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 RR > Reservoir Rock
1.4- Reservoir Rock
Sedimentary Rock Cycle, Rock Types, Igneous and Metamorphic rocks,
sedimentary rocks, Clastics, Carbonates, Porosity and Permeability,
Capillary Pressure

Dr. M. Watfa


 

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1.4 : Reservoir Rock
Sedimentary Rock Cycle

Source Rocks
Igneous Metamorphic Sedimentary
Weathering Sedimentary
Mechanical and Chemical Rock
Process
Deposition
Clastics Carbonates Evaporites
Compaction Dissolution Precipitation
Diagenesis

Sedimentary Rock Layers

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1.4 : Reservoir Rock
Sedimentary Rock Cycle

The start and end of all rocks is the

magma in the mantle.
This is cooled to create igneous rocks.
These can be broken down into
sediments.
The sediments are turned into
sedimentary rocks.
These can be buried deeper with heat
and pressure, turning into metamorphic
rocks.
If these are then heated we return to
the magma.
Inside this major cycle are sub-cycles.
Igneous rocks can be heated to give
metamorphic rocks.
Any rocks can be broken into
sediments to give sedimentary rocks.

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1.4 : Reservoir Rock
Sedimentary Rock Cycle

Sedimentary Rock Types- Relative abundance

Rocks and Rock

Types:
Sedimentary
Characteristics
This chart shows the
relative abundance of
most sedimentary
rocks.

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1.4 : Reservoir Rock
World Oil Reserves

130 billions barrels of oil

300 billions barrels of oil

Carbonate
Fraction
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1.4 : Reservoir Rock
Rock Types
Rocks and Rock Types:
There are three main types of rock which
are classified as:
igneous,
metamorphic
sedimentary
Igneous rocks: Formed from molten
material deep in the earths crust. This
includes granite
Metamorphic rocks- Modified by high
pressure and temperature, such as
gneiss.
Igneous and metamorphic rocks are
called basement rocks. Only when highly
fractured can these rocks serve as a
reservoir.
Sedimentary Rocks: Eroded,
transported and deposited.
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1.4 : Reservoir Rock
Rock Types
Sedimentary Rocks
These are the most important for the oil
industry as it contains most of the source
rocks and cap rocks and virtually all
reservoirs.
Sedimentary rocks come from the debris of
older rocks and are split into two categories
Clastic
and Non-Clastic.
Clastic rocks - formed from the materials of
older rocks by the actions of erosion,
transportation and deposition.
Non-Clastic rocks - Formed from chemical or
biological origin and then deposition.
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1.4 : Reservoir Rock
Rock Types

Rock Types: Sedimentary

Clastic
Boulders/Cobbles, Granules(>2mm)
Sand (0.06 2.0 mm)
Silt (0.004 0.04 mm)
Clay (<0.004 mm)
Carbonate
Limestone / Dolomite
Evaporite
Salt / Gypsum
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1.4 : Reservoir Rock
Rock Types
Sedimentary Rocks-
Depositional Environments:
Sedimentations
Sediments settle to the
bottom of the sedimentary
basin.
As the sediments
accumulate the
temperature and
pressure increase
This process expels water
from the sediments.

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1.4 : Reservoir Rock
Igneous & Metamorphic Rocks

Igneous Rocks
Comprise 95% of the Earth's
crust.
Originated from the
Granite
solidification of molten material
from deep inside the Earth.
There are two types:
Volcanic - glassy in texture
due to fast cooling.
Plutonic - slow-cooling,
crystalline rocks.
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1.4 : Reservoir Rock
Igneous & Metamorphic Rocks

Igneous Rocks and

Reservoirs
Igneous rocks can be part of
reservoirs.
Oil could migrate up due to
Granite geometric location
Fractured granites form
reservoirs in some parts of the
world.
Volcanic tuffs are mixed with
sand in some reservoirs.

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1.4 : Reservoir Rock
Igneous & Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic Rocks are formed by
the action of temperature and / or
pressure on sedimentary or
Schist
igneous rocks.
Examples of Metamorphic Rocks
Marble: formed from
limestone
Hornfels: from shale or tuff
Gneiss (pronounced- NICE):
similar to granite but formed
Gneiss by metamorphosis
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1.4 : Reservoir Rock
Clastics

Consist largely of quartz (silicon

oxide SiO2)
Clastic rocks formed from rock
debris
Sand grains cemented to form
rock
Commonly contain other silicate
minerals: clays, micas,
feldspars
Quartz has low reactivity due to
very low solubility in brine

Ref: T. Jones / SCR

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Clastics

Clastic Depositional
Environments
Alluvial Fan
Lacustrine
Eolian
Sandstone Fluvial
Delta
Shelf
Marine
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1.4 : Reservoir Rock
Clastics

Grain-Size Sorting in Sandstone

Very Well Well Moderately Poorly Very Poorly

Sorted Sorted Sorted Sorted Sorted

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1.4 : Reservoir Rock
Clastics
NMR and FMI in Sandstone

X100-x110: Shaly interval. Low

T2 and hence small pores.
X110-x120: mainly clean
sandstone with small shale as
shown by small T2 values.
X120-x140: FMI shows thin
shale streaks. NMR shows more
low values of T2 confirming the
presence of shale. This is also
confirmed by the high resolution
NMR spikes on the FFV and
BFV.
X140-TD: Tight formation with
low T2 and small pores.

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Carbonates

Carbonates encompass limestones

(largely calcite CaCO3) and
dolomites (largely CaMg(CO3)2 )
Formed by carbonate precipitation
and aggregation of animal shells
Often associated with evaporite
minerals
High reactivity due to relatively high
solubility in brines (0.15 grams/litre in
1 molar sodium chloride solution
Wide range of pore sizes, from vugs
(~ cm) to micropores (< 1 mm)
Ref: T. Jones / SCR

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Carbonates

Limestone
Carbonates form a large
proportion of all permeable
sedimentary rocks ( 14%).
They consist of:
Limestone.
Dolomite Dolomite.
Carbonates usually have an
irregular pore structure.
Often, a formation has a mixture
of Limestone and dolomite
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1.4 : Reservoir Rock
Carbonates

Carbonate Types
Chalk is a special form of limestone Limestone Ca CO3
and is formed from the skeletons of
small creatures (cocoliths). Dolomite Ca CO3 Mg CO3
Dolomite is formed by the replacement Evaporites such as Salt (NaCl) and
of some of the calcium by a lesser Anhydrite (CaSO4) can also form in
volume of magnesium in limestone. these environments.
Magnesium is smaller than calcium, A dolomite is formed when one
hence the matrix becomes smaller magnesium ( Mg) molecule replaces a
and more porosity is created. Calcium (Ca) molecule

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1.4 : Reservoir Rock
Carbonates
Carbonate Porosity - Example

Moldic
Pores
Due to dissolution
Dolomite and collapse of ooids
(allochemical particles)

Moldic Isolated pores

Pore
Low effective porosity

Calcite Low permeability

Blue areas are pores.
Thin section micrograph - plane-polarized light
Smackover Formation, Alabama (Photograph by D.C. Kopaska-Merkel)

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1.4 : Reservoir Rock
Porosity and Permeability

Sedimentary Rock Characteristics

Porosity
The percentage of pore volume or void space
that can contain fluids
Permeability
The measure of how easily fluid moves through
a rock, typically measured in Darcies or
millidarcies
Sorting
Range of sedimentary grain sizes that occurs in
sedimentary rock
Matrix (lithology) - major constituent of the rock

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1.4 : Reservoir Rock
Porosity and Permeability

Porosity in sandstones: Grain Size

A rock can be made up of small grains
or large grains but have the same
porosity.
Porosity depends on grain packing, not
the grain size.
In a clastic rock the grain size ( same
size grains ) does not affect the
porosity.
A sand, a silt and a shale can have the
same porosity .
Differences come in permeability where
the grain size has a direct effect, large
Different grain size- same porosity grains meaning higher permeability.
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1.4 : Reservoir Rock
Porosity and Permeability

Porosity in Carbonates: Diagenesis and secondary porosity

The environment can also involve
subsequent alterations of the rock
such as Chemical changes.
Diagenesis is the chemical alteration
of a rock after burial.
An example is the replacement of
some of the calcium atoms in
limestone by magnesium to form
dolomite.
Mechanical changes - fracturing in a
tectonically-active region.

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1.4 : Reservoir Rock
Porosity and Permeability

Porosity in Carbonates: Fractures

Fractures are caused when a
rigid rock is strained beyond its
elastic limit - it cracks.
The forces causing it to break
Fractures are in a constant direction,
hence all the fractures are also
aligned.
Fractures are an important
source of permeability in low
porosity carbonate reservoirs.

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1.4 : Reservoir Rock
Porosity and Permeability

Porosity in Carbonates: Fractures

Vugs are defined as non-

connected pore space.
They do not contribute to the
producible fluid total.
Vugs are caused by the
dissolution of soluble material
such as shell fragments after
the rock has been formed.
They usually have irregular
shapes.
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1.4 : Reservoir Rock
Porosity and Permeability

Permeability Definition
Parameters
Pore Area: A
K = permeability, in Darcies.
L = length of the section of rock,
P2 in centimeters.
L Q = flow rate in centimeters /
P1 sec.
P1, P2 = pressures in bars.
K = Q. . L / { A . ( P1 - P2 ) } A = Pore area, in cm2.
= viscosity in centipoise.

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1.4 : Reservoir Rock
Porosity and Permeability

Production rate
Radial Flow Rate Radial flow rate is most important
qo= 7.08 ko h (Pr Pw) Require values for the following
Bo ln (re / rw) ko = Permeability
h = Net Pay
re
Pe = Reservoir
Pw = Bottom hole pressure
rw = Fluid viscosity
Bo = Formation volume factor
re/rw = Drainage & wellbore radii
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1.4 : Reservoir Rock
Porosity and Permeability

Permeability Definition
Permeability and Rocks
In formations with large grains,
the permeability is high and the
flow rate larger.
In a rock with small grains the
permeability is less and the flow
lower.
Grain size has no bearing on
porosity, but has a large effect
on permeability.

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1.4 : Reservoir Rock
Porosity and Permeability

1 mm

1.5 mm Marbles
( Beach Sand)
5 mm Marbles

Same porosity 25 %
> 25 Darcy >5 Darcy 500 m-Darcy
10cm Diameter cup

50 m-Darcy 10 m-Darcy
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1.4 : Reservoir Rock
Capillary Pressure

Surface tensions between some common fluids and air at 20 C

Interfacial tension between water
Water 72.6 dynes/cm
and oil at 20 C 30 dynes/cm
Benzene 28.9 dynes/cm Interfacial tension between a liquid
Cyclohexane 25.3 dynes/cm and its vapor decreases with
temperature increase until at the
critical point, surface tension is
zero and differentiation between
fluid/vapor phases ceases to exist.

Contact Angle as a
measure of wettability

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1.4 : Reservoir Rock
Capillary Pressure

Contact Angle as a Measure of Wetting

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Capillary Pressure

Fluid Rise in a Capillary

Capillary Rise
Tube Bundle
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Capillary Pressure

Shape of the Capillary Pressure vs.

Saturation Curve

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Capillary Pressure

Shape of
Capillary
Curve
and Grain
Size
Distribution

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