Boiler Technology An Overview

Biomass is considered as the oldest form of renewable energy and the same has been used
for numerous years. However, the increase in fossil fuels has resulted in the relative share of
biomass getting decreased and also its use becoming low when compared to the past. The global
share of biomass energy is 13% amongst the primary sources of energy.

There are a plethora of methods that are in use for converting biomass energy into
electricity. However, the simplest form of conversion is to burn the biomass in a furnace, eventually
exploiting the eventual heat that has been generated for production of steam in a boiler. The steam
thus generated is later used to drive a steam turbine. There are a variety of technologies used for
conversion like Pile Combustion, Stoker Combustion, Suspension Combustion, and Fluidized Bed
Combustion.

Boiler is the most

important energy
equipment that is used in
power generation. A boiler
is an enclosed vessel that
provides a means for
combustion heat to be
transferred into water until
it becomes heated water or
a gas (steam). The steam or
hot water under pressure is
then usable for transferring the heat to a process1. Water is a valuable and inexpensive medium for
transmitting heat to a particular process. When water is boiled eventually transforming into steam,
its volume goes up by about 1,600 times approximately, resulting in the production of a force that is
virtually as volatile as gunpowder. This makes the boiler an extremely dangerous item which is to be
handled with utmost care and respect.

The boiler system comprises of predominantly three components, a feed water system,
steam system and fuel system. The feed water system supplies water to the boiler and controls it
automatically in order to meet the steam demand. Numerous valves offer access for the purpose of
maintenance and repair. The steam system gathers and controls the steam that the boiler produces.

1
http://rotunds.com/Literature/Boiler%20book.pdf
Steam is directed through a piping system to the point of use. All through the system, steam
pressure is controlled with the help of valves and checked with steam pressure gauges. The fuel
system comprises of all equipment used to provide fuel to produce the required heat. The
equipment essential in the fuel system depends on the type of fuel used in the system.

Though boilers were used in unsophisticated ways for quite a few centuries, development
was slow because construction techniques were not sophisticated enough and also the operation
was tremendously dangerous. However, by the industrial revolution, boilers became the main
source of energy to power industrial operations and also transportation. Boiler technology globally
has progressed massively over the years. From the conventional pulverized coal boilers to fluidised
bed combustion equipment and multi-fuel firing boilers, the engineering has certainly come a long
way.

Source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378778810000927

Fluidized Bed Combustion (FBC) Boiler

Fluidized bed combustion (FBC) has developed as a sustainable alternative and possesses
substantial advantages over the conventional firing system and it also offers several benefits, like the
boiler design being compact, having fuel flexibility, higher efficiency in combustion and also reduced
emanation of toxic pollutants like SOx and NOx. The fuels burnt in these types of boilers comprise of
coal, washery rejects, rice husk, bagasse & various other agricultural wastes. These boilers have a
wide capacity range- 0.5 T per hour to over 100 T per hour.
 When a uniformly disseminated air or gas is distributed upward through a finely divided bed
of solid particles like sand which is again reinforced on a fine mesh, the particles are undisturbed at
low velocity. As air velocity is gradually improved, a stage is reached when the individual particles
are suspended in the stream of air and in such a state, the bed is called fluidized.

By further increasing the velocity of air, bubble formation takes place along with strong
turbulence, speedy mixing and formation of dense defined bed surface. The bed of solid particles
displays the properties of a boiling liquid and undertakes the appearance of a fluid, known as the
bubbling fluidized bed.

If sand particles in a fluidized state are heated to ignition temperatures of coal and coal is
injected constantly into the bed, the coal will burn rapidly and bed attains a uniform temperature.
The fluidized bed combustion (FBC) takes place at about 840OC to 950OC. Since this temperature is
much below the ash fusion temperature, melting of ash and associated problems are avoided.

The lower combustion temperature is achieved because of high coefficient of heat transfer
due to rapid mixing in the fluidized bed and effective extraction of heat from the bed through in-bed
heat transfer tubes and walls of the bed. The gas velocity is maintained between minimum
fluidisation velocity and particle entrainment velocity. This ensures stable operation of the bed and
avoids particle entrainment in the gas stream.
 Source: http://www.em-ea.org/Guide%20Books/book-2/2.6%20FBC.pdf

Atmospheric Fluidized Bed Combustion (AFBC) Boiler

AFBC is one of the most important types of FBC boilers as it can be used for variety of fuels -
such as agricultural residues like rice husk or bagasse and even low quality coal. This type of boiler
finds use in industries where there is a possibility of having a combined heat and power generation
application.

In AFBC boilers the fuel is sized depending on the type of fuel (in case of coal, the coal is
crushed to a size of 1 10 mm depending on the grade of coal) and the type of fuel feeding system
and is fed into the combustion chamber. The atmospheric air, which acts as both the fluidization air
and combustion air, is delivered at a pressure and flows through the bed after being preheated by
the exhaust flue gases. The velocity of fluidizing air is in the range of 1.2 to 3.7 m /sec. The rate at
which air is blown through the bed determines the amount of fuel that can be reached.

Almost all AFBC/ bubbling bed boilers use in-bed evaporator tubes in the bed of limestone,
sand and fuel for extracting the heat from the bed to maintain the bed temperature. The bed depth
is usually 0.9 m to 1.5 m deep and the pressure drop averages about 1 inch of water per inch of bed
depth2. Very little material leaves the bubbling bed only about 2 to 4 kg of solids is recycled per ton
of fuel burned. Typical fluidized bed combustors of this type are shown in Figures below:

The combustion gases pass over the super heater sections of the boiler, and flow past the
economizer, the dust collectors and the air pre-heaters prior to being exhausted to atmosphere. The
most important and vital features of atmospheric fluidized bed combustion is the restraint imposed
by the comparatively narrow temperature range within which the bed is supposed to be operated.
With coal, there is risk of clinker formation in the bed if the temperature exceeds 950C and loss of
combustion efficiency if the temperature falls below 800C. For efficient sulphur retention, the
temperature should be in the range of 800C to 850C.

General Arrangements of AFBC Boiler

AFBC boilers comprise of the following systems:

Fuel feeding system

Air distributor
Bed & In-bed heat transfer surface
Ash handling system

2 http://www.unep.fr/energy/activities/cpee/pdf/FBC_30_sep_2007.pdf
3 http://www.unep.fr/energy/activities/cpee/pdf/FBC_30_sep_2007.pdf
 The above components are the most common in almost all types of FBC boilers. The
following figure offers a detailed view of the various components of an AFBC Boiler.

Source: http://www.unep.fr/energy/activities/cpee/pdf/FBC_30_sep_2007.pdf

a) Fuel Feeding System

For feeding fuel and adsorbents like limestone or dolomite, typically two methods are followed:
under bed pneumatic feeding and over-bed feeding.

Under Bed Pneumatic Feeding

If the fuel being used is coal, it is crushed to 16 mm size and pneumatically transported
from feed hopper to the combustor through a feed pipe that pierces the distributor. Depending on
the capacity of the boiler, the number of feed points is increased, as it is essential to allocate the fuel
into the bed in a uniform manner.
Over-Bed Feeding

The crushed coal, 610 mm size is conveyed from coal bunker to a spreader by a screw
conveyor. The spreader distributes the coal over the entire bed surface uniformly. This type of fuel
feeding system takes over size fuel also and removes transport lines, when compared to under-bed
feeding system. These days, for rice husk and other agricultural residues Over-bed feeding system
has become quite prominent and economical. Some of the boilers are designed in such a way that
they have both types of feeding systems.

b) Air Distributor

The basic role of the distributor is to introduce the fluidizing air uniformly through the bed
cross section thereby keeping the solid particles in constant motion, and preventing the formation of
de-fluidization zones within the bed. The distributor, which necessarily acts as the furnace floor, is
typically made out of a metal plate with numerous perforations in a definite geometric pattern. The
perforations may take the form of either simple nozzles or nozzles with bubble caps that eventually
serve to prevent solid particles from flowing back into the space that exists beneath the distributor.

The distributor plate is protected from high temperature of the furnace with the help of:

Refractory Lining
A Static Layer of the Bed Material or
Water Cooled Tubes.

c) Bed & In-Bed Heat Transfer Surface

Bed - The bed material can be anything like sand, ash, crushed refractory or limestone, with an
average size of roughly 1 mm based on the height of the bed, which are typically two types namely,
the shallow bed and the deep bed. At the same fluidizing velocity, the two ends fluidize contrarily,
thus affecting the heat transfer to an immersed heat transfer surfaces. A shallow bed provides a
lower bed resistance and hence a lower pressure drop and lower fan power consumption. In the
case of deep bed, the pressure drop is more and this increases the effective gas velocity and also the
fan power.

In-Bed Heat Transfer Surface - In a fluidized in-bed heat transfer process, it is compulsory to transmit
heat between the bed material and a submerged surface, which could either be of a tube bundle, or
a coil. The heat exchanger orientation can be in any form - horizontal, vertical or inclined. From the
point of a pressure drop, a horizontal bundle in a shallow bed is more attractive than a vertical
bundle in a deep bed. Also, the heat transfer in the bed depends on a plethora of parameters as
listed below:

bed pressure
bed temperature
superficial gas velocity
particle size
Heat exchanger design and
Gas distributor plate design4.

d) Ash Handling System

i) Bottom Ash Removal

In the FBC boilers, the bottom ash constitutes roughly 30 40 % of the total ash, the rest
being fly ash. The bed ash is removed by continuous over flow in order to sustain the height of the
bed and also by recurrent flow from the bottom to eliminate over size particles, evade accumulation
and resultant de-fluidization. While firing high ash coal like washery rejects, the bed ash overflow
drain quantity is substantial and hence special care is supposed to be taken.

ii) Fly Ash Removal

The amount of fly ash to be handled in FBC boiler is relatively very high, compared to
conventional boilers. This is due to elutriation of particles at high velocities. Fly ash carried away by
the flue gas is removed in number of stages; firstly in convection section, then from the bottom of
air pre-heater/economizer and finally a major portion is removed in dust collectors. The types of
dust collectors used are cyclone, bag filters, electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) or some combination
of all of these. To increase the combustion efficiency, recycling of fly ash is practiced in some units.

Features of AFBC Boilers

Atmospheric Fluidised bed Combustion boilers can operate at near atmospheric or higher pressure
and have the following essential features:

Distribution plate through which air gets blown for fluidizing.

Immersed steam-raising or water heating tubes that extract heat directly from the bed.

4 http://www.unep.fr/energy/activities/cpee/pdf/FBC_30_sep_2007.pdf
 Tubes above the bed which extracts heat from hot combustion gas prior to entering the flue duct.

Advantages of Fluidized Bed Combustion Boilers

1. High Efficiency - FBC boilers are efficient enough to burn fuel with a combustion efficiency of over
95% irrespective of the content of the ash. FBC boilers can operate with overall efficiency of 84% (+/-
2%).

2. Reduction in Boiler Size - High heat transfer rate over a small heat transfer area submerged in the
bed result in total size reduction of the boiler.

3. Fuel Flexibility - FBC boilers can be operated resourcefully with a range of different fuels. Even
fuels like flotation slimes, washer rejects, agro waste can be burnt proficiently. These can be fed
either independently or in combination with coal into the same furnace.

4. Ability to Burn Low Grade Fuel These Boilers would give the regarded output even with
substandard quality fuel. The boilers can fire coals with ash content as high as 62% and containing
calorific value as low as 2,500kcal/kg. Also, carbon content of only 1% by weight can sustain the
fluidised bed combustion.

5. Ability to Burn Fines - Coal containing fines below 6 mm can be burnt efficiently in these boilers,
which is very difficult to achieve in the conventional firing system.

6. Pollution Control - SO2 formation can be significantly curtailed by addition of limestone or

dolomite for high sulphur coals. 3% limestone is required for every 1% of sulphur that is used in the
coal feed. Low combustion temperature eliminates NOx formation.

7. Low Corrosion and Erosion - The corrosion and erosion effects are less due to lower combustion
temperature, softness of ash and low particle velocity (of the order of 1 m/sec).

8. Easier Ash Removal No Clinker Formation - Since the temperature of the furnace is in the range
of 750 900o C in FBC boilers, even coal of low ash fusion temperature can be burnt without clinker
formation. Ash removal is easier as the ash flows like liquid from the combustion chamber. Hence
less manpower is required for ash handling.

9. Less Excess Air & Higher CO2 in Flue Gas - The CO2 in the flue gases will be of the order of 14 15%
at full load. Hence, the FBC boiler can operate at low excess air - only 20 25%.
10. Simple Operation, Quick Start-Up - High turbulence of the bed facilitates quick start up and shut
down. Full automation of start-up and operation using reliable equipment is possible5.

11. Fast Response to Load Fluctuations - Inherent high thermal storage characteristics can easily
absorb fluctuation in fuel feed rates. Response to changing load is comparable to that of oil fired
boilers.

12. No Slagging in the Furnace-No Soot Blowing -In FBC boilers, volatilisation of alkali components in
ash does not take place and the ash is non-sticky. This means that there is no slagging or soot
blowing.

13 Provisions of Automatic Coal and Ash Handling System - Automatic systems for coal and ash
handling can be incorporated, making the plant easy to operate comparable to oil or gas fired
installation.

14 Provision of Automatic Ignition System - Control systems using micro-processors and automatic
ignition equipment give excellent control with minimum manual supervision.

15 High Reliability -The absence of moving parts in the combustion zone results in a high degree of
reliability and low maintenance costs.

16 Reduced Maintenance - Routine overhauls are infrequent and high efficiency is maintained for
long periods.

17 Quick Responses to Changing Demand - A fluidized bed combustor can respond to changing heat
demands more easily than stoker fired systems. This makes it very suitable for applications such as
thermal fluid heaters, which require rapid responses.

18 High Efficiency of Power Generation - By operating the fluidized bed at elevated pressure, it can
be used to generate hot pressurized gases to power a gas turbine. This can be combined with a
conventional steam turbine to improve the efficiency of electricity generation and give a potential
fuel savings of at least 4%.6

Operating Parameters

- Steam generation capacity - 2 TPH

- Saturated steam pressure - 10 Kg/cm2
- Heat content of steam - 660 K.cal/kg

5 http://www.em-ea.org/Guide%20Books/book-2/2.6%20FBC.pdf
6 http://www.em-ea.org/Guide%20Books/book-2/2.6%20FBC.pdf
 - Feed water inlet temperature - 60C
- Daily operating hours - 24
- No. of days/year - 300
- Efficiency of oil fired boiler - 82% or Evaporation Ratio =13.66
- Efficiency of rice husk fired boiler - 70% or Evaporation Ratio = 3.73
- Cost of fuel oil - USD500/ton
- Cost of rice husk - USD40/ton
- G.C.V. of fuel oil - 10,000 K.cal/kg
- G.C.V. of rice husk - 3,200 K.cal/kg
- Cost of 2 T/hr rice husk boiler - USD50,000/-7

7http://www.unep.org/climatechange/mitigation/sean-
cc/Portals/141/doc_resources/TrainingEEtechnologies/Fluidized%20Bed_Asthana.pdf
Chain-grate or Traveling-grate Stoker

Traveling grate stokers have been in existence since

1938 and these are considered the most popular way to
burn coal on stokers for boilers above 50,000 lbs. of
steam/hr. In addition to coal, traveling grate spreader
stokers also are used for burning a wide range of waste
fuels. Ash is cleared at the front of the grate for two
reasons. Firstly, if the ash pit were in the rear, the fuel gets
thrown directly into the ash pit without burning or in the
worst case resulting in a fire in the ash pit.

Second, the spreader stoker typically acts as a size classifier for the fuel and the rougher fuel
is fed to the rear as it necessitates more time to for getting burnt. The speed of the grate, at a given
load, is a function of the pounds of fuel being burned per square feet of grate and the ash content of
the fuel. On a given unit and fuel, the grate speed is a function of load. The relationship is not exactly
linear since as the load increases, the rate of fly carbon rising also increases due to the increased
furnace velocities.8

As grate moves along the total length of the furnace, the coal gets burnt before dropping off
at the end in the form of ash. Some degree of skill is required, predominantly when setting up the
grate, air dampers and baffles, in order to ensure clean combustion leaving the least amount of
unburnt carbon in the ash. 9

The coal-feed hopper travels along the entire coal-feed end of the furnace. A coal gate is
used for controlling the rate at which coal gets fed into the furnace by amending the thickness of the
fuel bed. Coal must be uniform in size because large sized coal lumps will not burn out completely by
the time they reach the end of the grate.

Since the function of a spreader stoker is to discharge equal energy for each square foot of
grate, BTU/SQ FT/HR turns out as the predominant design criteria. Even though some of the energy
gets discharged in suspension, to have a common denominator of assessment, the total BTU input
from the fuel is divided by the total active air admitting grate area to obtain a unit heat release.
Most units designed to burn bituminous coals, sub-bituminous coals, and lignite may possess heat

8 http://cibo.org/emissions/2002/a1.pdf
9 http://www.energyefficiencyasia.org/energyequipment/typesofboiler.html
releases up to 750 KBTU/SQ FT/HR. Units exist which run at rates substantially greater. Low volatile
bituminous coals as commented on in Fuel Types for Spreader

Stokers are supposed to be designed for a maximum heat release of 600 KBTU/SQ FT/HR
to minimalize combustible loss.

The higher carbon content necessitates more time to burn out and the lower heat release
permits for slower grate speeds and more time in the furnace. The need for low emissions of NOx
and CO also demands a contemplation of heat release. The grate heat release for refuse fuels such
like wood or bagasse can be designed for 1,000 KBTU/SQ FT/HR or above based on the moisture
conditions of the fuel and various other factors affecting good combustion.

Combustion Air Systems and Temperatures

Coal Combustion - Since the primary objective of combustion on a spreader stoker is to obtain
uniform burning over the entire active grate
surface, it is essential to achieve even air flow
through the grates. It is necessary that utmost
attention be paid to the design of the forced
draft system supplying the plenum chamber
that is beneath the grates (see adjacent figure).

Changes in the direction and any other

changes pertaining to duct designs which might
disturb the flow of air to the grates are to be avoided. A highly resistant grate which puts most of the
resistance to air flow across the grates rather than across the ash bed will substantially aid the
fundamental objective of even air distribution.

When designing for bituminous or sub-bituminous coal, the air temperature can be either
ambient or preheated to a maximum air temperature of 350o F. Boilers that are designed to yield
steam for electrical generation will typically require both an economizer and an air heater for
maximum efficiency. Boilers designed for process and/or heating steam can be designed with just an
economizer to achieve the desired flue gas end temperature. If the moisture content of the coal
exceeds 25%, preheated air is recommended. Thus, lignite requires preheated air and, due to the
lower combustion temperature with the higher moisture, 400o F. is permissible. The over fire air
systems for a spreader stoker has undergone major changes over the years. The very old units had
systems designed for 7 % to 10% of total air. Later units had systems capable of 15% to 18% of
total air supply. The advent of the Clean Air Act and the subsequent regulation of NOx and CO
required methods to control these emissions. Staging has been found to decrease the emissions of
NOx. Tests have revealed that staging can also help decrease CO formation. The amount of air that is
used in the three level systems is roughly 35% of total air. This air must be delivered with adequate
energy to produce commotion and mix the burning fuel with oxygen to complete the process of
combustion. The temperature of the over-fire air can be either ambient or preheated. The choice
should be is based on the boiler designer.

It is essential to design the over-fire air system with sufficient static pressure to produce the
required penetration into the combustion chamber for a given nozzle size. Nozzle shape is very
important for the most efficient utilization of the fan energy. Tests have shown that some nozzle
shapes are much more efficient than others.

Later units have been equipped with nozzle sizes up to 3 inches in diameter. Further test
work has shown that up to 30 inches static pressure is required to produce the needed energy for
penetration and good turbulence.

Efficiency - Excess Air and Fly Carbon Reinjection

Excess Air

The two controlling factors of efficiency from the combustion system are excess air and
carbon loss. To minimize excess air, it is necessary to approach the theoretical even release of
energy over the furnace plan area or grates as closely as possible. Operating with low excess air
grows in importance by the requirements of low pollutant emissions. Greater attention to having a
fuel feeder with the necessary adjustments to provide good distribution and operators that use
these tools is essential. Forced draft duct construction and plenum design to provide the best
control of air flow through the grates should be carefully analysed. Tests have shown that
approaching an even flow of gases rising in the furnace without excursions of velocity results in the
best performance. The seal interface design between the stoker and the boiler with the differential
movement is most important. Any infiltration of tramp air between the stoker and the boiler
reduces performance and increases excess air. Close attention to these matters will allow operation
of the unit at 25% excess air or less in the furnace.

Fly Carbon Reinjection

Carbon loss from a spreader stoker is the sum of the bottom ash pit loss plus the loss from
discarded fly carbon. A well run spreader stoker should have very low bottom ash pit carbon loss.
The fly carbon loss depends on the amount of reinjection back into the furnace for re-burning.
 For a given stoker/boiler unit burning a given fuel, a per cent of the ash will end in the
bottom ash pit and a per cent will leave the furnace as fly ash. For a given unit, the ratio will remain
constant. If there is no reinjection, all of the carbon in the fly ash caught in the boiler hoppers,
mechanical collector hoppers and final fly ash collection system will become carbon loss. The
combustible content of the fly ash caught in the mechanical collector from a unit burning bituminous
coal will be about 60%.

Through reinjection of the fly ash caught in the boiler hoppers and mechanical collector, the
part of the ash being discharged as fly ash will be that in the final collection system. The total
amount of ash from the combustion of the fuel that is being left in the form of fly ash remains the
same. With collector reinjection the amount of combustible in the discarded fly ash will be lower
and thus, the weight of fly ash going to disposal will be lower. Burning bituminous coals will result in
a combustible content of the fly ash being discarded being about 25% or less with mechanical
collector reinjection. Spreader stokers have been using the reinjection technique for years and now
circulating fluid bed fired boilers use the same technique to lower carbon loss10.

The reason for the lower combustible in the fly ash with collector reinjection is the fact that
smaller sized particles of fly ash have lower concentrations of combustible. The particle larger than
30 meshes may have a combustible content of 90% while the particle less than 200 mesh may have a
combustible content as low as 5%. A mechanical collector allows little of the particle size larger than
200 mesh to go to the final clean-up device. Therefore the combustible in the fly ash being disposed
of is low. The larger particles have been reinjected into the furnace for re-burning. As the
combustible is burned out of the larger particles, they reduce in size until they pass through the
mechanical collector to the final collection device. In this way, the total carbon loss from a spreader
stoker is kept quite low11.

Emission Control

The emissions of sulphur dioxide cannot be controlled in the combustion process since at
least 95% of the sulphur in the coal is converted to SOx. Newer existing plants regulated under the
Clean Air Act have had to install SO2 scrubbers. Older units have had to change to low sulphur coal.
The emissions of nitrogen oxide, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons are affected by the
combustion process. Some of the results from the combustion process are predictable. Excess
oxygen and heat release affect nitrogen oxide emissions from spreader stokers. Excess oxygen is the
most predictable element of the combustion process affecting these emissions. Many tests have

10 http://cibo.org/emissions/2002/a1.pdf
11 http://cibo.org/emissions/2002/a1.pdf
been run on single units at various excess oxygen levels starting in the 1970s with tests conducted by
the ABMA under contract with the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Department of
Energy (DOE)12 (Bessette, 1981). All of these tests have resulted in graphs of nitrogen oxide emission
related to excess air having essentially the same slope. The same units were operated at different
loads to simulate changes in grate heat release rates. This has shown that nitrogen oxide emissions
do increase with increased heat release rates. That has led to the design of spreader stoker fired
units having a maximum grate heat release of 700 KBTU/SQ FT/HR to minimize nitrogen oxide
emissions.

Pershing (1982)13, in laboratory tests run at the University of Utah, determined that fuel size
affects the emissions of nitrogen oxide from spreader stokers. He determined that coal particle size
less than 1/10th of an inch produced nitrogen oxides at a higher rate. This is due to the more rapid
combustion of the finer particles producing higher temperatures. Full size unit testing has
demonstrated this to be true. A unit operating with coal falling within the boundaries of the ABMAs
coal size curve for spreader stokers emitted lower nitrogen oxides over a range of excess oxygen
values than did the same unit operating with a coal with sizing falling on the fine side outside the
ABMA curve.

Furnace temperature from the heat of combustion does certainly has an effect on the
emissions of nitrogen oxide from the spreader stoker firing, as it does on other types of solid,
gaseous, or liquid fuel firing. Combustion air temperature impacts the furnace temperature and
consequently, the emissions of nitrogen oxide. Units with preheated will emit higher emissions than
those utilizing ambient combustion air (Figure 16). If steam conditions permit, it would be well to
design a unit with just an economizer rather than a combination of economizer and air heater.

Earlier, there has been an instance when it was mentioned on over-fire air quantities of 30%
to 35% of total combustion air for staging the process of combustion. Tests have revealed that this
quantity of over-fire air, properly located in the furnace, can reduce nitrogen oxide emissions. With a
great quantity of over-fire air situated above the elevation of fuel entry to the furnace, there is very
little excess oxygen at the grate line. Furthermore, staging the combustion process possibly drops
the furnace temperature at any given location. For maximum effectiveness, even heat release short
of spikes is extremely significant.

12 Bessette, R. D., et al Emissions and Efficiency Performance of Industrial Coal Stoker Fired Boilers by ABMA
DOE/ET 10386-TI (Vol. !), August 1981
13 Pershing, D. W., et al Formation and control of NOx Emission from Coal-Fired Spreader-Stoker Boilers 19th

Symposium (International) on Combustion, Haifa, Israel, 1982.

 Many years ago, while experimenting with the design of coal feeders and field testing of a
new coal feeder design for the purpose of being able to allocate a wider range of coal sizes
appropriately, it was found that the method of fuel feed does have an impact on the nitrogen oxide
emission. A unit operated with standard coal feeders nearby to a similar unit operating with new
type coal feeders had 15% to 20% higher emission of nitrogen oxide under all conditions for a 13 day
duration in which the test was carried out. Each unit was operated under similar conditions as
meticulously as possible for the 13 day duration of testing. Excess oxygen and also the load were
varied. It was observed that the unit with the new type coal feeder had, for the entire 13 day test
period, lower nitrogen oxide emissions. The design of the new feeder kept the coal low in the
furnace as it was distributed over the grates. With high percentages of air being used for staging, the
oxygen at the grates, and the velocity was lower so less nitrogen oxide was produced.

The emissions of carbon monoxide and Hydrocarbons from a spreader stoker are affected
primarily by excess oxygen, heat release rate, and the proper application of over-fire air turbulence.
Excess oxygen, if it becomes too high, will result in a slight increase in carbon monoxide emissions.
At some minimum excess oxygen, this could be different from one unit to another, the carbon
monoxide increases rapidly. During the 13 day feeder test, both units operated with very low carbon
monoxide emissions. The level of excess oxygen at which the carbon monoxide increased was less
than 2%. Carbon monoxide emissions, as a whole, have not been a problem for spreader stokers.

The control of emissions from spreader stokers has been limited to the combustion
techniques for reducing the emissions of nitrogen oxide and carbon monoxide. There are a few other
furnace techniques that have been developed like:

- Natural Gas Re-burn Technology

- Flue Gas Recirculation to Reduce Excess Oxygen
- Combination of Gas Re-burn and Flue Gas Recirculation

A combination of best combustion technology, in furnace systems, and post combustion

systems is possible14.

14 http://cibo.org/emissions/2002/a1.pdf
Boiler Specification

The heating surface is any component of the boiler metal that has hot gases of combustion
on one side and water on the other. Any part of the boiler metal that essentially contributes to
making steam is the heating surface. The amount of heating surface of a boiler is articulated in
square meters. The larger the heating surface a boiler has, the more resourceful it becomes. The
quantity of the steam produced is indicated in tons of water evaporated to steam per hour.
Maximum continuous rating is the hourly evaporation that can be maintained for 24 hours. F & A
means the amount of steam generated from water at 100 C to saturated steam at 100 C.15

Typical Boiler Specification

Boiler Make & Year: XYZ & 2003

MCR (Maximum Continuous Rating): 10TPH (F & A 100C)

Rated Working Pressure: 10.54 kg/cm2 (g)

Type of Boiler: 3 Pass Fire tube

Fuel Fired: Fuel Oil

15 http://220.156.189.23/energy_managers_auditors/documents/guide_books/2Ch2.pdf
Performance Evaluation of Boilers

The performance parameters of boiler, like efficiency and evaporation ratio reduces with time due
to poor combustion, heat transfer surface fouling and poor operation and maintenance. Even for a
new boiler, reasons such as deteriorating fuel quality, water quality etc. can result in poor boiler
performance. Boiler efficiency tests help us to find out the deviation of boiler efficiency from the
best efficiency and target problem area for corrective action16.

Boiler Efficiency

Thermal efficiency of boiler is defined as the percentage of heat input that is effectively utilised to
generate steam. There are two methods of assessing boiler efficiency.

1) The Direct Method: Where the energy gain of the working fluid (water and steam) is compared
with the energy content of the boiler fuel. This is also known as input-output method due to the
fact that it needs only the useful output (steam) and the heat input (i.e. fuel) for evaluating the
efficiency. This efficiency can be evaluated using the formula:

Parameters to be monitored for the calculation of boiler efficiency by direct method are:

Quantity of steam generated per hour (Q) in kg/hr.

Quantity of fuel used per hour (q) in kg/hr.

The working pressure (in kg/cm2 (g)) and superheat temperature (C), if any

The temperature of feed water (C)

Type of fuel and gross calorific value of the fuel (GCV) in kCal/kg of fuel

Advantages of direct method:

Plant people can evaluate quickly the efficiency of boilers

Requires few parameters for computation

16 http://220.156.189.23/energy_managers_auditors/documents/guide_books/2Ch2.pdf
 Needs few instruments for monitoring

Disadvantages of direct method:

Does not give clues to the operator as to why efficiency of system is lower
Does not calculate various losses accountable for various efficiency levels

2) The Indirect Method: Where the efficiency is the difference between the losses and the energy
input. There are reference standards for Boiler Testing at Site using indirect method namely British
Standard, BS 845: 1987 and USA Standard is ASME PTC-4-1 Power Test Code Steam Generating
Units. Indirect method is also called as heat loss method. The efficiency can be arrived at, by
subtracting the heat loss fractions from 100. The standards do not include blow down loss in the
efficiency determination process. A detailed procedure for calculating boiler efficiency by indirect
method is given below. However, it may be noted that the practicing energy mangers in industries
prefer simpler calculation procedures.

The principle losses that occur in a boiler are:

Loss of heat due to dry flue-gas

Loss of heat due to moisture in fuel and combustion air

Loss of heat due to combustion of hydrogen

Loss of heat due to radiation

Loss of heat due to unburnt

In the above, loss due to moisture in fuel and the loss due to combustion of hydrogen are

dependent on the fuel, and cannot be controlled by design. The data required for calculation of
boiler efficiency using indirect method are:

Ultimate analysis of fuel (H2, O2, S, C, moisture content, ash content)

Percentage of Oxygen or CO2 in the flue gas

Flue gas temperature in C (Tf)

Ambient temperature in C (Ta) & humidity of air in kg/kg of dry air

GCV of fuel in kCal/kg

 Percentage combustible in ash (in case of solid fuels)

GCV of ash in kCal/kg (in case of solid fuels)

Boiler Evaporation Ratio

Evaporation ratio means kilogram of steam generated per kilogram of fuel consumed. Typical
Examples:

Coal fired boiler: 6 (i.e. 1 kg of coal can generate 6 kg of steam)

Oil fired boiler: 13 (1 kg of oil can generate 13 kg of steam)

However, this figure will depend upon type of boiler, calorific value of the fuel and associated
efficiencies.

Boiler Blow down

When water is boiled and steam is generated, any dissolved solids contained in the water remain in
the boiler. If more solids are put in with the feed water, they will concentrate and may eventually
reach a level where their solubility in the water is exceeded and they deposit from the solution.
Above a certain level of concentration, these solids encourage foaming and cause carryover of water
into the steam. The deposits also lead to scale formation inside the boiler, resulting in localized
overheating and finally causing boiler tube failure. It is, therefore, necessary to control the level of
concentration of the solids and this is achieved by the process of blowing down, where a certain
volume of water is blown off and is automatically replaced by feed water thus maintaining the
optimum level of total dissolved solids (TDS) in the boiler water. Blow down is necessary to protect
the surfaces of the heat exchanger in the boiler. However, blow down can be a significant source of
heat loss, if improperly carried out. The maximum amount of total dissolved solids (TDS)
concentration permissible in various types of boilers is given in the table below:

RECOMMENDED TDS LEVELS FOR VARIOUS BOILERS

Type of Boiler Maximum TDS (ppm)*
Lancashire 10,000 ppm
Smoke and water tube boilers (12 kg/cm2) 5,000 ppm
Low pressure Water tube boiler 20003000
High Pressure Water tube boiler with super heater etc. 3,0003,500 ppm
Package and economic boilers 3,000 ppm
Coil boilers and steam generators 2000 (in the feed water
Source: http://220.156.189.23/energy_managers_auditors/documents/guide_books/2Ch2.pdf

*parts per million

Conductivity as Indicator of Boiler Water Quality

Since it is tedious and time consuming to measure total dissolved solids (TDS) in boiler water system,
conductivity measurement is used for monitoring the overall TDS present in the boiler. A rise in
conductivity indicates a rise in the contamination of the boiler water. Conventional methods for
blowing down the boiler depend on two kinds of blow down intermittent and continuous

Intermittent Blow down

The intermittent blown down is given by manually operating a valve fitted to discharge pipe
at the lowest point of boiler shell to reduce parameters (TDS or conductivity, pH, Silica and
Phosphates concentration) within prescribed limits so that steam quality is not likely to be affected.
In intermittent blow down, a large diameter line is opened for a short period of time, the time being
based on a thumb rule such as once in a shift for 2 minutes.

Intermittent blow down requires large short-term

increases in the amount of feed water put into the boiler,
and hence may necessitate larger feed water pumps than
if continuous blow down is used. Also, TDS level will be
varying, thereby causing fluctuations of the water level in
the boiler due to changes in steam bubble size and
distribution which accompany changes in concentration of
solids. Also substantial amount of heat energy is lost with
intermittent blow down.

Continuous Blow down

There is a steady and constant dispatch of small stream of concentrated boiler water, and
replacement by steady and constant inflow of feed water. This ensures constant TDS and steam
purity at given steam load. Once blow down valve is set for a given conditions, there is no need for
regular operator intervention.

Even though large quantities of heat are wasted, opportunity exists for recovering this heat
by blowing into a flash tank and generating flash steam. This flash steam can be used for preheating
boiler feed water or for any other purpose. This type of blow down is common in high-pressure
boilers.
Blow down calculations

The quantity of blow down required to control boiler water solids concentration is calculated
by using the following formula:

Blow down (%) = Feed water TDS % Make up water

Maximum Permissible TDS in Boiler water

Boiler Feed Water Treatment

Producing quality steam on demand depends on properly managed water treatment to control
steam purity, deposits and corrosion. A boiler is the sump of the boiler system. It ultimately receives
all of the pre-boiler contaminants. Boiler performance, efficiency, and service life are direct products
of selecting and controlling feed water used in the boiler. When feed water enters the boiler, the
elevated temperatures and pressures cause the components of water to behave differently. Most of
the components in the feed water are soluble. However, under heat and pressure most of the
soluble components come out of solution as particulate solids, sometimes in crystallized forms and
other times as amorphous particles. When solubility of a specific component in water is exceeded,
scale or deposits develop. The boiler water must be sufficiently free of deposit forming solids to
allow rapid and efficient heat transfer and it must not be corrosive to the boiler metal.

Deposit control is explain first, followed by the two major types of boiler water treatment:

internal water treatment, and

external water treatment.

Deposit control

Deposits in boilers may result from hardness contamination of feed water and corrosion products
from the condensate and feed water system. Hardness contamination of the feed water may arise
due to a deficient softener system. Deposits and corrosion result in efficiency losses and may result
in boiler tube failures and inability to produce steam. Deposits act as insulators and slow heat
transfer. Large amounts of deposits throughout the boiler could reduce the heat transfer enough to
reduce the boiler efficiency significantly. Different types of deposits affect the boiler efficiency
differently. Thus it may be useful to analyse the deposits for their characteristics. The insulating
effect of deposits causes the boiler metal temperature to rise and may lead to tube-failure by
overheating. There are two main groups of impurities causing deposits.

a) Hard salts of calcium and magnesium

The most important chemicals in water that influence the formation of deposits in boilers are the
salts of calcium and magnesium, which are known as hardness salts.

Alkaline: Calcium and magnesium bicarbonate dissolve in water to form an alkaline solution
and these salts are known as alkaline hardness. They decompose upon heating, releasing
carbon dioxide and forming a soft sludge, which settles out. These are called temporary
hardness-hardness that can be removed by boiling.
Non-alkaline. Calcium and magnesium sulphates, chlorides and nitrates etc., when dissolved
in water, are chemically neutral and are known as non-alkaline hardness. These are called
permanent hardness chemicals and form hard scales on boiler surfaces, which are difficult to
remove. Non-alkalinity hardness chemicals fall out of the solution due to reduction in
solubility as the temperature rises, by concentration due to evaporation which takes place
within the boiler, or by chemical change to a less soluble compound17.

b) Silica

The presence of silica in boiler water can rise to formation of hard silicate scales. It can also interact
with calcium and magnesium salts, forming calcium and magnesium silicates of very low thermal
conductivity. Silica can give rise to deposits on steam turbine blades, after being carried over either
in droplets of water in steam, or in a volatile form in steam at higher pressures18.

Internal water treatment

Internal treatment involves adding chemicals to a boiler to prevent the formation of scale.
Scale-forming compounds are converted to free-flowing sludge, which can be removed by blow
down. This method is limited to boilers, where feed water is low in hardness salts, where low
pressure, high TDS content in boiler water is tolerated, and when only a small quantity of water is
required to be treated. If these conditions are not met, then high rates of blow down are required to
dispose off the sludge. They become uneconomical considering heat and water loss.

Different types of water sources require different chemicals. Sodium carbonate, sodium
aluminate, sodium phosphate, sodium sulphite and compounds of vegetable or inorganic origin are

17
Thermal Energy Equipment: Boilers & Thermic Fluid Heaters (Published by United Nations Environment Programme)
18
Thermal Energy Equipment: Boilers & Thermic Fluid Heaters (Published by United Nations Environment Programme)
all used for this purpose. Proprietary chemicals are available to suit various water conditions. A
specialist must be consulted to determine the most suitable chemicals to use in each case. Internal
treatment alone is not recommended.

External Water Treatment

External treatment is used to remove suspended solids, dissolved solids (particularly the
calcium and magnesium ions which are major a cause of scale formation) and dissolved gases
(oxygen and carbon dioxide)19.

The external treatment processes available are:

Ion exchange
De-aeration (mechanical and chemical)
Reverse osmosis
Demineralization

Before any of these are used, it is necessary to remove suspended solids and colour from the
raw water, because these may foul the resins used in the subsequent treatment sections. Methods
of pre-treatment include simple sedimentation in settling tanks or settling in clarifiers with aid of
coagulants and flocculants. Pressure sand filters, with spray aeration to remove carbon dioxide and
iron, may be used to remove metal salts from bore well water. The first stage of treatment is to
remove hardness salt and possibly non-hardness salts. Removal of only hardness salts is called
softening, while total removal of salts from solution is called demineralization.

Conclusion

Boiler operators need to understand the importance of the right size of bed material with
the right density of the particles which is important for a thorough Fluidization. Use of mechanized
bed ash / bed material screen system, regular sieve & ash analysis of fuel, regular measurement of
sieve analysis bed ash, frequent check in iron content of bed ash & bed material would help to
improve get the best from the AFBC boilers20. Manufacturers need to realize that the additional
drains are a must for smooth operation of FBC boilers. High DP drop in bed would give problems in
setting the cold Fluidization. Cold Fluidization inspection should be part of start-up process and
should not be compromised.

19
Thermal Energy Equipment: Boilers & Thermic Fluid Heaters (Published by United Nations Environment
Programme)
20
Venus Energy Audit System Art of Bed Management in AFBC Boilers, by KK. Parthiban