B5L-22815

Effects on Atmospheric Diffusion of Meteorological Processes

in Coastal Zones*'

Gilbert S. Raynor
Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York 11973

-HOTKf-
ftiw Icpoit was prepared as an account of work
spanaared by the United S u m Government. Neither
the United S u m not the United SutfS Energy
Research and DeteiopmeM AdmiMstration, not any of
tftev employee!, noi any of thru contractors,
subcontractors, of then employees, makes any
warranty, espteu or implied. 01 aumef any lecal
kahflity or terfoutbilily for the accuracy. compklenMa
or uKtulnes of any information, apparatus, product or
procru dncloied. or reprelents that in Me would not
nfnnge pmatety owned nchts.

By acceptance of this article, the publisher and/or recipient acknowledges

the U. S. Government's right to retain a nonexclusive royalty-free license
in and to any copyright covering this paper.

This work performed under auspices of the U. S. Energy Research and Develop-
ment Administration under Contract No. EY-76-C-02-0016-

*For presentation at the ASTM Conference on Air Quality Meteorology and

Atmospheric Ozone, August 1-6, 1977, Boulder, Colorado.

MASTER
ABSTRACT: Meteorological processes in coastal zones differ
from those inland because of the surface discontinuity between
land and water. The difference in heating between the two
surfaces gives rise to sea or lake breeze circulations which
can transport pollutants in nongradient directions and recirculate
them over source areas. The step change in surface character-
istics at the land-water interface also causes formation of
internal boundary layers having different transport velocities
and diffusion rates than unmodified air upwind or above the
boundary. These features require a more extensive measurement
program and more versatile diffusion models than at inland
sites.

KEY WORDS: atmospheric diffusion, meteorology, coastal zone,

Seabreeze, boundary layer, mathematical model, air pollution
Introduction
The actual and potential adverse effects on human health, the
natural environment and materials, of airborne gases and particulates
from anthropogenic sources have long been recognized and such emissions
are subject to increasingly strict governmental controls. Methods of
predicting diffusion and resultant concentrations of airborne materials
from known sources have been in use for many years and have been im-
proved substantially since first developed. However, they are still
not wholly satisfactory and conventional methods give reasonably accurate
predictions only over level, uncomplicated terrain during relatively
constant meteorological conditions. Such ideal situations sometimes
exist inland but seldom at coastal locations where surface discontinuities
are always present and meteorological conditions over water are usually
different from those over land.
Many power plants, industrial complexes, nuclear reactors and other
potentially polluting installations are located in coastal zones because
of proximity to population centers, access to transportation facilities
and availability of cooling water. Therefore, both sources and receptors
are more numerous and often closer together at coastal locations. Thus,
the potential for adverse effects is higher while the problems of pre-
dicting diffusion and in meeting air pollution standards and safety re-
quirements are more acute. Prediction methods in common use are severely
limited since they fail to account for the unique meteorological processes
which occur near a coast. More realistic prediction methods for coastal
sites can only result from an improved understanding of coastal meteorology,

- 1 -
quantitative measurements of pertinent meteorological variables and mod-
ification or extension of diffusion models so that coastal processes are
adequately simulated and parameters are assigned appropriate numerical
values.
Reviews of then current information on transport and diffusion in
coastal areas were published by prophet [1] and Tan der Hoven [2]. They
identified most of the pertinent meteorological factors peculiar to
coastal zones and described their influence on transport and diffusion.
Hewson and Olsson [3] described lake effects on air pollution dispersion.
However, little of this information has been incorporated into operational
diffusion models.
In more recent years, many additional measurements of meteorological
variables have been made in coastal zones, e.g. [4-91. Sea breeze research
has also been active, e.g. [10-13] and numerous experimental and observa-
tional studies of atmospheric diffusion in coastal zones have been re-
ported, e.g. [3, 7, 14-17].
The purpose of this paper is to describe the meteorological processes
and those measurement and modeling requirements necessary for prediction
of diffusion in coastal zones in the context of recent research findings.

Physical and Meteorological Characteristics of Coastal Zones

Surface Characteristics

A fundamental difference between coastal and inland sites is the sur-

face discontinuity at the land-water interface. Land is typically
several orders of magnitude rougher than water and the temperature
of the two surfaces is usually different; both characteristics
affect the overlying atmosphere. Either a thermal

- 2 -
or a roughness boundary layer or a combination of both is formed as air
flows from one surface to the other. Land is usually rougher than water
since even large waves exert little drag on air moving over them. Typical
values of roughness length, z ,are 0.02 cm for a smooth sea, 1-9 cm for
grassy surfaces and 0.5 to 1 m for forested areas.
Land and water surface temperatures are seldom equal except during
brief transition periods, in temperate zones, land is nearly always
warmer than water during the spring and summer months but usually colder
in the winter. Temperature differentials of 15 to 20 C are common during
mid-day in summer on Long Island but land temperatures 5-6 c colder than
the ocean have been measured in the winter. When air flows from a warmer
to a colder surface, a stable layer is typically formed but when air flows
over a wanner surface, intense turbulence and sometimes convective motions
develop.

Transport Speed
The lesser surface friction over water results in higher mean wind
speeds there than over land with the same pressure gradient so transport
of pollutants is normally faster over water. A site on the south shore
of Long Island, for instance, had a mean annual wind speed of 4.9 m/s with
onshore winds while a site 9 km inland had an average of 3.6 m/s. Slade
18] in a study of Chesapeake Bay found an average 25% increase in wind
speed after 7 miles (11 km) of overwater travel. Another study at Brook-
haven National Laboratory showed that the difference increased with wind
speed. At 2 m/s , the coastal and inland sites had nearly equal wind speeds
but when speed at the coastal site increased to 8 m/s , that at the inland

site reached only 4 m/s.

- 3 -
Turbulence

Turbulence is aLso typically quite different over land and water

surfaces and is enhanced by both greater surface roughness and greater
surface heating. Differences are most pronounced when both factors act
in the same direction as when the water is smooth and cold and the land
is rough and warm. In general, turbulence is greater over land but when
cold air flows over warmer water, the situation may be reversed.
A common measure of turbulence is the standard deviation of the
fluctuations of a wind vane about the mean direction, a,. In the
Chesapeake Bay study, Slade [13] found a 50% reduction in a, after 11 km
9
of overwater travel. On Long Island, a coastal site had an annual average
s. of only 1.3 while at a site 9 km inland, a. averaged about 8.7.
o o
In another .series of measurements [19] <?c aC ^ m over
the ocean
ranged from 0.7 to 6.3 during stable conditions and from 3.3 to 16.7
during unstable flows. Over the center of a small island, only 100 to 300
m from the water, a. varied from 8.5 to 21.4 during the unstable periods.
A series of bivane measurements were taken at a height of 23 sa at a
coastal and an inland site on Long Island under typical clear weather,
mid-day conditions, with onshore winds, c averaged 2.6 at the coast
and 5.8 inland. Vertical turbulence, a,, showed a greater difference,
0.3 at the coast and 6.8 inland.

-4 -
 AC higher levels, measurements of turbulence were made using a sail-
plane variometer mounted on a light aircraft. Flights were made perpen-
dicular to the coast but parallel to the wind direction during onshore
flows. In stable air over Che ocean and above the internal boundary
layer over land, a , the standard deviation of Che vertical fluctuations,
ranged from 0.14 to 0.24 m/s in those flights at a height of 244 m.
In Che unstable air at the same height over land, a was about six
times greater, from 1.03 to 1.43 m/s at the same altitude.
Several similar flights were made using an epsilon meter to measure
turbulence. The energy dissipation rates, e, were typically from 1 to
5 cm /sec in the stable air over the ocean and from 10 to 250 cm 2 /sec 3
in the unstable air over the land.
Turbulence usually decreases slowly with height and increases with
instability. Slade [20] presented Cypical values of a drawn from a
variety of sources. Near che surface, aa was about 2 for very stable
conditions, 3.5 with neutral lapse rates and 27 during very unstable
periods. At a height of 60 m, values were 1.5, 7.5 and 21 respectively
for the same conditions.
Over land, very stable conditions occur only at night and usually
with very light surface winds and little cloudiness. Over the water,
however, stable conditions occur at all hours and with a wide range of wind
speeds and cloudiness, whenever warmer air passes over a colder water
surface. Thus, low-level stability is more frequent over water than
over land.

The Intense, low-level inversions over the water frequently cause the
formation and breaking of internal gravity waves. These can occur at all
hours and significantly affect the transport and diffusion of pollutants
by causing meander and looping of stable plumes. .<

- 5 -
Internal Boundary Layers

The boundary between air characteristic of the water and air

characteristic of the land does not extend vertically above the inter-

face, except possibly under completely calm conditions, but slopes in

the direction of the wind at an angle which varies with the properties

of the two surfaces and with the wind speed. Figure 1 is a schematic

representation of the development of successive internal boundary layers

and the lapse rates within them as air flows from over land to over water and

then over land again. The slope is typically steeper over land than over

water and may not be as smooth as illustrated. Some evidence suggests

that the slope may be steeper close to the surface discontinuity and

shallower at greater distances.After some distance downwind, convective

action may completely penetrate the unmodified air over an internal boundary

layer resulting in a single mixing layer.

The change in height of an internal boundary layer with distance from

the surface discontinuity can be estimated if appropriate data are available.

Raynor et al,. [7] presented an equation for this purpose which showed good

agreement with their experimental data. DiVecchio e al. [21] found that

a slightly modified version of the same equation gave good agreement with

independent measurements at a coastline with a steep bluff.

Change in height of internal boundary layers is shown in cross section

in Figures 2 and 3 which illustrate turbulence patterns measured during

aircraft flights across a narrow portion of Long Island. During the first

flight (Figure 2 ) , a middle overcast was present and the mean wind speed

at 16 m was 8.S W s , The internal boundary layer only reached a height

of about 3CQ m before leveling off. During the second flight (Figure 3)

- 6 -
skies were clear and Che 16 m wind speed was 3.5tn/s . Moderate turbulence
extended to above 800 m indicating a much deeper boundary layer. Thus,
effluents released near the coast would be mixed over a much greater
height interval in the second case with a corresponding reduction in
low-level concentrations.
The slope of internal boundary layers is a measure of the rate at
which air is modified as it passes over a new surface, in the case of
Figure 2, the 300 m height was reached in about 7 km giving an average
slope of 1:23. In the case of Figure 3, the slope is about 1:13.5.
Echols and Wagner [5] found a slope of 1:13, 90 m inland from the Texas
coast. Four boundary layers illustrated by Dooley [22] at Lake Michigan
had slopes of from 1:17 to 1:33 at a distance of 10 km from the shore
and had both concave and convex curvatures.

Sea and Lake Breezes

The causes and characteristics of sea and lake breezes are well
known. Air which is heated over the land rises, reducing atmospheric
pressure near the surface. Colder air from over the water flows towards
the reduced pressure while the ascending air flows towards the water at
a higher elevation and descends to replace the air flowing landward.
Thus, a closed circulation is set up embedded in the gradient flow vhich
can transport pollutants in a direction different from that of the re-
gional winds and recirculate them over the source region.

oea and lake breezes typically occur during the warmer portions of
the day during the spring and summer months and may develop vigorous
circulations. Nocturnal offshore flows or land breezes caused by nighttime

- 7 -
cooling of the land surface occur in some areas but are less frequent

and are generally weaker.

At Brookhaven National Laboratory which is about 16 km from the

ocean, sea breezes occur on about 70 days per year and usually last

from six to eight hours. Closer to the coast, both frequency and dura-

tion are greater. Frequency and distance of inland penetration are also

usually greater in more southern latitudes but even in England, sea

breezes have penetrated as far as 85 km [12]. On Long Island, sea

breezes occur from March through September but are most frequent from

May through July when the ocean is still cool and the land surface

receives maximum heating. Lyons and Olsson [15] reported that lake

breezes occur on at least 757. of the days from April to August in the

Chicago area and nearly 457. of all summer days in Milwaukee. Thus, sea

breeze circulations are likely to be a significant meteorological factor

in any coastal region.

The turbulence and temperature structure in sea breeze circulations

have been studied on Long Island with instrumented aircraft and the flow

patterns by pilot balloon soundings. A representative temperature cross-

section is shown in Figure 4. The sea breeze front at 18 to 20 km from

the coast is marked by a strong temperature discontinuity with warmer air

inland of the front. The turbulence cross-section in Figure 5 shows a

chimney-like column of heavy turbulence behind the front which marks the

updraft region. The flight did not extend high enough to document the

outflow layer nor far enough over the ocean to intersect the area of

descent. The slope of the boundary layer is about 1:17, in good agree-

ment with cases discussed above.

- 8 -
Diffusion Characteristics in Coastal Zones

The effects on diffusion of the unique meteorological conditions

in coastal zones have been documented to a limited degree by tracer
experiments and measurement programs and can be further inferred from
a knowledge of the pertinent atmospheric motions.
Raynor e aJL [7] showed that diffusion over the ocean during
stable conditions can be very slight in both the horizontal and vertical
directions. They found values of <j and <j appreciably smaller than
those predicted by the Pasquill F curve [23], However, time-averaged
concentrations were often decreased by wind direction meander. Under
near neutral conditions, a tendency for intermittent vertical looping
was observed and, during unstable periods, diffusion was as great as
that observed during similar conditions over land.
Smith and Niemann[24] also found low frequency wind direction oscil-
lations in diffusion trials along the southern California coast. They
reported that the growth in cloud width (a ) with distance accelerated
after the cloud moved inland from the ocean and that vertical growth was
restricted by a stable layer aloft.
Sandberg e aX. [17] conducted a series of fluorescent particle dis-
persion experiments in the San Francisco Bay area. They found that travel
across the Bay decreased the initial dispersion rates of tracer clouds.
In studies on the shore of Lake Michigan, Lyons and Cole [16] showed
that extended periods of plume trapping and fumigation occurred when
effluents were released into a shallow layer of unstable air capped by
an inversion layer during gradient onshore flows on overcast spring days.
In these cases, the internal boundary layer over the land had a very

- 9 -
shallow slope. On days with greater surface heating, the slope would

be steeper and n>e effluent mixed through greater vertical heights.

Dooley _" 22] measured SO 2 fumigation from two power plants on the Lake

Michigan shoreline. Collins [14] observed fumigation from a power plant

plume on the Massachusetts coast.

More recently, Lyons and Cole [25] showed that episodes of high

oxidant levels along the western shore of Lake Michigan were largely

caused by transport from the Chicago area in lake-induced mesoscale wind

systems and by fumigation of materials stored aloft with the upper porticr

of a lake breeze or other onshore flow.

. No experimental studies following a tracer throughout a sea breeze

circulation are known but Lyons and Olsson [15] measured the transport

and recirculation of aerosols and larger particles in a lake breeze at

Lake Michigan and documented flow patterns by pibals and tetroons. They

found that recirculated pollutants caused higher concentrations inland

than would have been expected in a gradient onshore flow.

Thus, results of the limited number of experimental and observational

studies of diffusion in the coastal zone show good agreement with expect-

ations based on coastal zone meteorology, important effects include

changes in transport and diffusion rates, plume trapping, fumigation

and recirculation of pollutants.

Measurement Requirements for Coastal Zone Operation

Because of the more complex meteorology, measurements required for

siting and operation in coastal zones are necessarily more extensive than
u J
those needed at typical inland sites. Regulatory Guide 1.23 specified

- 10 -
measurements of wind direction, wind speed and air temperature at two
levels on a cower or mast as a minimum onsite meteorological program
L J
for a power reactor. Regulatory Guide 1.111 listed data needed for
diffusion models as wind speed, wind direction, atmospheric stability,
mixing height and precipitation at the site and at relevant stations
within fifty miles. At a coastal site, even this amount of information
might not be adequate for effective prediction of diffusion for either
operational or planning purposes and the use of non-standard instruments
and techniques may be necessary to acquire the needed data.
Surface geography and terrain must be given greater consideration
at coastal sites since they influence local and regional flow patterns.
Roughness of land and water surfaces will influence both Che growth of
internal boundary layers and the level of turbulence and must be measured
or accurately estimated. Over land, roughness parameters may be derived
from wind profile measurements. Over water, values from the literature
are probably adequate.
Land and water surface temperatures govern the onset and development
of sea and lake breezes and can be measured directly with temperature
sensors or remotely with an infrared thermometer. IR measurements are
usually made from aircraft which permits integration over different surface
covers but they have been mounted on boats for sea surface measurements.
Scanning the land surface from a tower would give a measure of the range
in surface temperature locally.
The passage of sea breeze fronts and the development of other local
flow patterns can usually be identified from measurements of wind, temp-
erature and humidity at a single site but the rate of travel of a sea

- 11 -
breeze front and its inland penetration distance can only be determined
from a network of stations or the use of a mobile weather station.
Measurements of the seaward extent of a sea breeze circulation require
the use of a boat or an aircraft equipped with suitable instruments.
The difference in wind speed over the water and inland can be measured
during onshore flows by one station at the coast and one far enough
inland so that the flow has come into equilibrium with surface conditions.
During offshore flows, the acceleration over the water can only be determ-
ined by a wind speed measurement at some distance over the water. Docu-
mentation of sea breeze frequency and diurnal timing requires continuous
observations throughout the warmer months of the year but this information
can be extracted from climatological data if the site is near an appro-
priately located weather station.
The direction of slope of internal boundary layers can be determined
from the wind direction but the angle of slope and its height above the
source must be measured until local conditions are well enough documented
that these values can be specified from more easily measured parameters
or by use of a prediction method that has been verified at the site.
The height of the interface can be measured directly if it intersects
a tower or by use of instruments on a tethered balloon. At higher levels,
an aircraft can easily locate the boundary height at successive distances
by use of a turbulence measuring instrument such as a variometer or an
epsilon meter. Indirect sensing from the ground using an acoustic sounder
or comparable device may be more feasible in many situations. The sounder
can be mounted on a vehicle for measurements at successive distances in-
land or on a boat for similar measurements at sea. The diurnal development
and destruction of internal boundary layers and their seasonal changes
- 12 -
in prevalence and characteristics can be determined by a systematic
measurement program.
Measurements of turbulence within and above internal boundary layers
are necessary in order to select appropriate values of diffusion para-
meters. Turbulence within the surface layer over land can be measured
from a tower with any turbulence sensing instrument such as a bivane,
hot-wire anemometer or sonic anemometer. It can also be estimated with
less precision from the temperature lapse rate. The commonly used method
of estimating Pasquill diffusion categories from surface observations has
recently been shown to be subject to serious errors, e.g. [26-29] and is
not recommended.
Turbulence measurements over water can be obtained from a boat, a
floating buoy or a fixed mast if depths are shallow. Measurements from
aircraft are also feasible since flight is permissable at lower altitudes
over water than over land. Above a sloping internal boundary layer,
turbulence levels can usually be inferred from measurements in the same
air at lower elevations in the upwind direction. Such inferences should
be checked over a range of conditions against actual measurements before
being used.

prediction Requirements for Coastal Zone Operation

An adequate predictive capability is necessary for both the pre-

operational and operational periods. Diffusive capacity is, or should be,
an important factor in site selection and plant design. After site
selection, good estimates of diffusion over the range of conditions occurring
at the site are necessary for operational planning and for preparation of

- 13 -
environmental impact statements and hazards analyses. Climatological
records or on-site measurements can be used to document the combinations
of conditions for which diffusion estimates are necessary and their
frequencies. Appropriate diffusion models can be used to estimate
concentrations or dosages over the potential receptor area. Evaluation
of adverse consequences also requires data on land use and population
distribution. These evaluations may be used to plan courses of action
if air pollution standards are exceeded or hazardous releases occur.
During the operational period, diffusion estimates may be needed
for long term continuous releases, short term controlled releases or
accidental releases. Calculations for routine continuous releases will
determine whether air pollution standards or permissable radiation levels
are likely to be exceeded. Calculations for controlled emissions will
be used to select advantageous periods for such releases. Calculations
for accidental releases are necessary to determine exposures and areas
affected and to put into operation the course of action previously selected
to deal with the situation.
A large number of diffusion models have been developed but most are
merely variations or extensions of a few basic types and only a few are
in general operational use. Descriptions of models is beyond the scope
of this paper but those currently acceptable by the Nuclear Regulatory
L J
Commission are discussed in Regulatory Guide 1.111 . However, the
model capabilities necessary for successful application in the coastal
zone will be described briefly.
For pre-operational use, the more sophisticated models and the most
advanced computing facilities can be used since calculations need not be
- 14 -
performed on site or in real time. However, accurate meteorological
input data must be used for realistic results. In most cases, calcula-
tions during plant operation must be performed on site and in real time.
Thus, only models which can be utilized quickly on available equipment
are useful. However, adequate real time capability should be available
at any site from which potentially hazardous releases may occur.
Any model utilized at coastal sites must have the capability to
simulate both the physical and meteorological conditions existing in
the area as well as the pertinent release conditions. Realistic values
for diffusion parameters are just as important as a suitable model and
are best obtained from actual measurements.
The model must have the ability to change parameters as a function
of time or distance at both horizontal and vertical discontinuities. In
some cases, more than one step change such as two boundary layers may
occur. Lyons and Cole [16] developed a modified Gaussian plume model
possessing some of these capabilities which they applied to the fumigation
case. Ideally, the model should also be capable of simulating recircu-
lating flows and calculating diffusion within them, as described by
Tingle and Oieterle [13]. Although such models do not appear to be
applicable for real time operational use, they may be useful in pre-
operational studies.
Model output requirements are similar to those of inland sites,
realistic estimates of concentration or dosage as a function of time
and space. For pre-operational applications, time and space averages
from routine releases might be needed as well as calculations for selected
conditions. For accidental releases, results would be short period
values based on current conditions.
- 15 -
Conclusions

Diffusion in coastal zones is governed by the complex meteoro-

logical processes which occur near shorelines. Successful prediction
of diffusion from coastal sources requires a more extensive and varied
measurement program and more versatile diffusion models than are nec-
essary at most inland sites.

Acknowledgements

This research was supported by the U. S. Energy Research and

Development Administration under contract EY-76-C-02-0016. Apprecia-
tion is expressed to Paul Michael, S. SethuRaman and Robert Brown for
helpful discussions and for assistance in obtaining experimental data.

- 16 -
 References

1. Prophet, D. T., "Survey of the Available Information pertaining

to the Transport and Diffusion of Airborne Material Over Ocean
and Shoreline Complexes," Tech. Report No. 89, Aerosol Laboratory,
Stanford Univ., Stanford, Cal, 1961.
2. Van der Hoven, I., "Atmospheric Transport and Diffusion at Coastal
Sites," Nuclear Safety, Vol. 8, No. 5, Sept.-Oct. 1967, pp. 490-499.
3. Rewson, E. W. and Olsson, L. E., "Lake Effects on Air pollution Dis-
persion," Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association, Vol.
17, No. 11, Nov. 1967, pp. 757-761.
4. Beebe, R. C. and Sorge, J. M., "Coastal and Overwater Dispersion
Characteristics of a Warm Water Environment," Pres. Amer. Meteor.
Soc. Conf. on Coastal Meteorology, Sept. 21-23, 1976, Virginia
Beach, Va.
5. Echols, W. T. and Wagner, N. K., "Surface Roughness and Internal
Boundary Layer Near a Coastline," Journal of Applied Meteorology,
Vol. 11, No. 4, June, 1972, pp. 658-662.
6. Endlich, R. M., Singleton, R. C., Drexhage, K. A. and Mancuso, R. L.,
"Studies of Vertical Wind profiles at Cape Kennedy, Florida,"
Report NASACR 61263,'NASA George C. Marshall Space Flight Center,
94 pp.
7. Raynor, G. S., Michael, P., Brown, R. M. and SethuRaman, S., .
"Studies of Atmospheric Diffusion from a Nearshore Oceanic Site,"
Journal of Applied Meteorology, Vol. 14, No. 4, Sept. 1975, pp.
1080-1094.
- 17 -
3. SethuBaman, S. and Raynor, G. S., "Surface Drag Coefficient
Dependence on the Aerodynamic Roughness of the Sea," Journal
of Geophysical Research, Vol. 80, No. 36, Dec. 20, 1975,
pp. 4983-4908.
9. SethuRanan, S., "Air Mass Modification due to Change in Surface
Characteristics," Monthly Weather Review, Vol. 104, No. 8,
August 1976, pp. 1040-1043.
10. Johnson, A. and O'Brien, J. J., "A Study of an Oregon Sea Breeze
Event," Journal of Applied Meteorology. Vol. 12, So. 8, Dec. 1973,
pp. 1267-1283.
11. Moroz, W. J., "A Lake Breeze on the Eastern Shore of Lake Michigan;
Observations and Model," Journal of Atmospheric Science, Vol. 24,
No. 4, July 1967, pp. 337-355.
12. Simpson, J. E., Mansfield, D. A. and Milford, J. R., "inland Pene-
tration of Sea-breeze Fronts," Quarterly Journal of the Royal
Meteorological Society, Vol. 103, No. 435, Jan. 1977, pp. 47-76.
13. Tingle, A. G. and Dieterle, D. A., "A Numerical Study of Air pollu-
tion Distributions in Sea Breeze Circulations," Preprint Volume,
American Meteorological Society Conf. on Coastal Meteorology, Sept.
21-23, 1976, Virginia Beach, Va., pp. 114-117.
14. Collins, G. F., "Predicting 'Sea-breeze Fumigation' from Tall Stacks
at Coastal Locations," Nuclear Safety, Vol. 12, No. 2, March-April
1974, pp. 110-114.
15. Lyons, W. A. and Olsson, L. E., "Mesoscale Air Pollution Transport
in the Chicago Lake Breeze," Journal of the Air Pollution Control
Association, Vol. 22, No. 11, Nov. 1972, pp. 876-881.
- 18 -
16. Lyons, W. A. and Cole, H. S., "Fumigation and Plume Trapping on
the Shores of Lake Michigan during Stable Onshore Flow," Journal
of Applied Meteorology, Vol. 12, No. 3, April 1973, pp. 494-510.
17. Sandberg, J. S., Walker, W. L. and Thuillier, R. H., "Fluorescent
Tracer Studies of Pollutant Transport in the San Francisco Bay Area,"
Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association, Vol. 20, No. 9,
Sept. 1970, pp. 593-602.
18. Slade, D. H., "Atmospheric Diffusion Over Chesapeake Bay, " Monthly
Weather Review, Vol. 90, No. 6, June 1962, pp. 217-224.
19. Raynor, G. S., Brown, R. M. and SethuRaman, S., "A Comparison of
Diffusion from a Small Island and an Undisturbed Ocean Site,"
Submitted for Publication, April, 1977.
20. Slade, D. H. (ed.) , "Meteorology and Atomic Energy," Report TID-24190,
Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information, U. S.
Dept. of Commerce, Springfield, Va., 445 pp.
21. DiVecchio, R. A., Smith, D. B. and Martin, G., "Performance of a
Recent Formulation for Rate of Growth of Boundary Layers near Shore-
lines," Preprint Volume, American Meteorological Society Conference
on Coastal Meteorology, Sept. 21-23, 1976, Virginia Beach, Va.,pp.
1X4-125.
22. Dooley, J. C., Jr., "Fumigation from Power Plant Plumes in the Lake-
shore Environment," Air pollution Analysis Laboratory Report No. IS,
The Univ. of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, May 1976, 119 pp.
23. Hilsmeier, W. P. and Gifford, F. A., Jr., "Graphs for Estimating At-
mospheric Dispersion," USAEC Report ORO-545, Weather Bureau, Oak
Ridge, Tenn. 1962.
- 19 -
24. Smith, t. B. and Niemann, B. L., "Shoreline Diffusion Program,
Oceanside, California, Vol. 1, Technical Report," Report MRI69
FR-860, Meteorology Research Inc., Altadena, Cal., Nov. 1969,
230 pp.
25. Lyons, W. A. and Cole, H. S., "Photochemical Oxident Transport:
Mesoscale Lake Breeze and Synoptic-Scale Effects," Journal of
Applied Meteorology, Vol. 15, No. 7, July 1976, pp. 733-743.
26. Luna, R. E. and Church, H. W., "A Comparison of Turbulence Intensity
and Stability Ratio Measurements to Pasquill Stability Classes,"
Journal of Applied Meteorology, Vol. 11, No. 4, June, 1972, pp.
663-669.
27. Golder, D., "Relations among Stability Parameters in the Surface
Layer," Boundary-Layer MeteoroloRy, Vol. 3, No. 1, Sept. 1972,
pp. 47-58.
23. Fulle, D., "A Comparison of Three Stability Classification Systems
Using surface and Radiosonde Data for Four Cities in the Western
United States," Preprint Volume, Third Symposium on Atmospheric
Turbulence, Diffusion and Air Quality, American Meteorological
Society, Oct. 19-22, 1976, Raleigh, N. Car., pp. 141-148.

29. Portelli, R. V., "A Comparative Study of Experimentally Measured

Atmospheric Stability and 'Star Program1 predictions," Preprint
Volume, Third Symposium on Atmospheric Turbulence, Diffusion and
Air Quality, American Meteorological Society, Oct. 19-22, 1976,
Raleigh, N. Car., pp. 124-126.

- 20 -
 Footnotes

[1] US NRC, "Onsite Meteorological Programs", Regulatory Guide No.

1.23, U. S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Washington, 0. C.

[2] US NRC, "Methods for estimating atmospheric transport and dis-

persion of gaseous effluents in routine releases from light-
water-cooled reactors." Regulatory Guide No. 1.111, U. S.
Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Washington, D. C.

- 21 -
 Illustrations

Figure 1 Schematic diagram of temperature lapse rates and the develop-

ment of internal boundary layers in air flow from land to
water and water to land.

Figure 2 Internal boundary layer in flow from ocean to land during

overcast conditions with moderate winds as indicated by
intensity of turbulence.

Figure 3 Internal boundary layer in flow from ocean to land with

clear skies and light winds as indicated by intensity of
turbulence.

Figure 4 Temperature cross-section across Long Island showing the

discontinuity at the sea breeze front.

Figure 5 Cross-section across Long Island showing the internal boundary

layer and the pattern of turbulence during a sea breeze
circulation.

- 22 -
 WIND__
DIRECTION

WARM COOL WARM

ROUGH SMOOTH ROUGH
LAND WATER LAND

FIGURE 1
 TURBULENCE
700
r r

600
LIGHT
500

~400

BAY

4 5 6 7 6 9 10 II 12 13 14
DISTANCE FROM OCEAN (km)
09

VI
I
 TURBULENCE
800
i r

700

600

~ 500
E
i 400
O
UJ
X
300

200

100 MODERATE

OCEAN BAY
j L
-2 -I I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15
DISTANCE FROM OCEAN (km)
OQ

FIGURE 3
 BOUNDARY-LAYER FLT. 5, 8 - 1 - 7 4
T i r I | | | | | | | | iir
TEMPERATURE
1000 19

SOUND
oo i i i i i i i r r i
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
00 DISTANCE (km)

FIGURE 4
 BOUNDARY-LAYER FLT. 5, 8 - 1 - 7 4
1000 iir T 1 I 1 1 T iiir
900 TURBULENCE

800
700
" 600 LIGHT
500
CD
LU 400
300
200
100
OCEAN L.I. SOUND
0
i r i r i i i i i i
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
DISTANCE (km)
a
FIGURE 5