created.

II.7.2 Some Uses of X rays.


The widest use of X-rays is for imaging objects that are opaque to visible
light, such as the human body or aircraft parts. In humans, the risk of cell damage
is weighed carefully against the benefit of the diagnostic information obtained.
However, questions have risen in recent years as to accidental overexposure of
some people during CT scansa mistake at least in part due to poor monitoring
of radiation dose. The ability of X-rays to penetrate matter depends on density,
and so an X-ray image can reveal very detailed density information. Figure II.10
shows an example of the simplest type of X-ray image, an X-ray shadow on film.

45
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

Figure II.10: X-ray image of the chest.


This shadow X-ray image shows many interesting features, such as
artificial heart valves, a pacemaker, and the wires used to close
the sternum. (credit: P. P. Urone)

The use of X-ray technology in medicine is called radiologyan established


and relatively cheap tool in comparison to more sophisticated technologies.
Consequently, X-rays are widely available and used extensively in medical
diagnostics. During World War I, mobile X-ray units,
advocated by Madame Marie Curie, were used to diagnose soldiers. Because they
can have wavelengths less than 0.01 nm, X-rays can be scattered (a process called
X-ray diffraction) to detect the shape of molecules and the structure of crystals. X-
ray diffraction was crucial to Crick, Watson, and Wilkins in the determination of
the shape of the double-helix DNA molecule. X-rays are also used as a precise tool
for trace-metal analysis in X-ray induced fluorescence, in which the energy of the
X-ray emissions are related to the specific types of elements and amounts of
materials present.

46
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

II.8 Gamma Rays ( rays).


Soon after nuclear radioactivity was first detected in 1896, it was found that at
least three distinct types of radiation were being emitted. The most penetrating
nuclear radiation was called a gamma ray ( - ray) (again a name given because its
identity and character were unknown), and it was later found to be an extremely
high frequency electromagnetic wave. In fact, rays are any electromagnetic
radiation emitted by a nucleus. This can be from natural nuclear decay or induced
nuclear processes in nuclear reactors and weapons. The lower end of the -ray
frequency range overlaps the upper end of the X-ray range, but rays can have
the highest frequency of any electromagnetic radiation. Gamma rays have
characteristics identical to X-rays of the same frequencythey differ only in
source. At higher frequencies, rays are more penetrating and more damaging to
living tissue. They have many of the same uses as X-rays, including cancer
therapy. Gamma radiation from radioactive materials is used in nuclear medicine.
Figure II.11 shows a medical image based on rays. Food spoilage can be
greatly inhibited by exposing it to large doses of radiation, thereby obliterating
responsible microorganisms. Damage to food cells through irradiation occurs as
well, and the long-term hazards of consuming radiation preserved food are
unknown and controversial for some groups. Both X-ray and -ray technologies
are also used in scanning luggage at airports.

47
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

Figure II.11: Gamma ray image.


This is an image of the rays emitted by nuclei in a compound that is
concentrated in the bones and eliminated through the kidneys. Bone cancer is
evidenced by nonuniform concentration in similar structures. For example, some
ribs are darker than others. (Credit: P . P. Urone)

II.9 CONCLUSION.
In this chapter, weve seen the various types of electromagnetic waves and how
each of them can be produced. These waves, that is; radio and TV waves,
microwaves, infrared radiations, visible light, ultraviolet radiations, x-rays, and
gamma rays are shown on the electromagnetic spectrum (figure II.1) and have
some common characteristics which are;

48
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

1. They can all travel through a vacuum in a straight line with speed c 3.0 x
108m/s.
2. They all obey the wave equation; that is, v = f x , where, v = speed of the
wave, f = frequency, = wavelength
3. They all obey the inverse square law ( ). Where the intensity of
the radiation and r is the distance separating the point source emitting the
radiation and the detector.
4. They are electric and magnetic in nature.
5. They carry energy from one place to another; hence, they are progressive
transverse waves.
In the next chapter were going to see some applications of the above
electromagnetic waves in telecommunications.[13]

49
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

CHAPTER THREE

APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES IN


TELECOMMUNICATIONS.
III.1 INTRODUCTION.
In this chapter, we are going to see some important applications of
electromagnetic waves in telecommunications. These include; radio and TV waves
communications, microwaves communications, wireless infrared and visible light
communications. These applications of electromagnetic waves have greatly
enhanced technology since the exchange of information among researchers has
been made extremely easier compared to the primitive snail pace method of
communication (that is, using letter writing to send information from one place to
another).

III.2 RADIO AND TV WAVES COMMUNICATIONS.


Here, we discuss some importance of radio (AM and FM) and TV waves in
telecommunications, and the various occasions in which each of these waves is
necessary. Before that, just think this out a little: suppose you and your family are
in the sitting room during the evening watching TV (may be a movie series
through MY TV AFRICA). Perhaps, you may think that only the waves of from MY
TV AFRICAs station are available in your room, but this is not the case because,
without your knowledge, there are thousands of different types of
electromagnetic waves (of different frequencies) crossing your room. As a matter
of fact, the waves of other TV channels and FM waves to your radio broadcasting
CRTV, are also involved. Do you know why you are able to receive just the waves
of MY TV AFRICA and watch your series conveniently? Its just because the
antenna of your TV is able to capture just the frequencies corresponding to the
MY TV AFRICA waves when tuned to it.

50
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

III.2.1 AM Radio Waves Communications.


AM (Amplitude Modulation) radio waves are used to carry commercial
radio signals in the frequency range from 540kHz to 1600kHz. Since this deals
with low frequencies (long wavelengths), AM waves are used for long distance
communications.[8] This is because, the frequencies of these waves are lower
than the plasma frequency of the ionosphere and this will cause the waves to
penetrate less into the ionosphere and thus, most of the waves will be reflected
back to other parts of the earths surface far away from the station and thus can
be received widely. BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation) is an example of a
radio station that operates on AM waves.

Extremely low frequency (ELF) radio waves of about 1kHz are used to
communicate with submerged submarines. The ability of radio waves to
penetrate salt water is related to their wavelength (much like ultrasound
penetrating tissue)the longer the wavelength, the farther they penetrate. Since
salt water is a good conductor, radio waves are strongly absorbed by is, and very
long wavelengths are needed to reach a submarine under the surface. [3]

III.2.2 FM Radio Waves Communications.


FM (Frequency Modulation) radio waves are used to carry commercial
radio signals in the frequency range from 88MHz to 108MHz. Since this deals with
high frequencies (short wavelengths), FM waves are used for short distance
communications.[8] This is because, the frequencies of the waves are higher than
the plasma frequency of the ionosphere: this gives the waves the ability to
penetrate the ionosphere deeply and most of the signals are lost in space. Local
radio stations such as CHARIOT FM (operating at 93.5MHz), CHRISTIAN
BROADCASTING SERVICE (CBS) (operating at 95.3 MHz), are radio stations
operating on FM over short distances (around the neighborhood of Buea-
Cameroon).

III.2.3 TV Waves Communications.


TV (Television) waves are used to transmit both audio (FM) and video (AM)
signals. These waves carry a great deal of visual as well as audio information. Each
TV channel requires a larger range of frequencies than simple radio transmission

51
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

(54MHz to 88MHz and 174MHz to 222MHz).[8] TV waves enable the images of


those in the station to be seen and this makes communication enhanced. CABLE
NEWS NETWORK (CNN), AFRICA MAGIC, CAMEROON RADIO TELEVISION (CRTV),
SUPERSPORTS, are some examples of TV channels.

III.3 MICROWAVES COMMUNICATIONS.


As discussed in section II.3 in the previous chapter, microwaves have
frequencies ranging from 109Hz to 1012Hz (higher than that of radio waves).
Microwaves have many applications discussed in section II.3.1. However,
microwaves have two important technologies as far as telecommunications is
concerned. These technologies are:

1. Radar: The term radar stands for radio detection and ranging. Radar
came into wide use during World War II (1939 1945) as a way of detecting
aircraft and ships from distance and estimating their locations. Radar works
by transmitting microwaves, receiving reflections of the waves from objects
the waves strike, and converting these patterns into visual images on a
screen. Today, radar technology is used to control air traffic at airports,
analyze weather conditions and measure the speed of a moving vehicle.[7]
2. Cell Phones: A cell phone is actually a radio transmitter and receiver that
uses microwaves. Cell phones depend on an overlapping network of cells,
or areas of land several kilometers in diameter. Each cell has at its center a
tower that sends and receives microwave signals. The tower connects cell
phones inside the cell to each other or to the regular wire based
telephone system. These two connecting paths are shown in the figure
below.[7]

52
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

Figure III.1: Communication between cell phones. (Source: [7])

III.4 WIRELESS INFRARED COMMUNICATIONS.


Infrared Wireless Communication (IrWC) refers to the use of free space
propagation of light waves in the near infrared band as a transmission medium for
communication. The communication can be between one portable
communication device and another or between a portable device and a tethered
device called access point or base station. Typical portable devices include laptop
computers, personal digital assistants, and portable telephones, while the base
stations are usually connected to a computer with other networked
connections.[1]

Wireless infrared communication systems can be characterized by the


application for which they are designed or by the link type, as described below.

The primary commercial applications are as follows;

1) Short-term cable-less connectivity for information exchange (business


cards, schedules, file sharing) between two users. The primary example is
IrDA (Infrared data Associations) systems.[1]

53
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

2) Wireless local area networks (WLANS) provide network connectivity inside


buildings. This can either be an extension of existing LANS to facilitate
mobility, or to establish ad hoc networks where there is no LAN. The
primary example is IEE 802.11 standard.[1]
3) Building-to-building connections for high-speed network access or
metropolitan or campus-area networks. [1]
4) Wireless input and control devices, such as wireless mice, remote controls,
wireless game controllers, and remote electronic keys.[1]

III.5 VISIBLE LIGHT COMMUNICATIONS (VLC).


Recent advancements in Solid State Lighting (SSL) have triggered
research in the domain of Visible Light Communication (VLC) which enables
us to use Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) for illumination as well as low cost, high
speed, power efficient and secure data communication.[4] VLC technology is
considered to be a green technology which helps in the reduction of
hazardous gases emission.
VLC is basically a short range optical wireless communication using
LEDs for illumination and communication simultaneously. LEDs will be the
future of modern lighting system as they enjoy many advantages over
conventional lighting devices such as Mean Time before Failure (MTBF), high
lighting efficiency, specific spectrum and environmental friendliness.[4] Data
transmission in VLC is done by changing the light intensity Change in amplitude
is so small for a naked human eye that it is un-noticeable. LED can be
modulated at higher speeds which make it a suitable candidate for data
transmission. Right choice of modulation scheme, selection of line coding
scheme, use of equalizer at transmitter and receiver can further improve the
performance of LED.

Data transmission using infrared (IR), Wireless Communication (IrWC),


ultraviolet Wireless Communication, VLC, are optical wireless communications
(OWCs). OWCs have certain advantages over radio wave communications. In the
following subsection, I present some of these advantages.

54
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

III.6 ADVANTAGES OF OWCs OVER RADIO WAVES COMMUNICATIONS.


OWC enjoys advantages over Radio Frequency (RF). Disorders in the
immunity system, neurological effects and behavior effects are linked with
Radio Frequency (RF) radiations.[1] IR is also regulated by eye safety
standards and visible light cannot be increased above the level that is
comfortable for general lighting however these thresholds are lenient as
compared to RF. Optical wireless communication signals do not interfere in
spite of the large bandwidth available i.e. 380nm to 780 nm which is
virtually unlimited free spectrum unlike radio frequency. There is no
electromagnetic interference with other devices as well. Light waves cannot
pass through concrete or solid structures thus benefit from an inbuilt secure
transmission of information in physical layer. Co-channel interference is an
issue in radio waves and also a source of noise. Concept of co or adjacent
channel interference is inexistent in VLC. However an ambient light source
introduces noise in the system. From the above mentioned discussion, we can
say that optical wireless communication networks are the need of the hour
and can provide broadband information to fixed and mobile users in small
indoor vicinity in addition to its deployment in outdoor environment.[1]

III.7 CONCLUSION.
In this chapter, we have seen some of the applications of electromagnetic
waves in telecommunications. That is, summarily, weve seen how AM radio
waves are used in long distance communications, FM radio waves are used in
short distance communications, TV waves are used in both audio and video
signals. Microwaves are used in radar and cell phone communications. Infrared
radiation is used in wireless communications especially WLANs (wireless area
networks). Visible light is used in VLC (visible light communication) which use LEDs
(light emitting diodes) for illumination and communication simultaneously. And
lastly weve seen some advantages of the optical wireless communications
(OWCs) over radio waves communications.

55
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

GENERAL CONCLUSION.
It has been of course a great deal since so far, weve discussed the
electromagnetic waves, beginning from the brief history of electromagnetic
waves, later on the derivation of the Maxwells Equations which, in their
differential form read

) . = /, ) = .
) . = 0, ) = +
We went on to see some generalities of electromagnetic waves in chapter one
and then in chapter two, we saw the electromagnetic spectrum and each of the
electromagnetic waves in the spectrum was discussed; that is, how they are
produced, some general uses , and their effects on the environment. And finally,
in chapter three, we then saw finally, some applications of electromagnetic waves
in telecommunications.
From the above Knowledge, we can really conclude that if the study of
electromagnetic waves is taken deeper, and more researches are carried out so
that some hidden features of electromagnetic waves can be discovered, the
better technologies will evolve as far as electromagnetic waves communication is
concerned.

56
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A: MATHEMATICAL REVIEW.

A.1 VECTOR ANALYSIS.


A vector A, in the Cartesian coordinate system can be represented in one
dimension (1-D) as

A = Ax (A.1.1)

Where is a unit vector along the x-axis and Ax is the component of A in the x-
direction. Similarly, in 2-D, the same vector A can be represented as

A = Ax + Ay (A.1.2)

And in 3-D, we have

A = Ax + Ay + Az (A.1.2)

In spherical coordinates, the vector A can be represented in terms of r, ,


and as

A = rsincos + rsinsin + rcos (A.1.3)

Where 0 is the radial component of the vector, 0 < < is the polar angle
and 0 < < 2 is the Azimutal angle. Therefore, in the spherical coordinate
system, the components of A are; Ar = rsincos , A = rsinsin , and =
rcos

57
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

Partial Derivatives.
The partial derivative of the vector A above in Cartesian coordinates
in 3-D with respect to x is , with respect to y is , and with

respect to z is .

Divergence and Curl.


The divergence of the vector A above is

. = + + (A.1.4)
Where the quantity
= + + (A.1.5)
Is the gradient operator.

The curl of A is given by the determinant

= (A.1.6)

A.2 Some Useful Theorems.

Green Orthogratzski Theorem.


The Green - Orthogratzski theorem or the fundamental theorem of
Divergence states that the integral of the divergence of a vector
function A, over a volume, is equal to the value of the vector function
at the surface that bounds the volume[10]. That is,

. = . (A.2.1)

Where is the volume element and is the element of area.

58
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

Stokes Theorem.
The Stokes theorem or the fundamental theorem of curls states that
the integral of the curl of a vector function A over a patch of a
surface, is equal to the value of the function at the perimeter of the
patch. That is,

. = . (A.2.2)

Where is the line element. [10]

APPENDIX B: SOME USEFUL EQUATIONS AND FORMULAE

B.1 Poissons Equation and Laplaces Equation.


First, we note that, the electric field E is equal to negative the
gradient of a scalar potential V. That is,

E=- V (B.1.1)

Now, in terms of V, the equation . = and = becomes . ( V) = ,


thus,

V=- (B.1.2)

Equation (B.1.2) is known as the Poissons Equation.

In regions where there is no free charge, = 0, Poissons equation reduces to

V = 0 (B.1.3)

Equation (B.1.3) is known as the Laplaces equation.[10]

59
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] Wireless Infrared Communications by Jeffrey B. Carruthers Department of
Electrical and Computer Engineering Boston University, Boston, MA 02215 USA,
pp. 1.

[2] D. Lee, J. Kahn, and M. Audeh, \Trellis-coded pulse position modulation for
indoor wireless infrared communications," IEEE Transactions on Communications,
pp. 1080,1087, Sept. 1997.

[3] Radio Communications in the Digital Age, Volume 1, HF TECHNOLOGY; Second


Edition: October 2005 Harris Corporation 2005. All rights reserved. Harris
assured communications Printed in USA 10/05 R.O. 10K B1006A, pp. 6, 8, 10,
12.

[4] Visible Light Communication: Opportunities, Challenges and Channel; Models


M. Saadi1*, L. Wattisuttikulkij2, Y. Zhao3, P. Sangwongngam4 Published online: 18
February, 2013 Vol. 2, No. 1, 2013. Center for Natural Sciences & Engineering
Research (CNSER), IJEI. All rights reserved, pp. 1, 2 ,3.

[5] INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRODYNAMICS Third Edition, David Jeffrey Griffiths;


Reed College. 1999, 1989, 1981 by Prentice Hall Inc, Upper Saddle River, New
Jersey 07458, pp. 306, 321, 323, 326, 327, 333, 368 407.

[6] PHYSICS FOR SCIENTISTS AND ENGINNERS 6th Edition, by Raymond A. Serway
and John W. Jewett, Jr. Thomson Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved, pp. 1080,
1081.

[7] www.effinghamschools.com

[8] Schetgen, Robert (Ed.) (2005). The ARRL Handbook for Radio Communication.
Newington, Conn.: Amateur Radio Relay League.

[9] http://en.m.wikipedia.org

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS.

[10] Mathematical Methods for Physics and Engineering Third Edition K.F. RILEY,
M.P. HOBSON and S.J. BENCE. Cambridge University press Cambridge, New York,
Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, and So Paulo, pp. 437 454.

[11] MAXWELLS EQUATIONS AND THE PRINCIPLES OF ELECTROMAGNETISM by


RICHARD FITZPATRICK, PH.D. University of Texas at Austin Infinity Science Press
LLC Hingham, Massachusetts New Delhi, pp. 149, 150.

[12] ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS AND WAVES, Including Electric Circuits. By; Paul
Lorrain University of Montral and McGill University, Dale R. Corson Cornell
University, Francois Lorrain. W.H Freeman and company New York, pp. 594
645.

[13] M. Nelkon & R. Parker, Advanced Level Physics, Third Edition With SI Units
Heinemann Educational Books Ltd, LONDON EDINBURGH MELBOURNE TORONTO,
SINGAPORE JOHANNESBURG ACKLAND, IBADAN HONG KONG NAIROBI, NEW
DELHI, pp. 980 989.

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