C h e s t I m a g i n g R ev i ew

Jeong and Lee

Pulmonary Tuberculosis

Chest Imaging
Review
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Pulmonary Tuberculosis: Up-to-

Date Imaging and Management
Yeon Joo Jeong1 OBJECTIVE. Pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) is a common worldwide infection and a med-
Kyung Soo Lee 2 ical and social problem causing high mortality and morbidity, especially in developing coun-
tries. The traditional imaging concept of primary and reactivation TB has been recently chal-
Jeong YJ, Lee KS lenged, and radiologic features depend on the level of host immunity rather than the elapsed
time after the infection. We aimed to elaborate the new concept of the diagnosis and treatment
of pulmonary TB, to review the characteristic imaging findings of various forms of pulmo-
nary TB, and to assess the role of CT in the diagnosis and management of pulmonary TB.
CONCLUSION. Fast and more accurate TB testing such as bacterial DNA fingerprint-
ing and whole-blood interferon- assay has been developed. Miliary or disseminated primary
pattern or atypical manifestations of pulmonary TB are common in patients with impaired
immunity. CT plays an important role in the detection of TB in patients in whom the chest
radiograph is normal or inconclusive, in the determination of disease activity, in the detection
of complication, and in the management of TB by providing a roadmap for surgical treatment
planning. PET scans using 18F-FDG or 11C-choline can sometimes help differentiate tubercu-
lous granuloma from lung malignancy.

Keywords: lung CT, lung disease, lung infection,
tuberculosis, pulmonary
DOI:10.2214/AJR.07.3896
Received February 24, 2008; accepted after revision
April 11, 2008.
Supported by the SRC/ERC program of MOST/KOSEF
(grant no. R11-2002-103).
1 including fever, fatigue, weight loss, night
Department of Diagnostic Radiology, Pusan National
University Hospital, Pusan National University School of
Medicine and Medical Research Institute, Pusan, Korea.
2 treated, people with the disease quickly be-
Department of Radiology and Center for Imaging
Science, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan
University School of Medicine, 50, Ilwon-Dong,
Kangnam-Ku, Seoul 135-710, Korea. Address correspon-
dence to K. S. Lee (kyungs.lee@samsung.com).
CME
This article is available for CME credit.
See www.arrs.org for more information.
AJR 2008; 191:834844
0361803X/08/1913834
American Roentgen Ray Society
T
uberculosis (TB) is an airborne
infectious disease caused by My-
cobacterium tuberculosis and is
a major cause of morbidity and
mortality, particularly in developing coun-
tries [13]. In 2005, 8.8 million people devel-
oped active TB and 1.6 million died of the
disease [4]. Most cases occur in Southeast
Asia and Africa.
Patients with active pulmonary TB may be
asymptomatic, have mild or progressive dry
cough, or present with multiple symptoms,
sweats, and a cough that produces bloody
sputum. If TB is detected early and fully
come noninfectious and eventually cured.
However, multidrug-resistant (MDR) and ex-
tensively drug-resistant TB, HIV-associated
TB, and weak health systems are major chal-
lenges. The World Health Organization is
making an effort to dramatically reduce the
burden of TB and to halve TB deaths and
prevalence by 2015, through its Stop TB
Strategy and supporting the Global Plan to
Stop TB [5].
The prompt diagnosis of TB is essential
for community public health infection con-
trol measures as well as for ensuring the ap-
propriate therapy for infected patients. Un-
fortunately, acid-fast bacilli are found in the
sputum in a limited number of patients with
active pulmonary TB [6]. Therefore, the im-
aging diagnosis would provide an appropri-
ate therapy for infected patients before the
definitive diagnosis by the bacteriology. The
aim of this article is to elaborate new con-
cepts in the diagnosis and treatment of pul-
monary TB in the 21st century, to review the
characteristic imaging findings of various
forms of pulmonary TB, and to assess the
role of CT in the diagnosis and management
of pulmonary TB.
Development of Infection and
Pathogenesis
M. tuberculosis is an aerobic, nonmotile,
non-spore-forming rod that is highly resis-
tant to drying, acid, and alcohol. It is trans-
mitted from person to person via droplet nu-
clei containing the organism and is spread
mainly by coughing. A person with active
but untreated TB infects approximately
1015 other people per year. The probability
of transmission from one person to another
depends on the number of infectious droplets

834 AJR:191, September 2008


expelled by a carrier, the duration of exposure,
and the virulence of the M. tuberculosis. The
risk of developing active TB is greatest in pa-
tients with altered host cellular immunity,
including extremes of age, malnutrition, can-
cer, immunosuppressive therapy, HIV infec-
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tion, end-stage renal disease, and diabetes.
TB infection begins when the mycobacte-
ria reach the pulmonary alveoli, where they
invade and replicate within alveolar macro
phages. Inhaled mycobacteria are phagocy-
tized by alveolar macrophages, which interact
with T lymphocytes, resulting in differentia-
tion of macrophages into epithelioid histio-
cytes [7]. Epithelioid histiocytes and lympho-
cytes aggregate into small clusters, resulting
in granulomas. In the granuloma, CD4 T
lymphocytes (effector T cell) secrete cyto
kines, such as interferon-, which activate
macrophages to destroy the bacteria with
which they are infected. CD8 T lymphocytes
(cytotoxic T cell) can also directly kill in-
fected cells [8]. Importantly, bacteria are not
always eliminated from the granuloma, but
can become dormant, resulting in a latent in-
fection. Another feature of human TB granu-
lomas is the development of necrosis in the
center of the tubercles.
The primary site of infection in the lungs is
called the Ghon focus [9]. It either enlarges
as disease progresses or, much more com-
monly, undergoes healing. Healing may re-
sult in a visible scar that may be dense and
contain foci of calcification. During the early
stage of infection, organisms commonly
spread via lymphatic channels to regional hi-
lar and mediastinal lymph nodes and via the
bloodstream to more distant sites in the body.
The combination of the Ghon focus and af-
fected lymph nodes is known as the Ranke
complex. The initial infection is usually clini-
cally silent. In approximately 5% of infected
individuals, immunity is inadequate and clin-
ically active disease develops within 1 year of
infection, a condition known as progressive
primary infection [10]. For most infected in-
dividuals, however, TB remains clinically
and microbiologically latent for many years.
In approximately 5% of the infected popu-
lation, endogenous reactivation of latent in-
fection develops many years after the initial
infection (this has also been called postpri-
mary TB) [10]. The reactivation TB tends to
involve predominantly the apical and posteri-
or segments of the upper lobes and the supe-
rior segments of the lower lobes. This location
is likely due to a combination of relatively
higher oxygen tension and impaired lymphat-
AJR:191, September 2008 835
Pulmonary Tuberculosis
ic drainage in these regions [11]. As distinct
from primary infection site, in which healing
is the rule, reactivation TB tends to prog-
ress. The main abnormalities are progressive
extension of inflammation and necrosis, fre-
quently with development of communication
with the airways and cavity formation. The
endobronchial spread of necrotic material
from a cavity may result in TB infection in
the same or in other lobes. Hematogenous
dissemination may result in miliary TB.
Diagnosis
A definitive diagnosis of TB can only be
made by culturing M. tuberculosis organisms
from a specimen taken from the patient.
However, TB can be a difficult disease to di-
agnose, mainly because of the difficulty in
culturing this slow-growing organism in the
laboratory. A complete evaluation for TB
must include a medical history, a chest radio-
graph, a physical examination, and microbio-
logic smears and cultures. It may also include
a tuberculin skin test and a serologic test.
The treatment of latent TB infection to pre-
vent progression to active disease has been an
essential component of public health efforts
to eliminate TB [12]. Currently, latent infec-
tion is diagnosed in a nonimmunized person
by a tuberculin skin test (TST), which yields
a delayed-hypersensitivity-type response to
purified protein derivatives of M. tuberculo-
sis. However, the TST, which has been used
for years for the diagnosis of latent TB infec-
tion, has many limitations, including false-
positive test results in individuals who were
vaccinated with bacille Calmette-Gurin
(BCG) and in individuals who have infec-
tions not related to M. tuberculosis [13, 14].
Discovery of the role of T lymphocytes
and interferon- in the immune process has
led to the development of an in vitro assay for
cell-mediated immune reactivity to M. tu-
berculosis [15]. Recently, this whole-blood
interferon- assay has been introduced for
the diagnosis of latent TB infection and has
shown a higher diagnostic accuracy than the
TST [13, 16]. These new TB tests are being
developed with the hope of cheap, fast, and
more accurate TB testing. These new tests
use polymerase chain reaction detection of
bacterial DNA and whole-blood interferon-
assay [17]. Individuals with a positive TST or
whole-blood interferon- assay, especially
HIV-infected persons or those who have
chest radiographic or CT findings consistent
with TB, should be considered for treatment
of a latent infection [18].
New Concept of Radiologic
Manifestations of Tuberculosis
Patients who develop disease after initial
exposure are considered to have primary TB,
whereas patients who develop disease as a
result of reactivation of a previous focus of
TB are considered to have reactivation TB.
Traditionally, it was believed that the clini-
cal, pathologic, and radiologic manifesta-
tions of reactivation TB were quite distinct
from those of primary TB. This concept has
been recently challenged on the basis of
DNA fingerprinting.
DNA fingerprint pattern with restriction
fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) anal-
ysis of M. tuberculosis isolates can give clini-
cians an insight into the transmission of TB
[19]. Isolates from patients infected with epi-
demiologically unrelated strains of TB have
different RFLP patterns, whereas those from
patients with epidemiologically linked strains
generally have identical RFLP patterns.
Therefore, clustered cases of TB, defined as
those in which the isolates have identical or
closely related genotypes, have usually been
transmitted recently. In contrast, cases in
which the isolates have distinctive genotypes
generally are a reactivation of infection ac-
quired in the distant past [20, 21].
A recent study based on genotyping M.
tuberculosis isolates with RFLP showed that
the radiographic features are often similar in
patients who apparently have a primary dis-
ease and those who have a reactivation TB
[22, 23]. Therefore, time from acquisition of
infection to the development of clinical dis-
ease does not reliably predict the radiograph-
ic appearance of TB. The only independent
predictor of radiographic appearance may be
integrity of the host immune response;
namely, severely immunocompromised pa-
tients show a tendency to have the primary
form of TB, whereas immunocompetent pa-
tients tend to have the reactivation form [22,
23]. Because this result is preliminary and
most published data are based on the tradi-
tional concept of primary and reactivation
disease, we follow the traditional outline in
this article.
Radiologic Manifestations in
Immunocompetent Hosts
Primary Tuberculosis
The initial parenchymal focus of TB may
enlarge and result in an area of airspace con-
solidation or, more commonly, undergo heal-
ing by transformation of the granulomatous
tissue into mature fibrous tissue. Primary TB
 Jeong and Lee

occurs most commonly in children but is be-

ing seen with increasing frequency in adults
[24]. The most common abnormality in chil-
dren is lymph node enlargement, which is
seen in 9095% of cases [25, 26]. The
lymphadenopathy is usually unilateral and
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located in the hilum or the paratracheal re-

gion. On CT, the enlarged nodes typically
show central low attenuation, which repre-
sents caseous necrosis, and peripheral rim
enhancement, which represents the vascular
rim of the granulomatous inflammatory tis-
sue [27, 28] (Fig. 1).
Airspace consolidation, related to paren-
chymal granulomatous inflammation and A B
usually unilateral, is evident radiographical-
ly in approximately 70% of children with Fig. 1Primary tuberculosis manifesting primarily as lymphadenopathy in 26-year-old woman.
A, Posteroanterior chest radiograph shows right hilar mass (arrow). Note smaller nodule (arrowhead) in right
primary TB [26]. It shows no predilection upper lung zone.
for any particular lung zone [26]. On CT, the B, Contrast-enhanced transverse CT scan (5.0-mm section thickness) obtained at level of basal trunk using
parenchymal consolidation in primary TB is mediastinal window setting shows enlarged right hilar and subcarinal lymph nodes (arrows), central necrotic
low attenuation, and peripheral rim enhancement.
most commonly dense and homogeneous but
may also be patchy, linear, nodular, or mass-
like [29] (Fig. 2).
Pleural effusion is usually unilateral and
on the same side as the primary focus of TB.
The effusion may be large and occur in pa-
tients without evidence of parenchymal dis-
ease on chest radiographs [30].

Reactivation Tuberculosis
The most common radiographic manifes-
tation of reactivation pulmonary TB is focal
or patchy heterogeneous consolidation in-
volving the apical and posterior segments of
the upper lobes and the superior segments of
the lower lobes [29, 31]. Another common
finding is the presence of poorly defined nod-
ules and linear opacities, which are seen in A B
approximately 25% of patients [31]. Cavities,
Fig. 2Primary tuberculosis presenting with consolidation and lymphadenopathy in 21-year-old woman.
the radiologic hallmark of reactivation TB, A, Posteroanterior chest radiograph shows airspace consolidation in right middle lung zone.
are evident radiographically in 2045% of B, Contrast-enhanced transverse CT scan (5.0-mm section thickness) obtained at level of right middle lobar
patients [2931]. In approximately 5% of pa- bronchus using mediastinal window setting shows airspace consolidation in right middle lobe. Note enlarged
tients with reactivation TB, the main mani- right hilar and subcarinal lymph nodes (arrows). Hilar node has necrotic low attenuation.
festation is a tuberculoma, defined as a sharp-
ly marginated round or oval lesion measuring
0.54.0 cm in diameter [29, 31]. Histologi-
cally, the central part of the tuberculoma con-
sists of caseous material and the periphery, of
epithelioid histiocytes and multinucleated gi-
ant cells and a variable amount of collagen.
Satellite nodules around the tuberculoma
may be present in as many as 80% of cases
[32]. Because of active glucose metabolism
caused by active granulomatous inflamma- Fig. 3Tuberculous granulomas in 58-year-old man.
18 F-FDG PET/CT scan shows increased FDG uptake
tion, tuberculomas sometimes have been re-
ported to accumulate 18F-FDG and to cause in noduleswell-defined predominant nodule
(arrow) and surrounding smaller satellite nodules
PET scans to be interpreted as false-positive (arrowheads)in right upper lobe with maximum
for malignancy [33] (Fig. 3). Unlike 18F-FDG standard uptake value of 6.1.

836 AJR:191, September 2008


PET scans, 11C-choline PET scans can help
differentiate between lung cancer and tuber-
culoma [34]. The standard uptake value of
tuberculoma is low in 11C-choline PET scans.
Hilar or mediastinal lymphadenopathy is
uncommon in reactivation TB, being seen in
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approximately 510% of patients [30, 31].
Pleural effusion, typically unilateral, occurs
in 1520% of patients [35].
The most common CT findings of reacti-
vation pulmonary TB are centrilobular small
nodules, branching linear and nodular opaci-
ties (tree-in-bud sign), patchy or lobular ar-
eas of consolidation, and cavitation [24, 36,
37]. The centrilobular small nodules and
tree-in-bud sign reflect the presence of endo-
bronchial spread and are due to the presence
of caseous necrosis and granulomatous in-
flammation filling and surrounding terminal
and respiratory bronchioles and alveolar
ducts [36, 38] (Fig. 4). These tree-in-bud
signs are considered a reliable marker of the
activity of the process [6]. Cavitation is also
a sign of an active disease process and usu-
ally heals as a linear or fibrotic lesion.
Although it is usually accompanied by pa-
renchymal abnormalities, pleural effusion
may be the sole imaging manifestation of
TB. In this particular situation, the determi-
nation of pleural fluid adenosine deaminase
(ADA) level (elevated in TB pleurisy) can be
helpful for the characterization of the pleural
fluid; the ADA assay has a sensitivity of 92%
(95% CI, 9093%) and a specificity of 90%
(8991%) for diagnosing TB pleurisy [39].
New subpleural lung nodules may develop
during medication for TB pleural effusion. It
should not be regarded as treatment failure.
These paradoxical subpleural nodules will
eventually show improvement with contin-
ued medication [40].
Miliary Tuberculosis
Miliary TB refers to widespread dissemi-
nation of TB by hematogenous spread. It oc-
curs in 26% of primary TB and also occurs
somewhat more frequently in reactivation TB
[41]. In the latter situation, miliary TB may be
seen in association with typical parenchymal
changes or may be the only pulmonary abnor-
mality. Each focus of miliary infection results
in local granulomas that, when well devel-
oped, consist of a region of central necrosis
surrounded by a relatively well-delimited rim
of epithelioid histiocytes and fibrous tissue.
The characteristic radiographic and high-
resolution CT findings consist of innumera-
ble, 1- to 3-mm diameter nodules randomly
AJR:191, September 2008 837
Pulmonary Tuberculosis
distributed throughout both lungs [4144]
(Fig. 5). Thickening of interlobular septa
and fine intralobular networks are frequently
evident [37]. Diffuse or localized ground-
glass opacity is sometimes seen, which may
herald acute respiratory distress syndrome
[4345] (Fig. 6).
Airway Tuberculosis
The most common cause of inflammatory
stricture of the bronchus is TB. Tracheobron-
chial TB has been reported in 1020% of all
patients with pulmonary TB [24, 46]. The prin-
cipal CT findings of airway TB are circumfer-
ential wall thickening and luminal narrowing,
A
B C
D E
with involvement of a long segment of the
bronchi [46, 47]. In active disease, the airways
are irregularly narrowed in their lumina and
have thick walls, whereas in fibrotic disease,
the airways are smoothly narrowed and have
thin walls [46, 47]. The left main bronchus is
involved more frequently in fibrotic disease,
whereas both main bronchi are equally in-
volved in active disease [46] (Fig. 7).
Radiologic Manifestations in
Immunocompromised Hosts
Impaired host immunity has been regard-
ed as a predisposing factor in TB. Known
risk factors for development of active TB
Fig. 4Reactivation tuberculosis in 55-year-old man.
A, Anteroposterior chest radiograph shows cavitary
consolidation in right upper lung zone and multiple ill-
defined nodules in both lungs.
B and C, High-resolution CT scans (1.0-mm section
thickness) obtained at levels of aortic arch (B) and
proximal ascending aorta (C) show consolidation and
acinus-sized nodules containing several cavities in
both upper lobes. Note branching nodular and linear
opacities (tree-in-bud signs) (arrows) and centri
lobular small nodules (arrowheads, C) in both lungs.
D, Photograph of gross specimen obtained at
lobectomy from different patient shows multiple foci
of nodules and consolidation that are distinctly white,
consistent with caseous necrosis. Most have nodular
appearance and some appear to be branching (arrows),
suggestive of airway-centered nature of lesions.
E, Photomicrograph of surgical specimen discloses
multiple granulomas, each related to small membra
nous bronchiole (arrows). Some granulomas show
central caseous necrosis (arrowhead). (H and E, 40)
 Jeong and Lee

include conditions that are associated with
defects in cell-mediated immunity, such as
HIV infection; malnutrition; drug and alco-
hol abuse; malignancy; end-stage renal dis-
ease; diabetes mellitus; and corticosteroid
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or other immunosuppressive therapy [48].
Infliximab and etanercept (used in the treat-
ment of Crohns disease and rheumatoid ar-
thritis) are human antibodies against tumor
necrosis factor- (TNF-), which is in-
volved in the host defense against TB
killing of M. tuberculosis by macrophage,
granuloma formation, or apoptosis and pre-
vention of dissemination of infection to
other sites. Active TB may develop soon after

Fig. 5Miliary tuberculosis in 70-year-old man.

A, Posteroanterior chest radiograph shows evenly
distributed, discrete, uniformly sized, millet-sized
nodular opacities in both lungs.
B, High-resolution CT image (1.0-mm section
thickness) at level of right upper lobar bronchus
shows uniform-sized small nodules randomly
distributed throughout both lungs. Note subpleural
and subfissural nodules (arrows).

A B

A B C
Fig. 6Miliary tuberculosis presenting as acute respiratory distress syndrome in 47-year-old man.
A, Posteroanterior chest radiograph shows innumerable millet-sized nodular opacities and ground-glass opacities in both lungs.
B, High-resolution CT image (1.0-mm section thickness) obtained at ventricular level shows randomly distributed small nodules and extensive bilateral ground-glass
opacity. Note interlobular septal (arrows) and intralobular interstitial thickenings in both lungs.
C, Photomicrograph of pathologic specimen obtained with transbronchial lung biopsy discloses granuloma (arrows) in alveolar wall. Diffuse alveolar wall thickening and
intraalveolar fibrin deposition (not shown) suggesting early stage of diffuse alveolar damage were also observed. (H and E, 400)

A B C
Fig. 7Actively caseating bronchial tuberculosis in 42-year-old woman.
A and B, Contrast-enhanced transverse CT scans (5.0-mm section thickness) using mediastinal window setting obtained at levels of thoracic inlet (A) and main bronchi
(B) show luminal narrowing of trachea and proximal left main bronchus and irregular wall thickening. Note lymph nodes (arrows, A) in mediastinum.
C, Bronchoscopy shows narrowed left main bronchial lumen with its mucosa swollen and covered diffusely with whitish cheeselike substance (arrow).

838 AJR:191, September 2008


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A B
A B
C D
the initiation of treatment with such drugs.
Therefore, before prescribing these drugs,
assessment of TB infection risk factors and
a TST or interferon- assay are strongly rec-
ommended to determine the patients latent
TB infection status and the risk of active
disease [49, 50].
TB is a major cause of death among peo-
ple living with HIV infection or AIDS. In
2005, the World Health Organization (WHO)
estimated that 12% of HIV deaths globally
AJR:191, September 2008 839
Pulmonary Tuberculosis
were due to TB and that there were 630,000
new coinfections with TB and HIV [51]. Im-
mune restoration induced by highly active
anti-retroviral therapy (HAART) in devel-
oped countries has considerably improved
the outcome of HIV-positive patients and re-
duced the prevalence of opportunistic infec-
tion and TB in these patients. However, HIV-
associated TB still continues to occur in
countries where HAART is widely used [52].
Furthermore, HAART may result in para-
Fig. 8Paradoxical worsening of tuberculous
lymphadenitis associated with immune reconstitution
inflammatory syndrome in 40-year-old woman with
AIDS.
A, Contrast-enhanced transverse CT scan (5.0-mm
section thickness) using mediastinal window setting
obtained at level of aortic arch just before highly active
antiretroviral therapy, shows multiple enlarged lymph
nodes (arrows) with central necrotic low attenuation in
prevascular and right paratracheal areas. Patients HIV
RNA viral load and CD4 counts were more than 1 million
copies/mL and 35 cells/L, respectively.
B, Follow-up CT image obtained 3 months after A
shows increased extent of necrotic lymph nodes
(arrows). Patients HIV RNA viral load and CD4 counts
at this time were 433 copies/mL and 142 cells/L,
respectively.
Fig. 9Pulmonary tuberculosis with
lymphadenopathy and extrapulmonary involvement
in 42-year-old man with AIDS. His CD4 count was 64
cells/L.
A, Posteroanterior chest radiograph shows multiple
small nodular opacities in both lungs, especially in
upper lung zones.
B, High-resolution CT scan (1.0-mm section
thickness) obtained at level of aortic arch shows
randomly distributed small nodules and interlobular
septal thickenings in both lungs.
C and D, Contrast-enhanced transverse CT scans
(5.0-mm section thickness) using mediastinal window
setting obtained at levels of mandible (C) and thoracic
inlet (D) show enlarged lymph nodes (arrows),
central necrotic low attenuation, and peripheral rim
enhancement in right neck and left axilla.
doxical worsening or TB manifestations in
patients with immune reconstitution inflam-
matory syndrome [53, 54] (Fig. 8).
The radiographic manifestations of HIV-
associated pulmonary TB are thought to be
dependent on the level of immunosuppression
at the time of overt disease [5557]. On CT,
HIV-seropositive patients with a CD4 T lym-
phocyte count < 200/mm3 have a higher prev-
alence of mediastinal or hilar lymphadenopa-
thy, a lower prevalence of cavitation, and often
 Jeong and Lee
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A B C
Fig. 10Pulmonary tuberculosis in 51-year-old man with AIDS. His CD4 count was 4 cells/L.
A, Posteroanterior chest radiograph shows multifocal masslike airspace consolidation in bilateral upper lung zones.
B and C, High-resolution CT scans (1.0-mm section thickness) obtained at levels of left innominate vein (B) and azygos arch (C) show masslike airspace consolidation
with air bronchograms, centrilobular small nodules (arrows, C), and ground-glass opacity in both upper lobes.

Fig. 11Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in 36-year-

old man.
A, Posteroanterior chest radiograph shows multiple
small nodules, patchy consolidation containing
several cavities, and linear opacities in both lungs.
Note decreased volume in right lung and apical
pleural thickening.
B, High-resolution CT scan (1.0-mm section
thickness) obtained at level of left basal trunk shows
consolidation containing several cavities in right
middle lobe and right lower lobe. Note small cavitary
nodule and centrilobular nodules in left upper lobe.
A B

extrapulmonary involvement as compared
with HIV-seropositive patients with a CD4 T
lymphocyte count equal to or 200/mm3 [58]
(Figs. 9 and 10). Miliary or disseminated dis-
ease has also been reported to be associated
with severe immunosuppression [58] (Fig. 9).
Unusual or atypical manifestations of pul-
monary TB are common in patients with im-
paired host immunity. In cases of active pulmo-
nary TB, diabetic and immunocompromised
patients have a higher prevalence of multiple
cavities in a tuberculous lesion and of nonseg-
mental distribution than do patients without
underlying disease [48]. The incidence of TB
in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis
(IPF) is more than four times higher than that
of the general population. Atypical manifesta-
tions such as subpleural nodules or a lobar or
segmental airspace consolidation are com-
mon in patients with IPF, which may mimic
lung cancer or bacterial pneumonia [59]. Pul-
monary TB in patients with systemic lupus
erythematosus (SLE) has a higher incidence
and prevalence because of abnormal function
of alveolar macrophages and exposure to cor-
ticosteroid and cytotoxic drugs. TB in patients
with SLE tends to show radiologic findings of
miliary dissemination, diffuse consolidation,
or primary TB [60].
Radiologic Manifestations of
Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis
Anti-TB drug resistance is a major public
health problem that threatens the success of
global TB control. The major concerns of
drug resistance are fear regarding the spread
of drug-resistant organisms and the ineffec-
tiveness of chemotherapy in patients infected
with the resistant organisms. In addition,
MDR TB is a fatal disease because of the
high mortality rate, depending on the under-
lying diseases, particularly in HIV-infected
patients [61, 62].
Imaging findings of MDR TB do not basi-
cally differ from those of drug-sensitive TB.
However, multiple cavities and findings of
chronicity, such as bronchiectasis and calcified
granulomas, are more common in patients
with MDR TB [63, 64] (Fig. 11). A strong cor-
relation seems to exist between the radiologic
features of MDR TB and the mode of acquisi-
tion of drug-resistance. Patients with primary
drug resistance, who develop MDR TB with-
out a history of anti-TB chemotherapy or a
therapy history of less than 1 month, were
found to present with noncavitary consolida-
tion, pleural effusion, and a primary tubercu-
losis pattern of disease [65]. On the other hand,
those who acquired MDR TB with a chemo-
therapy history of longer than 1 month often
show cavitary consolidations and in general
show a reactivation pattern of the disease.
Extensively-drug-resistant TB is defined
as TB that has evolved resistance to rifampin
and isoniazid, as well as to any member of
the quinolone family and at least one of the
following second-line TB treatments: kana-
mycin, capreomycin, or amikacin [66]. Ex-
tensively-drug-resistant TB is associated

840 AJR:191, September 2008

 Pulmonary Tuberculosis
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A B C
Fig. 12Rasmussen aneurysm in chronic destructive pulmonary tuberculosis in 62-year-old man.
A, Contrast-enhanced transverse CT scan (2.5-mm section thickness) obtained at level of main bronchi using mediastinal window setting shows cavitary consolidation
with air-crescent sign (low-attenuation lesion and surrounding air) (arrow) in left upper lobe.
B, CT scan obtained 15 mm inferior to A shows contrast-enhancing round vascular structure (arrow) in consolidative lesion.
C, Left pulmonary angiogram shows contrast material filling aneurysm (arrow).

with a much higher mortality rate than MDR
TB because of a reduced number of effective
treatment options. The epidemiology and
imaging findings of extensively-drug-resis-
tant TB have not been well studied, but it is
believed that the spread of extensively-drug-
resistant TB is closely associated with a high
prevalence of HIV and poor infection control
[67]. There has been no report on radiologic
findings of extensively-drug-resistant pulmo-
nary TB; but in our experience, the disease
manifests an advanced pattern of primary
TB (extensive consolidation with or without
lymphadenopathy) in AIDS patients and an
advanced pattern of MDR TB (multiple cavi-
tary lesions in consolidative or nodular le-
sions) in non-AIDS patients.
Complications and Sequelae
of Tuberculosis
A variety of thoracic sequelae and compli-
cations from pulmonary TB may occur and
may involve the lungs, airways, vessels, me-
diastinum, pleura, or chest wall [47, 6871]
(Appendix 1, Figs. 12 and 13).
The radiologic manifestations of acute re-
spiratory distress syndrome secondary to TB
include extensive bilateral areas of ground-
glass opacity or consolidation superimposed
on findings of miliary or endobronchial
spread of TB. Multiple cystic lesions may de-
velop in patients recovering from acute re-
spiratory distress syndrome or in patients
with extensive consolidation due to TB [71].
The cystic lesions may resemble pneumato-
celes or bullae, which may resolve over sev-
eral months or persist [71].
Rasmussen aneurysm is a pseudoaneurysm
that results from weakening of the pulmonary
artery wall by adjacent cavitary TB (Fig. 12).
Empyema necessitatis (Fig. 13) results from
leakage of tuberculous empyema through the
parietal pleura and discharge of its contents
into the subcutaneous tissues of the chest wall
or, less commonly, into the pericardium, ver-
tebral column, or esophagus [69].
CT in Tuberculosis
Chest radiographs play a major role in the
screening, diagnosis, and response to treat-
ment of patients with TB. However, the ra-
diographs may be normal or show only mild
or nonspecific findings in patients with active
disease [30]. Common causes of a missed
diagnosis of TB are failure to recognize hilar
and mediastinal lymphadenopathy as a man-
ifestation of primary disease in adults, over-
looking of mild parenchymal abnormalities
in patients with reactivation disease, and
failure to recognize that an upper lobe nod-
ule or mass surrounded by small nodular
opacities or scarring may represent TB [30].
CT is more sensitive than chest radiography
in the detection and characterization of both
subtle localized or disseminated parenchymal
disease and mediastinal lymphadenopathy [37,
42, 72, 73]. The radiographic diagnosis of TB
is initially correct in only 49% of all cas-
es34% for the diagnosis of primary TB and
59% for the diagnosis of reactivation TB [30].
With CT, the diagnosis of pulmonary TB is
correct in 91% of patients and TB is correctly
excluded in 76% of patients [74]. CT and high-
resolution CT are particularly helpful in the
detection of small foci of cavitation in areas of
confluent pneumonia and in areas of dense
nodularity and scarring [37]. In one study of 41
patients with active TB [37], high-resolution
CT showed cavities in 58%, whereas chest ra-
diographs showed cavities in only 22%.
In addition to the diagnosis of TB, high-
resolution CT is useful in determining disease
activity. A tentative diagnosis of active TB on
CT could be based on the pattern of parenchy-
mal abnormalities and the presence of cavita-
tion or evidence of endobronchial spread, such
as the presence of centrilobular nodules or a
tree-in-bud pattern. In the series by Lee et al.
[74], 80% of patients with active disease and
89% of those with inactive disease were cor-
rectly differentiated on high-resolution CT.
CT is also helpful in the evaluation of
pleural complications, including tuberculous
effusion, empyema, and bronchopleural fis-
tula, and may show pleural disease that is not
evident on chest radiography [75].
In addition to its major role in the diagno-
sis of TB, CT plays an important role in the
management of TB, especially in complicat-
ed or MDR TB. MDR TB often shows mul-
tiple cavities, which lead to the expectoration
of a large number of bacilli and endobron-
chial spread to previously unaffected areas
of the lung. Limited drug penetration into the
cavities that harbor large numbers of myco-

AJR:191, September 2008 841

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APPENDIX 1: Complications and Sequelae of Thoracic Tuberculosis

Parenchymal complications
Acute respiratory distress syndrome
Extensive lung destruction and cicatrization
Multiple cystic lung lesions
Aspergilloma

Airway complications
Bronchiectasis
Bronchiolitis obliterans
Tracheobronchial stenosis
Broncholithiasis

Vascular complications
Pulmonary and bronchial arteritis and thrombosis
Bronchial artery pseudoaneurysm
Pulmonary artery pseudoaneurysm (Rasmussen aneurysm)

Mediastinal complications
Esophagomediastinal fistula
Esophagobronchial fistula
Fibrosing mediastinitis
Constrictive pericarditis

Pleural complications
Pleurisy
Empyema
Fibrothorax
Pneumothorax
Bronchopleural fistula

Chest wall complications

Osteomyelitis
Chondritis
Spondylitis
Empyema necessitatis

F O R YO U R I N F O R M AT I O N
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844 AJR:191, September 2008

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